1.
ICAO airport code
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The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-character alphanumeric code designating aerodromes around the world. ICAO codes are used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, International Flight Service Stations or Area Control Centers. Flight information regions are identified by a unique ICAO-code. Code selections in North America were based on existing radio station identifiers, for example, radio stations in Canada were already starting with C, so it seemed logical to begin Canadian airport identifiers with Cxxx. The United States had many pre-existing airports with established mnemonic codes and their ICAO codes were formed simply by prepending a K to the existing codes, as half the radio station identifiers in the US began with K. Most ICAO codes outside the US and Canada have a geographical structure. Most of the rest of the world was classified in a more planned top-down manner, thus Uxxx referred to the Soviet Union with the second letter denoting the specific region within it, and so forth. Europe had too many locations for one starting letter, so it was split into Exxx for northern Europe. The second letter was more specific, EGxx was the United Kingdom, EDxx was West Germany, ETxx was East Germany, LExx was Spain, LAxx was Albania, France was designated LFxx, as the counterpart EFxx was the unambiguously northern Finland. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes, which are used for airline timetables, reservations. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR, in general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes have ICAO codes than IATA codes, and to add to the confusion IATA codes are assigned to railway stations. Unlike the IATA codes, the ICAO codes generally have a structure and are comprehensive. In general, the first letter is allocated by continent and represents a country or group of countries within that continent, the second letter generally represents a country within that region, and the remaining two are used to identify each airport. The exception to rule is larger countries that have single-letter country codes. In either case, ICAO codes generally provide geographical context unlike IATA codes, for example, if one knows that the ICAO code for Heathrow is EGLL, then one can deduce that the airport EGGP is somewhere in the UK. On the other hand, knowing that the IATA code for Heathrow is LHR does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty, there are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code made for political or administrative reasons. Similarly Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe, further, in region L, all available 2-letter prefixes have been exhausted and thus no additional countries can be added
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
4.
Bitumen
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Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
5.
Eurocontrol
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The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation, commonly known as Eurocontrol, is an international organisation working to achieve safe and seamless air traffic management across Europe. Founded in 1960, Eurocontrol currently has 41 member states and is headquartered in Brussels, the organization employs approximately two thousand people and operates with an annual budget in excess of half a billion Euros. The EU itself is a signatory of Eurocontrol and all EU member states are also members of Eurocontrol. The organization works with national authorities, air service providers, civil and military airspace users, airports. The Eurocontrol Convention was signed in 1960 and ratified in 1963, the other four original members agreed in 1964 to set up a single international air traffic control center to manage their upper airspace, settling in the Dutch city of Maastricht. The European Parliament at the time expressed concern about the lack of clear intergovernmental agreements to ensure common air traffic control services across the continent. In 1979, Eurocontrol signed a cooperation agreement with the European Commission, attempting to create a synergy of Eurocontrol’s technical expertise. Subsequently, ECAC urged all of its states to join Eurocontrol. A revised Eurocontrol Convention was signed in 1997, renewing the organization’s optimism for political support. In June 1998, Eurocontrol, the European Space Agency and the European Commission also signed an agreement formalizing cooperation in the realm of navigation systems. In 1999 the European Commission presented its plan for a Single European Sky to the European Parliament, the pressure was further compounded by the September 11 attacks, increasing the need for a rapid Europe-wide regulatory and coordinating body. By May 2003, EUROCONTROL and NATO had signed a memorandum of cooperation, in February 2004, Eurocontrol started work on first mandates from the European Commission and in April 2004, it adopted the Single European Sky Regulations. In March 2006, the European Commission’s Single European Sky ATM Research Program was launched by the Stakeholder Consultation Group under Eurocontrols aegis, Eurocontrol provides a set of different services, Maastricht Upper Area Control Centre Network Manager Operations Centre – coordinates flight plans and actual traffic. EAD – centralized access to AIS information, central Route Charges Office – collects en-route charges on behalf of Air Navigation Service providers. Eurocontrol Experimental Centre – ATM research, simulations, etc, institute of Air Navigation Services – training and e-learning. Eurocontrol Safety Regulatory Requirement – basis requirements for certification and designation according to EC regulation 2096/2005, a DFS unit, controlling military air traffic over the north-west of Germany, is co-located with the civil facilities. It is the second busiest upper area Area Control Centre in Europe, in Europe, only London centre has more traffic in terms of numbers, but that is caused by a much bigger airspace range with many more sectors. Typically, air traffic control sectors at MUAC can handle 55 or more flights per hour, Maastricht UAC has undoubtedly one of the most complex airspace structures in the world where the traffic flow can be somewhat disrupted by the many surrounding military airspaces around
6.
Le Bourget
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Le Bourget is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 10.6 km from the center of Paris, the commune features Le Bourget Airport, which in turn hosts the Musée de lAir et de lEspace. A very small part of Le Bourget Airport lies on the territory of the commune of Le Bourget, most of the airport lies on the territory of the communes of Dugny, Bonneuil-en-France, and Gonesse. The Bureau dEnquêtes et dAnalyses pour la Sécurité de lAviation civile is also headquartered on the airport grounds, Le Bourget has been twinned with Amityville, New York since 1979 and Zhukovsky in Russia. Le Bourget is served by Le Bourget station on Paris RER line B, there is also an extensive freight rail yard with international traffic to Belgium, among others. The town is served by two major Highways, A1 autoroute in the north of the town, and A86 autoroute in the south of the city. Those two highways ensure a connection to major Paris Region hubs like La Defense, Bobigny, Roissy Charles de Gaulle Airport. Paris–Le Bourget Airport is the first business flights airport in Europe and it connects with 800 destinations in Europe The world-renowned Gagosian Gallery is located in Le Bourget airport area. Le Bourget houses the Crèche intercommunale Maryse Bastié, an intercommunal daycare, École maternelle Saint-Exupéry is the sole maternelle public nursery school in Le Bourget, while École primaire Louis Blériot is the sole élémentaire- only public school in Le Bourget. Two municipal schools, Groupe scolaire Jean Jaurès and Groupe scolaire Jean Mermoz, collège Didier Daurat is the sole municipal collège. There is one high school, Lycée Germaine Tillion. Institution Privée Sainte-Marie, serving the maternelle, élémentaire and collège levels, is the private school in Le Bourget. The 350-square-metre Le Bourget Public Library has 45,000 books and it is located within the Urban Community of Le Bourget Airport. Communes of the Seine-Saint-Denis department Citations Bibliography INSEE Commune of Le Bourget
7.
Bonneuil-en-France
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Bonneuil-en-France is a commune in the Val-dOise department in Île-de-France in northern France. Le Bourget Airport is partially located in the commune, the commune has one combined preschool and elementary school. As of 2016 it has 82 students, junior high school students in the commune attend Collège Jean Moulin in Arnouville-lès-Gonesse. The area senior high school is Lycée René Cassin in Gonesse, communes of the Val-dOise department INSEE Association of Mayors of the Val d’Oise Home page Land use
8.
Dugny
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Dugny is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 12.4 km from the centre of Paris, about a third of Le Bourget airport lies on the territory of the commune of Dugny, including its main terminal and the Musée de lAir et de lEspace. Nonetheless, the airport was named after the commune of Le Bourget. Dugny is served by no station of the Paris Métro, RER, the closest station to Dugny is Le Bourget station on Paris RER line B. This station is located in the commune of Le Bourget,2.8 km from the town centre of Dugny. Le Bourget Airport and Charles de Gaulle International Airport is located near Dugny, communes of the Seine-Saint-Denis department INSEE Website of Dugny
9.
Gonesse
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Gonesse is a commune in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 16.5 km from the centre of Paris, the commune lies immediately north of Le Bourget Airport, and it is six kilometres south-west of Charles de Gaulle International Airport. Since Carolingian times, cereals have been grown in Gonesse, in the period of the 12th through to the 16th centuries, the cultivation of grain was supplemented by drapery, in particular the production of the coarse woollen material of the gaunace. This caused the government to issue a statement on the harmlessness, in 1815, Marshal Grouchy arrived in Gonesse in the course of the War of the Sixth Coalition, with 40,000 troops and 120 artillery pieces. On 2 July, the Duke of Wellington made his headquarters at the commune, since June 1939, the property Frapart is used as the main establishment of the urban administration. Jean Camus, Louis Furmanek, Pierre Lorgnet, and Albert Drouhot from Gonesse belonged to the French Resistance movement during the German occupation of France from 1940 to 1944, the crash led to the deaths of all 109 people on board and four more on the ground. The Concorde crash occurred fewer than 6 km from Goussainville, the site of the crash of the supersonic Tupolev Tu-144 during the 1973 Paris Air Show, Gonesse is twinned with the town of Leonessa in Rieti / Italy, since 1981. Gonesse is served neither by the Paris Métro, RER, nor the suburban rail network, the closest station is the Villiers-le-Bel – Gonesse – Arnouville station on the Paris RER line D. This station is located in the commune of Arnouville-lès-Gonesse,2.6 km from Gonesse town centre. As of 2015 the commune had 20 municipal primary schools with a total of 3,526, pupils, including 11 pre-schools with a total of 1,389 pupils and nine elementary schools with 2,137 total pupils. Junior high schools, College Philippe Auguste Collège Robert Doisneau Collège François Truffaut There is one high school. King Philip Augustus was born in Gonesse on 21 August 1165
10.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
11.
General aviation
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General aviation is the term for all civil aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire. General aviation flights range from gliders and powered parachutes to corporate business jet flights, the majority of the worlds air traffic falls into this category, and most of the worlds airports serve general aviation exclusively. General aviation covers a range of activities, both commercial and non-commercial, including flying clubs, flight training, agricultural aviation, light aircraft manufacturing. Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK,96 per cent are engaged in GA operations, there are 28,000 Private Pilot Licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities, GA operates from more than 1,800 airports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips. GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority, although regulatory powers are being transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency. The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing, general aviation is particularly popular in North America, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft. In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 560 airports in the U. S, aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States GDP, accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing. Most countries have authorities that oversee all civil aviation, including general aviation, Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours
12.
Air show
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An air show, is a public event at which aviators display their flying skills and the capabilities of their aircraft to spectators, usually by means of aerobatics. Air shows without aerobatic displays, having only aircraft displayed parked on the ground, are called static air shows, in the United States, some of the larger airshows are headlined by military jet demonstration teams including the U. S. Navy Blue Angels and USAF Thunderbirds. The Canadian Forces Snowbirds will headline many airshows in Canada and the United States, some air shows are held as a business venture or as a trade event where aircraft, avionics and other services are promoted to potential customers. Many air shows are held in support of local, national or military charities, military air firms often organise air shows at military airfields as a public relations exercise to thank the local community, promote military careers and raise the profile of the military. Air show seasons vary around the world, the United States enjoys a long season that generally runs from March to November, covering the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Other countries often have much shorter seasons, in Japan air shows are generally events held at Japan Self-Defense Forces bases regularly throughout the year. The European season usually starts in late April or Early May and is usually over by mid October, the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand hold their events between January and March. However, for acts, the off-season does not mean a period of inactivity, pilots. The type of displays seen at an event are constrained by a number of factors, including the weather, most aviation authorities now publish rules and guidance on minimum display heights and criteria for differing conditions. In addition to the weather, pilots and organizers must also consider local airspace restrictions, most exhibitors will plan full, rolling and flat display for varying weather and airspace conditions. The types of shows vary greatly, Air Displays can be held during day or night with the latter becoming increasingly popular. Shows dont always take place over airfields, some have held over the grounds of stately homes or castles. Before the Second World War, air shows were associated with long distance air races, often lasting many days, while the Reno Air Races keep this tradition alive, most air shows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of short duration. Specialist aerobatic aircraft have piston engines, light weight and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his aircraft end-over-end, solo military jet demos, also known as tactical demo, feature one aircraft, usually a strike fighter or an advanced trainer. The demonstration focuses on the capabilities of aircraft used in combat operations. Manoeuvres include aileron rolls, barrel rolls, hesitation rolls, Cuban-8s, tight turns, high-alpha flight, a pass, double Immelmans. Tactical demos may include simulated bomb drops, sometimes with pyrotechnics on the ground for effect
13.
Paris Air Show
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The Paris Air Show claims to be the worlds calendar-oldest air show. Established in 1909, it is held every odd year at Le Bourget Airport in north Paris. The 2015 Paris Air Show, from 15–21 June 2015, became the 51st, the format is similar to the Farnborough International Airshow in Britain and the ILA Berlin Air Show, both of which are staged in alternate years to the Paris show. The Paris event starts with four days closed to the general public. The Paris Air Show is organised by the French aerospace industrys primary representative body, according to GIFAS, the 2011 Paris show attracted 151,500 professional visitors and 204,000 members of the general public, and 3,250 journalists from 80 countries. It is a commercial event, with a major purpose being to demonstrate military. It claims to be the most prestigious aircraft exposition in the world, major aircraft sales contracts are announced by manufacturers during the show. All major international manufacturers, as well as representatives of the forces of many countries. The Paris Air Show traces its history back to the first decade of the 20th century, in 1908 a section of the Paris Motor Show was dedicated to aircraft. The following year, an air show was held at the Grand Palais from 25 September to 17 October, during which 100,000 visitors turned out to see products. There were four further shows before the First World War, the show restarted in 1919, and from 1924 it was held every two years before being interrupted again by the Second World War. It restarted again in 1946 and since 1949, has held in every odd year. The air show continued to be held at the Grand Palais, in 1953, the show was relocated from the Grand Palais to Le Bourget. Since the 1970s, the show emerged as the international reference of the aeronautical sector. Among major accidents, there were two crashes of Convair B-58 Hustler bombers, in 1961 and 1965, at the Paris Air Show on June 3,1973, the second Tupolev Tu-144 production aircraft crashed during its display. It stalled while attempting a rapid climb, the cause of this accident remains controversial. A Mikoyan MiG-29 crashed during a flight with no loss of life. The then Soviet space shuttle Buran and its aircraft the Antonov An-225 were displayed
14.
Orly Airport
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Paris Orly Airport is an international airport located partially in Orly and partially in Villeneuve-le-Roi,7 NM south of Paris, France. Prior to the construction of Charles de Gaulle Airport, Orly was the airport of Paris. Orly Airport covers 15.3 square kilometres of land, originally known as Villeneuve-Orly Airport, the facility was opened in the southern suburbs of Paris in 1932 as a secondary airport to Le Bourget. Before this two huge airship hangars had been built there by the engineer Eugène Freyssinet from 1923 on, the 50th Fighter Group flew P-47 Thunderbolt fighter-bomber aircraft from the airport until September, then liaison squadrons used the airfield until October 1945. The USAAF diagram from March 1947 shows the 6140-foot 27/207 runway with 5170-foot 81/261 runway crossing it at its north end. The November 1953 Aeradio diagram shows four runways, all 197 feet wide, 03L7874 ft, 03R6069 ft, 08L5118 ft. The American United States Army Air Forces 1408th Army Air Force Base Unit was the operator at Orly Field until March 1947 when control was returned to the French Government. The Americans left in 1967 as a result of Frances withdrawal from NATOs integrated military command, in May 1958 Pan Am DC-7Cs flew to Los Angeles in 21 hr 56 min, TWA, Air France and Pan Am flew nonstop to New York in 14 hrs 10-15 min. Air France flew to Tokyo in 31 hr 5 min via Anchorage or 44 hr 45 min on a seven-stop 1049G via India, Air Frances ten flights a day to London were almost all Viscounts, the only other London flight was Alitalias daily DC-6B. Paris-Orly Airport features two passenger terminal buildings, Terminal Sud and Terminal Ouest, The brick-style southern terminal building consists of six floors. The airside area and departure gates are located on the upper level 1, the waiting area, which features several shops as well, houses gates A1-A10 and A40-A42 and is furthermore connected to the gate areas Hall A and Hall B to each side of the building. 15 of the departure gates are equipped with jet-bridges, some of them are able to handle wide-body aircraft. The western terminal has a different layout than Terminal Sud, consisting of two floors and a area of four fingers rather than a brick-style layout. The ground level 0 features the arrivals facilities including 8 baggage reclaim belts as well as several service facilities, the departures area is located on level 1 with more stores and restaurants located here. This central departures area is connected to four areas named halls 1-4 which contain departure gates 10A-10P, 20A-20L, 31A-31F. 23 stands at this terminal are equipped with jet-bridges, with several of them able to handle wide-body aircraft. AOM French Airlines had its office in Orly Airport Building 363 in Paray-Vieille-Poste. After AOM and Air Liberté merged in 2001, the new airline, Air Lib, Orly Airport is connected to the RER B train line at Antony train station by the Orlyval automatic shuttle
15.
Charles Lindbergh
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Charles Augustus Lindbergh, nicknamed Slim, Lucky Lindy, and The Lone Eagle, was an American aviator, military officer, author, inventor, explorer, and environmental activist. At age 25 in 1927, he went from obscurity as a U. S. Air Mail pilot to instantaneous world fame by making his Orteig Prize–winning nonstop flight from Long Island, New York, to Paris. He covered the 33 1⁄2-hour,3,600 statute miles alone in a single-engine purpose-built Ryan monoplane and this was the first solo transatlantic flight, and the first non-stop flight between North America and mainland Europe. Lindbergh was an officer in the U. S. Army Air Corps Reserve, and he received the United States highest military decoration and his achievement spurred interest in both commercial aviation and air mail, and Lindbergh himself devoted much time and effort to promoting such activity. Lindberghs historic flight and instantaneous world fame led to tragedy, in March 1932, his infant son, Charles Jr. was kidnapped and murdered in what was widely called the Crime of the Century and described by H. L. Mencken as the biggest story since the resurrection. The case prompted the United States Congress to upgrade kidnapping from a crime to a federal crime once the kidnapper had crossed state lines with his victim. By late 1935 the hysteria surrounding the case had driven the Lindbergh family into exile in Europe. Before the United States formally entered World War II, some people accused Lindbergh of being a fascist sympathizer, in his later years, Lindbergh became a prolific prize-winning author, international explorer, inventor, and environmentalist. Lindbergh had six children with his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh, Lindbergh was born in Detroit, Michigan, on February 4,1902, and spent most of his childhood in Little Falls, Minnesota, and Washington, D. C. Charles parents separated in 1909 when he was seven, congressman from 1907 to 1917, was one of the relatively few Congressmen to oppose the entry of the U. S. into World War I. Lindberghs mother was a teacher at Cass Technical High School in Detroit. Lindbergh also attended over a dozen schools from Washington, D. C. From an early age, Lindbergh had exhibited an interest in the mechanics of motorized transportation, including his familys Saxon Six automobile, and later his Excelsior motorbike. By the time he started college as an engineering student, he had also become fascinated with flying. A few days later Lindbergh took his first formal flying lesson in that same machine and he also briefly worked as an airplane mechanic at the Billings, Montana municipal airport. With the onset of winter, however, Lindbergh left flying, though Lindbergh had not touched an airplane in more than six months, he had already secretly decided he was ready to take to the air by himself. After a half-hour of dual time with a pilot who was visiting the field to pick up another surplus JN-4, Lindbergh flew solo for the first time in the Jenny he had just purchased for $500. After spending another week or so at the field to practice, Lindbergh took off from Americus for Montgomery, Alabama, some 140 miles to the west and he went on to spend much of the rest of 1923 engaged in almost nonstop barnstorming under the name of Daredevil Lindbergh
16.
Transatlantic flight
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A transatlantic flight is the flight of an aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean, from Europe, Africa or the Middle East to North America, Central America, South America, or vice versa. Such flights have been made by fixed-wing aircraft, airships, balloons, early aircraft engines did not have the reliability needed for the crossing, nor the power to lift the required fuel. There are difficulties navigating over featureless expanses of water for thousands of miles, since the middle of the 20th century, however, transatlantic flight has been routine, for commercial, military, diplomatic, and other purposes. Experimental flights still present challenges for transatlantic fliers, the idea of transatlantic flight came about with the advent of the balloon. The balloons of the period were inflated with gas, a moderate lifting medium compared to hydrogen or helium. In 1859, John Wise built an enormous aerostat named the Atlantic, the flight lasted less than a day, crash-landing in Henderson, New York. Lowe prepared a massive balloon of 725,000 cubic feet called the City of New York to take off from Philadelphia in 1860, the possibility of transatlantic flight by aircraft emerged after the First World War, which had seen tremendous advances in aerial capabilities. In April 1913 the London newspaper The Daily Mail offered a prize of £10,000 to The competition was suspended with the outbreak of war in 1914 but reopened after Armistice was declared in 1918. Between 8 and 31 May 1919, the Curtiss seaplane NC-4 made a crossing of the Atlantic flying from the U. S. to Newfoundland, then to the Azores and on to mainland Portugal, the whole journey took 23 days, with six stops along the way. A trail of 53 station ships across the Atlantic gave the points to navigate by. This flight was not eligible for the Daily Mail prize since it more than 72 consecutive hours. With the war over, there were four teams competing to be the first non-stop across the Atlantic and they were Australian pilot Harry Hawker with observer Kenneth Mackenzie-Grieve in a single engine Sopwith Atlantic, Frederick Raynham and C. W. F. Morgan in a Martinsyde, the Handley Page Group, led by Mark Kerr, each group had to ship its aircraft to Newfoundland and make a rough field for the take off. Hawker and Mackenzie-Grieve made the first attempt on 18 May, Raynham and Morgan also made an attempt on 18 May but crashed on take off due to the high fuel load. The Handley Page team was in the stages of testing its aircraft for the flight in June. During 14–15 June 1919, the British aviators Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, Alcocks enthusiasm impressed Vickerss team, and he was appointed as its pilot. Work began on converting the Vimy for the flight, replacing its bomb racks with extra petrol tanks. Shortly afterwards Brown, who was unemployed, approached Vickers seeking a post, Alcock and Brown flew the modified Vickers Vimy, powered by two Rolls-Royce Eagle 360 hp engines
17.
Spirit of St. Louis
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The Spirit of St. Claude Ryan, in 1926. The Spirit is now on permanent display in the main entryways Milestones of Flight gallery at the Smithsonian Institutions National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D. C. It is known, however, that Hawley Bowlus was the manager who oversaw construction of the Ryan NYP. Hall and Ryan Airlines staff worked closely with Lindbergh to design, although what was actually paid to Ryan Airlines for the project is not clear, Mahoney offered to do it at cost. Mahoney was away from the factory, but Ryan answered, Can build plane similar M-1, Lindbergh wired back that due to competition, delivery in less than three months was essential. Many years later, Jon van der Linde, chief mechanic of Ryan Airlines, recalled, But nothing fazed B. F. Mahoney, Mahoney telegraphed Lindbergh back the same day, Can complete in two months. Lindbergh arrived in San Diego on February 23 and toured the factory with Mahoney meeting factory manager, Bowlus, chief engineer Donald Hall, and sales manager A. J. After further discussions between Mahoney, Hall and Lindbergh, Mahoney offered to build the Spirit for $10,580, Lindbergh himself contributed $2,000 toward the cost of the Spirit that he had saved from his earnings as an Air Mail pilot for Robertson Aircraft Corporation. Lindbergh was convinced, I believe in Halls ability, I like Mahoneys enthusiasm, I have confidence in the character of the workmen Ive met. He then went to the airfield to familiarize himself with a Ryan aircraft, either an M-1 or an M-2, then telegraphed his St. Louis backers and recommended the deal, Mahoney lived up to his commitment. Working exclusively on the aircraft and closely with Lindbergh, the completed the Spirit of St. Louis 60 days after Lindbergh arrived in San Diego. Powered by a Wright Whirlwind J-5C 223-hp radial engine, it had a 14 m wingspan,3 m longer than the M-1, Lindbergh believed that multiple engines resulted in a greater risk of failure while a single engine design would give him greater range. To increase fuel efficiency, the Spirit of St. Louis was also one of the most advanced, Lindbergh believed that a flight made in a single-seat monoplane designed around the dependable Wright J-5C Whirlwind radial engine provided the best chance of success. The Ryan NYP had a fuel capacity of 450 U. S. gallons or 2,710 pounds of gasoline. The fuel was stored in five tanks, a forward tank, the main. At Lindberghs request, the main and forward fuel tanks were placed in the forward section of the fuselage, in front of the pilot. This arrangement improved the center of gravity and reduced the risk of the pilot being crushed to death between the tank and the engine in the event of a crash. This design decision meant that there could be no front windshield, and this did not concern Lindbergh as he was used to flying in the rear cockpit of mail planes with mail bags in the front
18.
L'Oiseau Blanc
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The aircraft was flown by French World War I aviation heroes, Charles Nungesser and François Coli. The aircraft disappeared after its 8 May 1927 takeoff from Paris, two weeks later, Charles Lindbergh successfully made the New York–Paris journey and claimed the prize, flying the Spirit of St. Louis. The disappearance of LOiseau Blanc is considered one of the mysteries in the history of aviation. Many rumors circulated about the fate of the aircraft and crew, investigations starting in the 1980s suggest that the aircraft probably reached Newfoundland, and may have crashed in Maine. The disappearance of Nungesser and Coli has a legacy, and is referred to in many films and museums. A street in Paris is named after the aviators, and a postage stamp was issued in 1967. A statue at the Paris Le Bourget Airport honors the attempted flight, with no takers, he renewed the offer in 1924, when aviation technology had advanced enough at that point that many people tried for the prize. Most were attempting to fly from New York to Paris, but a number of French aviators planned an attempt to fly in the opposite direction and his original plans were to fly with his wartime comrade Paul Tarascon, a flying ace with 12 victories from the war. They became interested in the Orteig Prize in 1925, but in late 1926 an accident destroyed their Potez 25 biplane. Tarascon was badly burned, and relinquished his place as pilot to 35-year-old Charles Nungesser, major modifications included the reinforcement of the plywood fuselage, and removing two of the forward cockpits so the main cockpit could be widened to allow Nungesser and Coli to sit side-by-side. The wingspan was increased to approximately 15 m. Two additional fuel tanks were mounted aft of the firewall, meaning the PL. 8s three fuel tanks held a total of 4,025 l of gasoline, the PL.8 also incorporated several safety features in case of ditching at sea. The underside of the fuselage was given a boat-like shape and made watertight for a water landing, Nungesser and Colis plan was to make a water landing in New York, in front of the Statue of Liberty. A single W-12 Lorraine-Dietrich 340 kilowatts engine was used, with the set in three banks spaced 60° apart from one another, similar to the arrangement used in Napier engines. The engine was tested to ensure it would last the entire flight, the biplane carried no radio and relied only on celestial navigation, a specialty of Coli from his previous flights around the Mediterranean. In 1928, a second PL-8, and equipped with a Hispano-Suiza 12M,375 kW engine, was built, in April 1927, the PL. 8-01 was shipped from the factory for Nungesser to begin a series of proving tests to determine aircraft performance. Most of the flights were conducted around Villacoublay and Chartres, although full fuel loads were never carried, during one flight, he reached a speed of 207 kilometres per hour and flight elevation of 4,900 m. The evaluations proceeded successfully through the envelope without major changes required to the basic design
19.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
20.
Albert Speer
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Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer was a German architect who was, for most of World War II, Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production for Nazi Germany. Speer was Adolf Hitlers chief architect before assuming ministerial office, Speer joined the Nazi Party in 1931, launching himself on a political and governmental career which lasted fourteen years. His architectural skills made him increasingly prominent within the Party and he became a member of Hitlers inner circle, Hitler instructed him to design and construct structures including the Reich Chancellery and the Zeppelinfeld stadium in Nuremberg where Party rallies were held. Speer also made plans to reconstruct Berlin on a scale, with huge buildings, wide boulevards. In February 1942, Hitler appointed Speer Reich Minister of Armaments, after the war, he was tried at Nuremberg and sentenced to 20 years in prison for his role in the Nazi regime, principally for the use of forced labor. Despite repeated attempts to gain early release, he served his full sentence and he later wrote a third book, Infiltration, about the SS. Speer died of a stroke in 1981 while on a visit to London, Speer was born in Mannheim, into an upper-middle-class family. He was the second of three sons of Luise Máthilde Wilhelmine and Albert Friedrich Speer, in 1918, the family moved permanently to their summer home Villa Speer on Schloss-Wolfsbrunnenweg, Heidelberg. According to Henry T. King, deputy prosecutor at Nuremberg who later wrote a book about Speer, Love, Speer was active in sports, taking up skiing and mountaineering. Speers Heidelberg school offered rugby football, unusual for Germany, and he wanted to become a mathematician, but his father said if Speer chose this occupation he would lead a life without money, without a position and without a future. Instead, Speer followed in the footsteps of his father and grandfather, Speer began his architectural studies at the University of Karlsruhe instead of a more highly acclaimed institution because the hyperinflation crisis of 1923 limited his parents income. In 1924 when the crisis had abated, he transferred to the more reputable Technical University of Munich. In 1925 he transferred again, this time to the Technical University of Berlin where he studied under Heinrich Tessenow, after passing his exams in 1927, Speer became Tessenows assistant, a high honor for a man of 22. As such, Speer taught some of Tessenows classes while continuing his own postgraduate studies, in Munich, and continuing in Berlin, Speer began a close friendship, ultimately spanning over 50 years, with Rudolf Wolters, who also studied under Tessenow. In mid-1922, Speer began courting Margarete Weber, the daughter of a craftsman who employed 50 workers. The relationship was frowned upon by Speers class-conscious mother, who felt that the Webers were socially inferior, despite this opposition, the two married in Berlin on 28 August 1928, seven years were to elapse before Margarete Speer was invited to stay at her in-laws home. Speer stated he was apolitical when he was a man. On March 1,1931, he applied to join the Nazi Party, in 1931, Speer surrendered his position as Tessenows assistant and moved to Mannheim
21.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
22.
Rudolf Nureyev
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Rudolf Khametovich Nureyev was a Soviet ballet dancer and choreographer. He was director of the Paris Opera Ballet from 1983 to 1989, named Lord of the Dance, Rudolf Nureyev is regarded as one of ballets most gifted male dancers. In addition to his prowess, Rudolf Nureyev was an accomplished choreographer. He produced his own interpretations of classical works, including Swan Lake, Giselle. Rudolf Nureyev had his career with the Mariinsky Ballet in St. Petersburg. He defected from the Soviet Union to the West in 1961 and this was the first defection of a Soviet artist during the Cold War and it created an international sensation. He went on to dance with The Royal Ballet in London and he was raised as the only son with three older sisters in a Tatar family in a village near Ufa in Bashkir ASSR, Soviet Union. When his mother took Rudolf Nureyev and his sisters into a performance of the ballet Song of the Cranes, as a child he was encouraged to dance in Bashkir folk performances and his precocity was soon noticed by teachers who encouraged him to train in Saint Petersburg. On a tour stop in Moscow with a ballet company. However, he felt that the Mariinsky Ballet school was the best, so he left the touring company. The ballet master Alexander Ivanovich Pushkin took an interest in him professionally and allowed Nureyev to live with him, upon his graduation in 1958, Nureyev joined the Kirov Ballet. He moved immediately beyond the level, and was given solo roles as a principal dancer from the outset. Rudolf Nureyev regularly partnered Natalya Dudinskaya, the companys senior ballerina, Natalia Dudinskaya,26 years his senior, chose him as her partner in the ballet Laurencia. Before long Rudolf Nureyev became one of the Soviet Unions best-known dancers, not long after, he was told by the Ministry of Culture that he would not be allowed to go abroad again. In one memorable incident, Nureyev interrupted a performance of Don Quixote for 40 minutes, insisting on dancing in tights and he relented in the end, but his preferred dress code was adopted in later performances. By the late 1950s, Rudolf Nureyev had become a sensation in the Soviet Union, furthermore, tensions between Rudolf Nureyev and the Mariinskys artistic director Konstantin Sergeyev, husband and former dance partner of Natalia Dudinskaya, were growing. After a representative of the French tour organizers saw Nureyev dance in Leningrad in 1960, the French organizers urged Soviet authorities to let him dance in Paris, in Paris, his performances electrified audiences and critics. Oliver Merlin in Le Monde wrote, I will never forget his arrival running across the back of the stage, and his catlike way of holding himself opposite the ramp
23.
Raymonde de Laroche
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Raymonde de Laroche, born Elise Raymonde Deroche, was a French pilot and the first woman in the world to receive an aeroplane pilots licence. Born on 22 August 1882 in Paris, Elise Raymonde Deroche was the daughter of a plumber and she had a fondness for sports as a child, as well as for motorcycles and automobiles when she was older. As a young woman she became an actress and used the stage name Raymonde de Laroche, in October 1909, de Laroche appealed to her friend, aviator and aeroplane builder Charles Voisin, to instruct her in how to fly. On 22 October 1909, de Laroche went to the Voisin brothers base of operations at Chalons,90 miles east of Paris, voisins aircraft could seat only one person, so she operated the plane by herself while he stood on the ground and gave instructions. After she mastered taxiing around the airfield, she lifted off and this initial voyage into the air was only a very short one, and terra firma was regained after 300 yards. Flight was also responsible for bestowing the title Baroness upon de Laroche, flight added that on the following day she circled the flying field twice, the turnings being made with consummate ease. On 8 March 1910, de Laroche became the first woman in the world to receive a licence when the Aero-Club of France issued her licence #36 of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. De Laroche participated in meetings at Heliopolis in Egypt as well as Saint Petersburg, Budapest. During the show in St. Petersburg, she was congratulated by Tsar Nicholas II. There, she was presented again as Baroness de Laroche. Thereafter, the title commonly used. In July 1910, de Laroche was participating in the airshow at Reims in France. On 8 July, her aeroplane crashed, and she suffered severe injuries that her recovery was in doubt. On 26 September 1912, she and Charles Voisin were involved in a car crash, Voisin was killed, and she was severely injured. On 25 November 1913 de Laroche won the Aero-Club of Frances Femina Cup for a non-stop long-distance flight of over 4 hours duration. During World War I, as flying was considered too dangerous for women, she served as a military driver, in June 1919 de Laroche set two womens altitude records, one at 15,700 feet, and also the womens distance record, at 201 miles. On 18 July 1919 de Laroche, who was a talented engineer and she co-piloted an experimental aircraft, on its landing approach the aeroplane went into a dive and crashed, killing both de Laroche and the co-pilot. There is a statue of de Laroche at Le Bourget Airport in France, the Smithsonian web page about de la Roche Early Aviators – De Laroche Biography
24.
Charles Nungesser
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Charles Eugène Jules Marie Nungesser, MC was a French ace pilot and adventurer, best remembered as a rival of Charles Lindbergh. Nungesser was an ace in France, ranking third highest in the country with 43 air combat victories during World War I. After the war, Nungesser mysteriously disappeared on an attempt to make the first non-stop transatlantic flight from Paris to New York and their aircraft took off from Paris on 8 May 1927, was sighted once more over Ireland, and then was never seen again. Two weeks after Nungesser and Colis attempt, Charles Lindbergh successfully made the journey, monuments and museums honoring Nungesser and Colis attempt exist at Le Bourget airport in Paris and on the cliffs of Étretat, the location from which their plane was last sighted in France. Charles Nungesser was born on 15 March 1892 in Paris and and his interest in racing soon led him to flying airplanes, Nungesser learned to fly by using a Blériot plane owned by a friend. After he eventually found his uncle, he worked on his sugar plantation in the Buenos Aires province. When World War I broke out, Nungesser returned to France where he enlisted with the 2e Régiment de Hussards, during one patrol, he and several soldiers commandeered a German Mors patrol car after killing its occupants. This impressed his superiors and he was awarded the Médaille militaire. As a military pilot, he was transferred to Escadrille VB106, while there, in July 1915, he shot down his first plane, a German Albatros and was awarded the Croix de guerre. This action initiated the Nungesser legend, on 31 July 1915, Nungesser and his mechanic Roger Pochon were on standby duty. The two took off in a Voisin 3LAS despite Nungessers assignment to non-flying duties, in an encounter with five Albatros two-seaters, the French duo shot one down near Nancy, France. Returning to their airfield, Nungesser was placed under house arrest for eight days for his insubordination and he was then decorated and forwarded to training in Nieuport fighters. By the time Nungesser left VB106, he had flown 53 bombing missions and he had also emblazoned at least one of the escadrilles planes with his elaborate gruesome personal insignia, the freebooters skull and crossbones and a coffin with two candles. In November 1915, after retraining, he was transferred to Escadrille N.65 and was attached to the famous Lafayette Escadrille. While visiting the Escadrille on one of his convalescent periods recuperating from his wounds, he borrowed a plane, by the end of 1916, he had claimed 21 air kills. Despite being a pilot, Nungesser was placed under house arrest on more than one occasion for flying without permission. He disliked strict military discipline and went to Paris to enjoy its many pleasures as often as possible and he was a leading fighter pilot whose combat exploits against the Germans were widely publicized in France. Nungessers rugged good looks, flamboyant personality, and appetite for danger, beautiful women, wine and he would sometimes arrive for morning patrol still dressed in the tuxedo hed worn the night before and even occasionally with a female companion
25.
SNCASE SE.161 Languedoc
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The SNCASE SE.161 Languedoc was a French four-engined airliner produced by SNCASE. Developed from the Bloch MB.160 and known in the late 1930s as the Bloch MB.161, the SE.161 was in service with Air France, in 1936, Air Afrique needed a new airliner for its African services. Marcel Bloch proposed a development of his Bloch MB.160 aircraft, the Bloch MB.161, design work on the new aircraft began in 1937. The prototype, F-ARTV, first flew on 15 December 1939 and it was powered by four Gnome-Rhône 14N radial engines of 1,020 hp each. The aircraft underwent a development programme and the test flying was not completed until January 1942. The French Vichy government placed an order for twenty in December 1941, the programme was finally abandoned following Allied bombing of the factory at Saint-Martin-du-Touch, Haute-Garonne in 1944. An initial batch of 40 production examples was completed for Air France between October 1945 and April 1948, the Languedoc was an all-metal four-engined low wing cantilever monoplane airliner with a twin fins and rudders. It had a crew of five Standard cabin accommodation was for 33 passengers seated in rows of three, two on the starboard side and one to port. An alternative first class arrangement was for 24 seats, a 44-seat higher density version was introduced by Air France in 1951. A total of 100 aircraft were built for Air France, the French Air Force, several examples were utilised as test aircraft with the CEV at Villacoublay and elsewhere. The only export customer for new aircraft was the Polish airline LOT which bought five with some being refitted with Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp radial engines. The SE.161 was named the Languedoc before it entered service with Air France on the Paris to Algiers route from 28 May 1946. By October they were withdrawn from service, not only with landing gear and engine problems but considered unable to operate in winter conditions and these enhancements partially reassured commercial airline customers. Air France ultimately sold some of its Languedocs to Air Liban of Lebanon, Misrair of Egypt, others were transferred to the French military. Ten ex Air France aircraft were converted for operation in the Search and they were modified with a large ventral gondola, observation windows and a ventral search radar under a transparent fairing, similar to the design adopted in the French Navy SAR Avro Lancasters. The largest military operator was the French Navy, which operated 25 different Languedoc aircraft over the years, the flying classrooms were modified with both a nose radar set and a ventral dustbin radar. The aircraft was withdrawn from Naval service in 1959, Languedocs were also used for other types of experimental work including an unsuccessful use as live airborne television relay for Charles de Gaulless Algerian visit in 1958. The last Air France Languedoc was withdrawn from service in 1954
26.
Air France
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Air France, stylized as AIRFRANCE, is the French flag carrier headquartered in Tremblay-en-France. It is a subsidiary of the Air France–KLM Group and a member of the SkyTeam global airline alliance. The airlines global hub is at Charles de Gaulle Airport with Orly Airport, Air Frances corporate headquarters, previously in Montparnasse, Paris, are located on the grounds of Charles de Gaulle Airport, north of Paris. During the Cold War, from 1950 until 1990, it was one of the three main Allied scheduled airlines operating in Germany at West Berlins Tempelhof and Tegel airports. In 1990, it acquired the operations of French domestic carrier Air Inter and it served as Frances primary national flag carrier for seven decades prior to its 2003 merger with KLM. Between April 2001 and March 2002, the airline carried 43.3 million passengers and had a revenue of €12. 53bn. In November 2004, Air France ranked as the largest European airline with 25. 5% total market share, Air France operates a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing widebody jets on long-haul routes, and uses Airbus A320 family aircraft on short-haul routes. Air France introduced the A380 on 20 November 2009 with service to New York Citys JFK Airport from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, the carriers regional airline subsidiary, HOP. operates the majority of its regional domestic and European scheduled services with a fleet of regional jet aircraft. Of these airlines, SGTA was the first commercial company in France. The constituent members of Air France had already built extensive networks across Europe, to French colonies in North Africa, during World War II, Air France moved its operations to Casablanca. In 1936, Air France added French-built twin engine Potez 62 aircraft to its featuring a two compartment cabin that could accommodate 14 to 16 passengers. A high wing monoplane, it had a fuselage with composite coating while the wings were fabric covered with a metal leading edge. Equipped with Hispano-Suiza V-engines, they were used on routes in Europe, South America, on 26 June 1945 all of Frances air transport companies were nationalised. On 29 December 1945, a decree of the French Government granted Air France the management of the entire French air transport network, Air France appointed its first flight attendants in 1946. The same year the airline opened its first air terminal at Les Invalides in central Paris and it was linked to Paris Le Bourget Airport, Air Frances first operations and engineering base, by coach. At that time the network covered 160,000 km, claimed to be the longest in the world, Société Nationale Air France was set up on 1 January 1946. European schedules were initially operated by a fleet of Douglas DC-3 aircraft, on 1 July 1946, Air France started direct flights between Paris and New York via refuelling stops at Shannon and Gander. Douglas DC-4 piston-engine airliners covered the route in just under 20 hours, in September 1947 Air Frances network stretched east from New York, Fort de France and Buenos Aires to Shanghai
27.
Heathrow Airport
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Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
28.
Tupolev Tu-144
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The Tupolev Tu-144 is a retired jet airliner and commercial supersonic transport aircraft. It is one of only two SSTs to enter service, the other being the Anglo-French Concorde. The design was a product of the Tupolev design bureau, headed by Alexei Tupolev, of the Soviet Union and it conducted 55 passenger service flights, at an average service altitude of 16,000 metres and cruised at a speed of around 2,000 kilometres per hour. The prototype first flew on 31 December 1968 near Moscow, two months before the first flight of the Concorde, the Tu-144 first went supersonic on 5 June 1969, and on 26 May 1970 became the first commercial transport to exceed Mach 2. A Tu-144 crashed in 1973 at the Paris Air Show, delaying its further development, the aircraft was introduced into passenger service on 1 November 1977, almost two years after Concorde, because of budget restrictions. In May 1978, another Tu-144 crashed on a test flight while being delivered, the aircraft remained in use as a cargo aircraft until 1983, by which point a total of 102 commercial flights had been completed. The Tu-144 was later used by the Soviet space program to train pilots of the Buran spacecraft, the Soviet government published the concept of the Tu-144 in an article in the January 1962 issue of the magazine Technology of Air Transport. The air ministry started development of the Tu-144 on 26 July 1963,10 days after the design was approved by the Council of Ministers, the plan called for five flying prototypes to be built in four years, with the first aircraft to be ready in 1966. The MiG-21I I = Imitator was a testbed for the design of the Tu-144. Despite the close similarity in appearance of the Tu-144 to the Anglo-French supersonic aircraft, there were significant differences in the control, navigation, the Tu-144 lagged behind Concorde in areas such as braking and engine control. Concorde utilized an engine control package from Lucas, which Tupolev was not permitted to purchase for the Tu-144 as it could also be used on military aircraft. Concordes designers used fuel as coolant for the air conditioning. Tupolev also used fuel/hydraulic heat exchangers but used cooling turbines for the cabin air, the Tu-144 prototype was a full-scale demonstrator aircraft with the very different production aircraft being developed in parallel. While both Concorde and the Tu-144 prototype had ogival delta wings, the Tu-144s wing lacked Concordes conical camber, Production Tu-144s replaced this wing with a double delta wing including spanwise and chordwise camber. They also added two small retractable surfaces called Moustache canard, with fixed double-slotted LE slats and retractable double-slotted flaps and these were fitted just behind the cockpit and increased lift at low speeds. Moving the elevons downward in an aircraft increases the lift. The canards cancel out this moment, thus reducing the landing speed of the production Tu-144s to 315–333 km/h. The NASA study lists final approach speeds during Tu-144LL test flights as 315–335 km/h, an FAA circular lists Tu-144S approach speed as 329 km/h, as opposed to Concordes approach speed of 300 km/h, based on the characteristics declared by the manufacturers to Western regulatory bodies
29.
1973 Paris Air Show crash
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The 1973 Paris Air Show crash was the crash of the second production Tupolev Tu-144 at Goussainville, Val-dOise, France, which killed all six crew and eight people on the ground. The crash, at the Paris Air Show on 3 June 1973, one theory is that a French Mirage jet sent to photograph the aircraft without the knowledge of the Soviet crew caused the pilots to take evasive manoeuvers, resulting in the crash. Another theory is that in a rivalry with the Anglo-French Concorde, the aircraft involved was Tupolev Tu-144S CCCP-77102, manufacturers serial number 01-2, the second production Tu-144. The aircraft had first flown on 29 March 1972, the pilot was Mikhail Kozlov, and the co-pilot was Valery M. Molchanov. Also on board were G. N. Bazhenov, the navigator, V. N. Benderov, deputy chief designer and engineer major-general, B. A. Pervukhin, senior engineer. The crash occurred in front of 250,000 people, including designer Alexei Tupolev, during the show, there was a fierce competition between the Anglo-French Concorde and the Russian Tu-144. The Soviet pilot, Mikhail Kozlov, had bragged that he would outperform the Concorde, just wait until you see us fly, he was quoted as saying. On the final day of the show, the Concorde, which was not yet in production and its performance was later described as being unexciting, and it has been theorized that Kozlov was determined to show how much better his aircraft was. Once in flight, the aircraft made what appeared to be an approach, with the landing gear out and the moustache canards extended. Possibly stalling below 2,000 ft, the aircraft pitched over, trying to pull out of the subsequent dive with the engines again at full power, the Tu-144 broke up in mid-air. The left wing came away first, and then the aircraft disintegrated and crashed, destroying 15 houses, three children were among those killed, and sixty people received severe injuries. The crew of the Tu-144 were buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow on 12 June 1973, following the crash, Marcel Dassault called for the 1975 Paris Air Show to be held at Istres, which is situated in open country 40 km north west of Marseille. The crash reduced the enthusiasm of Aeroflot for the Tu-144, restrictions on the Tu-144 following the Paris Air Show crash meant that it only saw limited service during 1977 and 1978, and it was finally withdrawn following another crash in May 1978. The accident was investigated by the DTCE, part of the French Military, the wreckage was recovered to a hangar at Le Bourget, with some of it being flown by Antonov An-22 to the Soviet Union. The flight of the Mirage was denied in the original French report of the incident, more recent reports have admitted the existence of the Mirage though not its role in the crash. However, the press release did state, though the inquiry established that there was no real risk of collision between the two aircraft, the Soviet pilot was likely to have been surprised. Howard Moon also stresses that last-minute changes to the schedule would have disoriented the pilots in a cockpit with notably poor vision. He also cites an eyewitness who claims the co-pilot had agreed to take a camera with him, the initial approach may have been an attempted landing on the wrong runway, which occurred due to a last-minute shortening of the Tu-144s display
30.
Air France Flight 4590
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Air France Flight 4590 was a scheduled international flight from Paris, France, to New York City, on the Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde. All 100 passengers and nine crew aboard the Concorde died when it crashed into a hotel in nearby Gonesse, on the ground, four people were killed. The flight was chartered by German company Peter Deilmann Cruises, the passengers were on their way to board the cruise ship MS Deutschland in New York City for a 16-day cruise to Manta and this was the only fatal Concorde accident during its 27-year operational history. Post-accident investigation revealed that the aircraft was at or over the maximum weight for ambient temperature and other conditions. As it left the gate, it was loaded such that the centre of gravity was aft of the take-off limit, fuel transfer during taxiing left the number five wing tank 94% full. The wind at the airport was light and variable that day, although it did not directly puncture any of the fuel tanks, it sent out a pressure shockwave that ruptured the number five fuel tank at the weakest point, just above the undercarriage. Leaking fuel gushing out from the bottom of the wing was most likely ignited by an arc in the landing gear bay or through contact with hot parts of the engine. Engines one and two both surged and lost all power, but engine one slowly recovered over the few seconds. A large plume of flame developed, the engineer then shut down engine two in response to a fire warning and the captains command. The Concorde would have needed at least 3 km of runway to abort safely, the aircraft was unable to climb or accelerate, maintaining a speed of 200 knots at an altitude of 60 metres. The fire caused damage to the wing, which began to disintegrate—melted by the extremely high temperatures. Engine number one surged again, but this failed to recover. Due to the asymmetric thrust, the starboard wing lifted, banking the aircraft to over 100 degrees, the crew was trying to divert to nearby Le Bourget Airport, but accident investigators stated that a safe landing, given the aircrafts flight path, would have been highly unlikely. As the cockpit voice recorder transcript recorded it, the last intelligible words in the cockpit were, Co-pilot, Le Bourget, control tower, Fire service leader, correction, the Concorde is returning to runway zero nine in the opposite direction. Co-pilot, Negative, were trying Le Bourget, all the passengers and crew were killed in the incident. Four employees of the Hotelissimo hotel were killed in the incident. Most of the passengers were German tourists en route to New York for a cruise, the cockpit crew consisted of pilot Captain Christian Marty,54, First Officer Jean Marcot,50, and Flight Engineer Gilles Jardinaud,58. Up until the crash of Air France Flight 4590 in 2000, the crash of the Concorde contributed to the end of the aircrafts career
31.
Charles de Gaulle Airport
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Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, also known as Roissy Airport, is the largest international airport in France. It is named after Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French Forces during the Second World War, founder of the French Fifth Republic, Charles de Gaulle Airport is located within portions of several communes 25 km to the northeast of Paris. The airport serves as the hub for Air France as well as a European hub for fellow SkyTeam alliance partner Delta Air Lines. In 2016, the airport handled 65,933,145 passengers and 472,950 aircraft movements, thus making it the worlds ninth-busiest airport and it is also the worlds tenth-busiest and it is Europes second-busiest airport in aircraft movements. In terms of traffic, the airport is the twelfth-busiest in the world. The incumbent director of the airport, Franck Goldnadel, was appointed to his position on 1 March 2011, Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport covers 32.38 square kilometres of land. Management of the airport lies solely on the authority of Paris Aéroport, which also manages Orly, Le Bourget, Marsa Alam in Egypt, the planning and construction phase of what was known then as Aéroport de Paris Nord began in 1966. On 8 March 1974 the airport, renamed Charles de Gaulle Airport, Terminal 1 was built in an avant-garde design of a ten-floors-high circular building surrounded by seven satellite buildings, each with six gates allowing sunlight to enter through apertures. The main architect was Paul Andreu, who was also in charge of the extensions during the following decades, the Frutiger typeface was commissioned for use in the airport and implemented on signs throughout the building in 1975. Initially called Roissy, it was renamed after its designer Adrian Frutiger, until 2005, every PA announcement made at Terminal 1 was preceded by a distinctive chime, nicknamed Indicatif Roissy and composed by Bernard Parmegiani in 1971. The chime can be heard in the Roman Polanski film Frantic, the chime was officially replaced by the Indicatif ADP chime. Charles de Gaulle Airport has three terminals, Terminal 1 is the oldest and situated opposite to Terminal 3, Terminal 2 is located at another side with 7 sub-terminal buildings. Terminal 2 was originally exclusively for Air France, since then it has been expanded significantly. Terminals 2A to 2F are interconnected by elevated walkways and situated next to each other, Terminal 2G is a satellite building connected by shuttle bus. Terminal 3 hosts charter and low-cost airlines, the CDGVAL light-rail shuttle connects Terminal 2 to Terminals 1/3 and their parking lots. Refer to Ground Transportation below for inter-terminal transfers and transport to central Paris, the first terminal, designed by Paul Andreu, was built in the image of an octopus. It consists of a terminal building which houses key functions such as check-in counters. Seven satellites with boarding gates are connected to the building by underground walkways
32.
Microsoft Flight Simulator X
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Microsoft Flight Simulator X is a 2006 flight simulation computer game originally developed for, and published by Microsoft Game Studios for Microsoft Windows. It is the sequel to Microsoft Flight Simulator 2004 and the tenth and most current installment of the Microsoft Flight Simulator series, which was first released in 1982. It is built on an upgraded rendering engine, showcasing DirectX10 features and was marketed by Microsoft as the most important technological milestone in the series to date. FSX is the first version in the series to be released on DVD media, in December 2012, over six years after its release, the FSX multiplayer matchmaking system over the GameSpy network was discontinued. On July 9,2014, Dovetail Games, the developer of Train Simulator, announced that it signed a agreement with Microsoft to continue development on FSX. On December 18,2014, the FSX, Steam Edition version of the simulator was made available through distribution via Steam. The updated release of FSX includes support for Windows 8.1 and later, Flight Simulator X marks the tenth version of the popular line of flight simulators. It was officially released to the US market on October 17,2006, according to Microsofts Web site for the game, a standard edition features everything from navaids to GPS and airways. It also includes 18 planes,28 detailed cities, and over 24,000 airports with a version featuring 24 aircraft. The player can fly anything from a glider or a light experimental aircraft to jumbo jets. The game features an air traffic control system and dynamic real-world condition weather. The geography matches the part of the world that the player is flying in, jetways and ground equipment are also included in the game. Microsoft released screenshots as well as a list of frequently asked questions as a release on Microsoft Flight Simulator Insider. This also included mission-based gameplay with mission specific aircraft as well as a rendering engine capable of increased detail. Following the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 2006, Microsoft published new screenshots, videos, the overall reaction by the community was quite positive, and the graphical quality of the simulator has greatly increased. On August 17,2010, Microsoft announced Microsoft Flight, a new game that boasted a further-improved graphics engine. In April 2012, Flight was released, in August 2012, further development of Flight was cancelled by Microsoft. Flight Simulator X was released in three editions, Standard, Deluxe, and later Gold, Deluxe Edition added pilotable - Grumman G-21A Goose, Maule Orion M-7-260-C Super Rocket, and G1000 furnished versions of the Beechcraft Baron 58, Cessna 172S Skyhawk, and the Mooney M-20-M Bravo
33.
The Protectors
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The Protectors is a British television series, an action thriller created by Gerry Anderson. It was Andersons second TV series to use live actors as opposed to marionettes. It was also the only Gerry Anderson-produced television series that was not of the fantasy or science fiction genres and it was produced by Lew Grades ITC Entertainment production company. Despite not featuring marionettes or any real science fiction elements, The Protectors became one of Andersons most popular productions, a third season was in the planning stages when the shows major sponsor, Brut, ended its funding and thus forced the series cancellation. The Protectors was first broadcast in 1972 and 1973, and ran to 52 episodes over two series, each 25 minutes long—making it one of the last series of type to be produced in a half-hour format. It starred Robert Vaughn as Harry Rule, Nyree Dawn Porter as the Contessa Caroline di Contini, episodes often featured prominent guest actors. Three inexplicably affluent international private detectives/troubleshooters are charged with ensuring the protection of innocents and they belong to an organisation called The Protectors, based in London. She runs her own agency, which specializes in exposing art frauds. Paul Buchet works out of Paris, and is the groups researcher, adventures range from simple kidnapping to convoluted cases of international intrigue. These characters are all wealthy and drive exotic cars of the era, such as the Citroën SM. The format of the allowed for occasional episodes in which not all of the main actors appeared. In order to offset the cost of filming, and also perhaps because the equipment was more portable. The episodes aimed at fast-paced action set against an international background, the lack of screen time, compared with the 50-minute timeslot used by shows like The Persuaders. Accordingly, the series suffered from most of the drawbacks that beset The Adventurer, another half-hour ITC show that aired at the same time. The theme tune of the series, Avenues and Alleyways, was a hit for Tony Christie. Courtfield Mews, London SW5 was used as the location for The Protectors headquarters. In Germany the series was known as Kein Pardon für Schutzengel, in the United States the series was not broadcast on network television but aired instead in first-run syndication. This made it difficult for the show to make any impact in America, despite its popular American star
34.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
35.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
36.
United States Air Forces Central Command
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United States Air Forces Central Command is a Named Air Force of the United States Air Force headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina. During the Cold War, it was one of two Numbered Air Forces of Tactical Air Command and it has fought in the 1991 Gulf War, War in Afghanistan, the Iraq War, as well as various engagements within USCENTCOM. United States Air Forces Central is the descendant organization of Ninth Air Force. AFCENT was formed as the United States Central Command Air Forces under Tactical Air Command, CENTAF initially consisted of designated United States Air Force elements of the Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force which was inactivated and reformed as USCENTCOM in 1983. On 1 March 2008 USCENTAF was redesignated USAFCENT and it shared its commander with Ninth Air Force until August 2009. Ninth Air Force was formally re designated USAFCENT on 5 August 2009, a new Ninth Air Force was established that date for command and control of CONUS-based Air Combat Command units formerly assigned to the previous Ninth Air Force. It is planned that they return to a shared commander after the United States completes its current wars. During World War II, the air forces of the United States Army Air Forces came to be classified as strategic or tactical. In June 1942, the German Afrika Korps advance in North Africa forced the British Eighth Army to retreat towards Egypt putting British Middle East Command at risk, harry A. Halverson, commanding twenty-three B-24D Liberator heavy bombers and a hand-picked crews, decided to move to Egypt. HALPRO was quickly diverted from its mission to a new one—interdictory raids from airfields in Egypt against shipping. On 28 June 1942, Major General Lewis H Brereton arrived at Cairo to command the U. S. Army Middle East Air Force, USAMEAF comprised the Halverson Detachment, Breretons detachment, and the Air Section of US Military North African Mission. Several USAAF units were sent to join USAMEAF during next weeks in the destruction of Rommels Afrika Korps by support to troops and secure sea. Col. Patrick W. Subsequent negotiations carried the point with the British, on 12 October a small staff moved into Grey Pillars, RAF headquarters at Cairo, and thenceforth USAMEAFs bombers operated only under the strategic direction of the British. After initially resisting the attack, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel decided he no longer had the resources to hold his line, Allied victory in the Second Battle of Alamein was accomplished. Ninth Air Force had been first constituted as V Air Support Command, part of Air Force Combat Command, at Bowman Field, Kentucky on 11 September 1941. It was reassigned to Bolling Field, Washington, D. C. on 22 July and transferred without personnel or equipment to Cairo, Egypt on 12 November 1942. The Ninth Air Force mission comprised, Gain air superiority, Deny the enemy the ability to replenish or replace losses, and Offer ground forces close support in North-East Africa. On 12 November 1942, the US Army Middle East Air Force was dissolved and replaced by HQ Ninth Air Force, commanded by Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton
37.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
38.
Mandatory Palestine
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Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine
39.
Lod Air Force Base
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From 1940 to 1948 it was known as RAF Station Lydda while under British Royal Air Force control. Before the Israeli declaration of independence, the airfield was a British installation known as RAF Station Lydda — a Royal Air Force station in Palestine between 1943 and 1948. The Wilhelma Airport, built in 1936, was used by the Allies during the Second World War becoming RAF Lydda on 1 March 1943, after the Israeli declaration of independence, it became an IAF airfield and the only international airport of the new state of Israel. The airfield military base officially closed down on 2 August 2008, on the same airfield the Ben Gurion International Airport is still operating as the main airport of Israel. These aircraft were reassigned to Egypt in November
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