1.
HandBrake
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HandBrake is a free and open-source transcoder for digital video files, originally developed in 2003 by Eric Petit to make ripping a film from a DVD to a data storage device easier. Since then, it has many changes and revisions. HandBrake is available for Linux, macOS, and Windows and it uses third-party libraries such as Libav, libvpx, and x265. HandBrake was originally developed by Eric titer Petit in 2003 as software for the BeOS and he continued to be the primary developer until April 2006, when the last official Subversion revision was committed. Titer continued to be active on the HandBrake forum for a period after. Since May–June 2006, no one in the HandBrake community was successful in contacting titer, since their work was complementary, they began working together to develop an unstable, but still compilable, release of HandBrake supporting the H.264 format. Hester and Long made considerable progress in terms of stability, functionality and it was not possible, however, to submit their patch to the HandBrake subversion repository without authorisation from titer. Hester and Long named the new project MediaFork, on 13 February 2007, Hester and Long were contacted by titer who informed them of his support and encouraged them to continue development. Plans were then made to reintegrate MediaFork as a successor to HandBrake. The MediaFork website and forums were moved to HandBrake’s, and the release was officially named HandBrake. There is another transcoder, called VidCoder, that uses HandBrake as its encoding engine, on December 24th,2016 after more than 13 years of development, HandBrake 1.0.0 was released. Some GPUs or APUs contain SIP blocks dedicated to do calculations for video encoding, such solutions are limited to a very few video codecs. When used, they are very fast but dont necessarily match the quality of good software encoders, users are able to customise the output by altering the bit rate, maximum file size or bit rate and sample rate via “constant quality”. HandBrake also supports deinterlacing, decombing, scaling, detelecine, HandBrake supports batch encoding through graphical user interface and command-line interface. Third-party scripts and UIs exist specifically for purpose, such as HandBrake Batch Encoder, VideoScripts. All make use of the CLI to enable queueing of several files in a single directory, Handbrake transcodes video and audio from nearly any format to a handful of modern ones, but it does not defeat or circumvent copy protection. One form of input is DVD-Video stored on a DVD disc, HandBrake’s developers removed libdvdcss from the application in version 0.9.2. Removal of digital rights management from DVDs using HandBrake was possible by installing VLC, currently, Handbrake can remove DRM only after the user installs the latest version of libdvdcss
2.
Brake (sheet metal bending)
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A brake is a metalworking machine that allows the bending of sheet metal. A cornice brake only allows for simple bends and creases, while a box-and-pan brake also allows one to form box and it is also known as a bending machine or bending brake or in Britain as a sheet metal folder or just a folder. The brake consists of a surface onto which the material is placed. This clamping action may be manual, automatic or operated using a foot pedal, the front, gate-like, plate of the machine is hinged and may be lifted, forcing the material extended over a straight edge to bend to follow the plate. The bends can be to any angle up to a limit of about 120 degrees. If the area to be bent is narrow enough, a bend can be made by inserting the bend under the clamping bar. A cornice brake has a solid clamping bar, the width of the machine, thus, it can only make straight bends. After bending, a box or pan form is completed by screw, solder, weld, rivet. This is a brake, usually much smaller than cornice or box-and-pan brakes. Typically, a handle both clamps the workpiece and makes the bend, in a single motion, but the depth is usually much less than what a cornice or box-and-pan brake can handle. This is a complex tool that forms predetermined bends by clamping the workpiece between a matching punch and die
3.
Geo Storm
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The Geo Storm is a sport compact car manufactured by Isuzu and sold in the United States by Geo from 1990 through 1993. The same vehicles, with variations, were sold in Canada in the 1992 and 1993 model years only. The Storm was intended to be a car with the look. It can be considered to have replaced the related Geo Spectrum, the Geo Storm was a rebadged version of the sporty, second generation Isuzu Impulse minus some of that cars more expensive features. The Storm was sold in Japan as the PA Nero and related Gemini Coupe, the Storm lacked the Impulses Lotus-tuned suspension as well as the Impulses optional turbocharger and all-wheel drive drivetrain. Although they were essentially the same car, sales of the Storm were much stronger than those of the Impulse—indeed, the Storm sold better than most small GM cars of that era. Slow sales of the Isuzu version doomed the Storm when the Isuzu Impulse was canceled, for The GSi hatchback Model was replaced by GM Delta platform based Chevrolet Cobalt SS in 2004 The Cobalt SS was built at the Lordstown Assembly at Lordstown, Ohio. As of 2010, there were only 40,300 Storms registered for road use, the Storm was manufactured at Isuzus main plant in Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan. The Storm and Impulse were sold in Canada by General Motors Canada as the Asüna Sunfire, the most common body style for the Storm was a three-door hatchback. The 1990 and 1991 hatchbacks were produced in two packages, but all Storms shared front disc and rear drum brakes and had an anti-sway bar to tighten the front suspension. The base model was priced at $10,390, and the GSi was $11,650. USD The base models SOHC inline-four engine produced 95 hp and had a 9.1,1 compression ratio. The more powerful 1990–1991 GSi used a 1. 6L DOHC engine that produced 130 hp and had a 9.8,1 compression ratio. The GSi package also included driving lights, a spoiler, a rear anti-sway bar, for 1991 and 1992, customers had the option of purchasing a two-door station wagon body style, also called a wagonback. The base price of the wagon was $11,450. The station wagon was marketed as a hatchback and the normal Storm – a more traditional hatchback – was marketed as a coupé, in 1992, the Storm was restyled to have a smoother front fascia without the pop-up headlight covers on earlier models. The GSi version from these years cost considerably more but this included a larger 1.8 L140 hp engine. Modern sport compacts have faster acceleration and better handling, but the figures for the Storm were quite respectable for an economical compact car from that era. Autoweeks 1990 review of the Storm was titled Slick, Quick And Inexpensive, skid pad test figures ranged from 0.81 g to 0.85 g, meeting or exceeding those of the Mazda RX-7 convertible
4.
Brake
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A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion. Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp, most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight, notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a speed in a steep descent. The Saab B17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake, Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake, when the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed against the master cylinder, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down, Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. Typically the term brake is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes. Friction brakes are often rotating devices with a pad and a rotating wear surface. Other brake configurations are used, but less often, a drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating roadwheel hub, drum brakes generally can be found on older car and truck models. However, because of their low production cost, drum brake setups are also installed on the rear of some low-cost newer vehicles, compared to modern disc brakes, drum brakes wear out faster due to their tendency to overheat
5.
Wire rope
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Wire rope is rope made from wire. It consists of several strands of metal wire laid into a helix, initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main material used for wire ropes. Historically wire rope evolved from wrought iron chains, which had a record of mechanical failure. While flaws in chain links or solid steel bars can lead to catastrophic failure, friction between the individual wires and strands, as a consequence of their twist, further compensates for any flaws. Wire ropes were developed starting with mining hoist applications in the 1830s, Wire ropes are used dynamically for lifting and hoisting in cranes and elevators, and for transmission of mechanical power. Wire rope is used to transmit force in mechanisms, such as a Bowden cable or the control surfaces of an airplane connected to levers. Also, aircraft cables are available in smaller diameters than wire rope, for example, aircraft cables are available in 3/64 in. Diameter while most wire ropes begin at a 1/4 in, static wire ropes are used to support structures such as suspension bridges or as guy wires to support towers. An aerial tramway relies on wire rope to support and move cargo overhead, modern wire rope was invented by the German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in the Harz Mountains in Clausthal, Lower Saxony, Germany. It was quickly accepted because it proved superior to ropes made of hemp or to metal chains, Wilhelm Alberts first ropes consisted of three strands consisting of four wires each. In 1840, Scotsman Robert Stirling Newall improved the process further, the decades were witness to a burgeoning increase in deep shaft mining in both Europe and North America as surface mineral deposits were exhausted and miner had to chase layers along inclined layers. To drive their first shafts into lower slopes beginning Lansford and its Schuylkill County twin-town Coaldale, the German engineering firm of Adolf Bleichert & Co. was founded in 1874 and began to build bicable aerial tramways for mining in the Ruhr Valley. Adolf Bleichert & Co. went on to hundreds of aerial tramways around the world, from Alaska to Argentina, Australia. The Bleichert company also built hundreds of aerial tramways for both the Imperial German Army and the Wehrmacht, in the last half of the 19th century, wire rope systems were used as a means of transmitting mechanical power including for the new cable cars. Wire rope systems cost one-tenth as much and had lower friction losses than line shafts, because of these advantages, wire rope systems were used to transmit power for a distance of a few miles or kilometers. In America wire rope was later manufactured by John A. Roebling, forming the basis for his success in suspension bridge building, Roebling introduced a number of innovations in the design, materials and manufacture of wire rope. Steel wires for wire ropes are made of non-alloy carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.4 to 0. 95%. The very high strength of the wires enables wire ropes to support large tensile forces
6.
Lever
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A lever is a machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever is a body capable of rotating on a point on itself. On the basis of the location of fulcrum, load and effort and it is one of the six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists. A lever amplifies an input force to provide an output force. The ratio of the force to the input force is the mechanical advantage of the lever. The word lever entered English about 1300 from Old French, in which the word was levier and this sprang from the stem of the verb lever, meaning to raise. The verb, in turn, goes back to the Latin levare, itself from the adjective levis, the words primary origin is the Proto-Indo-European stem legwh-, meaning light, easy or nimble, among other things. The PIE stem also gave rise to the English word light, the earliest remaining writings regarding levers date from the 3rd century BC and were provided by Archimedes. Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the Earth with it is a remark of Archimedes who formally stated the correct mathematical principle of levers. The distance required to do this might be exemplified in astronomical terms as the distance to the Circinus galaxy - about 9 million light years. It is assumed that in ancient Egypt, constructors used the lever to move, a lever is a beam connected to ground by a hinge, or pivot, called a fulcrum. The ideal lever does not dissipate or store energy, which there is no friction in the hinge or bending in the beam. This is known as the law of the lever, the mechanical advantage of a lever can be determined by considering the balance of moments or torque, T, about the fulcrum. T1 = F1 a, T2 = F2 b where F1 is the force to the lever. The distances a and b are the distances between the forces and the fulcrum. Since the moments of torque must be balanced, T1 = T2, the mechanical advantage of the lever is the ratio of output force to input force, M A = F2 F1 = a b. Levers are classified by the positions of the fulcrum, effort. It is common to call the force the effort and the output force the load or the resistance
7.
Car controls
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Car controls are the components in automobiles and other powered road vehicles, such as trucks and buses, used for driving and parking. While controls like steering wheels and pedals have existed since the invention of cars, for example, manual transmissions became less common as technology relating to semi-automatic and automatic transmissions advanced. Earlier versions of headlights and signal lights were fueled by acetylene or oil, acetylene was preferred to oil, because its flame is resistant to both wind and rain. Acetylene headlights were popular until 1898, when the first electric headlights were introduced, the first automobiles were steered with a tiller. The steering wheel was first used when Alfred Vacheron competed in the 1894 Paris–Rouen motor race in a Panhard et Levassor, in 1898, steering wheels became a standard feature of Panhard et Levassor cars. They were introduced in the U. S. by Packard in 1899, power steering helps drivers steer by augmenting the drivers steering effort. Power steering has used hydraulics to reduce a drivers steering effort, however, hydraulic steering is being replaced by electric power steering, because it eliminates the hydraulic pump, and increases fuel efficiency. Foot pedals are levers that are activated by the feet to control certain aspects of the vehicles operation. Pedals usually hang from the bulkhead on smaller vehicles, while standing on the floor in heavy-duty vehicles. Regardless of where the pedals are mounted, the arrangement is the same for both right- and left-hand traffic, normally the throttle and brake are operated by the right foot, while the clutch is operated by the left foot. In the US, drivers who mistake the accelerator for the brake, leading to sudden unintended acceleration, however, there are drivers who practice left-foot braking. Vehicles that generate power with a combustion engine are generally equipped with a transmission or gearbox to change the speed-torque ratio. This does not usually apply to vehicles because their motors can drive the vehicle both forward and backward from zero speed. In some four-wheel drive vehicles there is a lever that engages a low-ratio gearbox. Other levers may switch between two- and four-wheel drive and differential locks, some cars have a freewheel that disengages the driveshaft from the driven shaft. This happens when the shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft. For example, Saab used a system in the Saab 96 V4. It was also used in Saabs two-stroke models at the cost of engine braking, some cars, such as the Rover P4, include a manual switch to engage or disengage the freewheel
8.
Saab 900
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The Saab 900 is a compact luxury automobile which was produced by Saab from 1978 until 1998 in two generations. The first generation from 1978 to 1993 is known as the classic, the classic Saab 900 was based on the Saab 99 chassis, though with a longer front end to meet U. S. frontal crash regulations. The 900 was produced in 2- and 4-door sedan, and 3- and 5-door hatchback configurations and, from 1986, as a cabriolet model. There were single- and twin-Zenith carburettor, fuel-injection, and turbocharged engines and it was originally introduced in May 1978, for the 1979 model year. Like its predecessor the 99, the 900 contained a number of design features that distinguish it from most other cars. First, the engine was installed backwards, with power delivered from the crank at the front of the car, second, the transmission, technically a transaxle, bolted directly to the bottom of the engine to form the oil pan. Thus, power from the crank would be delivered out of the engine at the front, then transferred down and back to the transmission below, refined over several decades of two-digit Saab models, the 900s double wishbone suspension design provided excellent handling and road feel. The rear suspension comprised a beam axle design, stabilized with a Panhard rod. Early models did not have bars, they began appearing on certain models in 1985. The sway bars decreased body roll, but at the expense of some ride comfort, the front and rear bars diameters were unchanged throughout the models run. The 900 utilized a deeply curved front windshield, providing the best driver visibility, also underscoring their aircraft lineage, the 900s dashboard was curved to enable easy reach of all controls and featured gauges lit up from the front. This is why, for example, the radio is placed so high in the dashboard. The 900 underwent minor cosmetic changes for 1987, including restyled front-end and bumpers that went from a vertical to a more sloped design. Being a small car factory, for reasons, Saab kept the basic undercarriage more or less unchanged throughout the 900s production run. The Saab 900 could be ordered with different options, one highly sought-after option was called the Aero or Sports Package, or, as it was known in the U. S. Special Performance Group or, correctly, Sports PackaGe, each of these features could, of course, be ordered independently from Saabs Accessories Catalog for fitment to standard models. Another desirable UK option at this time was the fitment of very distinctive Minilite alloy wheels, initially these had the words Minilite and Saab cast in raised lettering. Power output varied by year and market but 900S and 900 Turbo models produced after 1985 were fitted with a 16-valve engine
9.
Parking
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Parking is the act of stopping and disengaging a vehicle and leaving it unoccupied. Parking on one or both sides of a road is permitted, though sometimes with restrictions. Some buildings have parking facilities for use of the buildings users, countries and local governments have rules for design and use of parking spaces. In the U. S. after the first public parking garage for vehicles was opened in Boston, May 24,1898. In cities of the Eastern US, many former livery stables, with lifts for carriages, the following terms give regional variations. All except carport refer to outdoor multi-level parking facilities, in some regional dialects, some of these phrases refer also to indoor or single-level facilities. Elsewhere, the ramp would apply to the inclines between floors of a parking garage, but not to the entire structure itself. Multi-storey car park Car park Parking structure Parking garage Parking building Carport Cycle park Parkade In addition to basic car parking/parking lots variations of serviced parking types exist. Common serviced parking types are, Park and ride Valet Parking Airport Parking Meet and Greet Parking Park, Parking lots specifically for bicycles are becoming more prevalent in many countries. These may include bicycle parking racks and locks, as well as modern technologies for security. For instance, one parking lot in Tokyo has an automated parking system. Urban parking spaces can have a value where the price of land is high. In Boston in 2009 a single parking space sold for $300,000, in congested urban areas parking of motor vehicles is time-consuming and often expensive. Urban planners who are in a position to override market forces must consider whether, the costs or subsidies of such parking accommodations can become a heated point in local politics. For example, in 2006 the San Francisco Board of Supervisors considered a controversial zoning plan to limit the number of vehicle parking spaces available in new residential developments. Heated social discourse sometimes revolves around the sense of ownership that informally arises, many use parking chairs and other markers, usually without approval of municipal authorities. For example, during the winter of 2005 in Boston, the practice of some people saving convenient roadway for themselves became controversial. At that time, many Boston districts had a convention that if a person shoveled the snow out of a roadspace
10.
Ratchet (device)
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A ratchet is a mechanical device that allows continuous linear or rotary motion in only one direction while preventing motion in the opposite direction. Ratchets are widely used in machinery and tools, though something of a misnomer, ratchet is also often used to refer to ratcheting socket wrenches, a common tool with a ratcheting handle. A ratchet consists of a gear or linear rack with teeth. The teeth are uniform but asymmetrical, with each tooth having a slope on one edge. Because the ratchet can only stop backward motion at discrete points and this backward motion—which is limited to a maximum distance equal to the spacing between the teeth—is called backlash. In cases where backlash must be minimized, a smooth, toothless ratchet with a friction surface such as rubber is sometimes used. The pawl bears against the surface at an angle so that any backward motion will cause the pawl to jam against the surface, since the backward travel distance is primarily a function of the compressibility of the high friction surface, this mechanism can result in significantly reduced backlash
11.
Lock (security device)
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A lock is a mechanical or electronic fastening device that is released by a physical object, by supplying secret information, or by a combination thereof. The earliest known lock and key device was discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, Locks such as this were later developed into the Egyptian wooden pin lock, which consisted of a bolt, door fixture, and key. When the key was inserted, pins within the fixture were lifted out of drilled holes within the bolt, when the key was removed, the pins fell part-way into the bolt, preventing movement. The warded lock was also present from antiquity and remains the most recognizable lock, the first all-metal locks appeared between the years 870 and 900, and are attributed to the English craftsmen. It is also said that the key was invented by Theodore of Samos in the 6th century BC, affluent Romans often kept their valuables in secure boxes within their households, and wore the keys as rings on their fingers. The practice had two benefits, It kept the key handy at all times, while signaling that the wearer was wealthy and important enough to have money and jewelry worth securing. The lever tumbler lock, which uses a set of levers to prevent the bolt from moving in the lock, was perfected by Robert Barron in 1778. His double acting lever lock required the lever to be lifted to a height by having a slot cut in the lever. This type of lock is currently used today. The lever tumbler lock was improved by Jeremiah Chubb in 1818. A burglary in Portsmouth Dockyard prompted the British Government to announce a competition to produce a lock that could be opened only with its own key, Chubb was awarded £100 after a trained lock-picker failed to break the lock after 3 months. In 1820, Jeremiah joined his brother Charles in starting their own lock company, the Chubb brothers also received a patent for the first burglar-resisting safe and began production in 1835. The designs of Barron and Chubb were based on the use of levers, but Joseph Bramah. His lock used a key with precise notches along the surface. The lock was at the limits of the manufacturing capabilities of the time and was said by its inventor to be unpickable. Hobbs attempt required some 51 hours, spread over 16 days and this lock design used pins of varying lengths to prevent the lock from opening without the correct key. The modern Yale lock is essentially a developed version of the Egyptian lock. Despite some improvement in key design since, the majority of locks today are variants of the designs invented by Bramah, Chubb
12.
Automatic transmission
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The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well. The most popular form found in automobiles is the automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles. This system uses a coupling in place of a friction clutch. These systems have a set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as forklifts and lawn mowers. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow a number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions, semi-automatics, the obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs, allowing amputees and other disabled individuals to drive, the automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA235757 in 1923. Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid and they were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being battle-tested. However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, zFs origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915, the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early horseless carriage gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston and this unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged, as the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasnt up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the next significant phase in the automatic transmissions development occurred in 1908 with the introduction of Henry Fords remarkable Model T. The pedals actuated the transmissions friction elements to select the desired gear, in 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission, parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chryslers work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use
13.
Volkswagen Touran
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The Volkswagen Touran is a compact MPV based on a vertically stretched fifth generation Volkswagen Golf Mk5, and sold in Europe and other select markets. It was launched in 2003 to fill a gap in Volkswagens model lineup, the vehicle is delivered in five- or seven-seat versions. It can be considered a version of the Golf Plus, since their front ends are similar in size. In some regions, such as Japan, the car is called Golf Touran, the name Touran derives from the combination of Tour and Sharan, the bigger MPV by VW. Despite the similarity of their names, the Touran is not related to the North American-market Volkswagen Routan, the Touran, launched in 2003, is the first Volkswagen MPV based on a Golf platform. It joined Volkswagens existing MPV line-up that included the Sharan and Caravelle, the Touran introduced electro-mechanical steering, a first in its class and for Volkswagen. It is able to vary the weight of the steering depending on the road speed, due to the lack of energy consumption in idle it also improves the overall efficiency of the vehicle. The Touran was the first vehicle to use Volkswagens 2.0 TDI engine, the engines available at the launch included a 1.6 FSI and two diesel engines, the 1.9 TDI with 74 kW and the 2.0 TDI103 kW. The engines are EURO4 compliant, except the 1.9 TDi when paired with the DSG, the Touran launched with a six-speed manual gearbox as standard and a DSG for the 1.9 TDI Engines. The initial test of the Touran in 2003 resulted in a rating for adult protection. Volkswagen made slight changes to the Touran from November 2003, adding an intelligent reminder for the driver, the 2007 model year Touran was the first production vehicle in the Volkswagen Group to be released with the new Park Assist technology. Park Assist helps the driver parallel park the vehicle, firstly, after having activated the feature and whilst travelling up to 30 km/h Park Assist uses sensors to attempt to identify a suitable parking spot. At the December 2006 Bologna Motor Show, Volkswagen released the third Cross vehicle designed by Volkswagen Individual GmbH, all CrossTouran engines are EU4 compliant. The aerodynamics of the car were also improved, the Cw improved from 0, at the end of 2010 Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive released the new Touran in China. Though its front was updated to the German style, the keeps the design of the phase II model. The electronic systems of this domestically produced car were upgraded as its relative in Europe, a 1.4 TSI which can output 93 kW was added to the new model. New engines were available following the trend, a 1.2 with 77 kW. They replaced the 1.6 and 1.9 TDI from the previous model, the 1.2,77 kW and 1.6 TDI77 kW were also available as BlueMotion, Volkswagens low fuel consumption vehicle program
14.
BMW 7 Series (E65)
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The BMW E65 is the chassis designation for the fourth generation 7 Series full-size luxury sedan produced by BMW. Introduced at the Frankfurt Auto Show in 2001 alongside the BMW E53 X54. 6is, in order to produce the E657 Series and other future models the BMW plant at Dingolfing was retooled at a cost of approximately €500,000,000. Upon release the new 7 Series was met with criticism for its controversial looks as well as the steep learning curve presented by the new iDrive system. So unimpressed was the market with the new car sales of remaining E38 stock increased markedly after the launch. Despite the initial quality problems and customer gripes the E657 Series became the generation of this full-size luxury sedan. After a 7-year production run the BMW E65 was replaced by the BMW7 Series in late 2008, development for the BMW E657 Series began in early 1996, and production specifications were frozen in January 1999. The design of the BMW E657 Series was patented 16 November 2000, the car was first launched in Europe 17 November 2001 and then appeared in US and other markets in the spring of 2002. Early BMW E657 Series models had many problems due to the functionality of the iDrive system. However, UK models were still protected by their original 3-Year/Unlimited-Miles warranty, under the direction of Chris Bangle, BMWs Design Chief at the time, the arrival of the BMW E657 Series heralded a new styling era for BMW. The design of the new car contrasted dramatically with the styling on the BMW E387 Series, the BMW E657 Series two-level rear end styling with separate rear fenders for a bustle-back boot lid was derisively known as the Bangle Butt by critics. In fact, van Hooydonks original sketch in 1998 for the BMW E65 was much more of a sleek fastback. Bangle was widely criticised for the departure of the styling from the BMW E387 Series. He was however supported by the BMW board of directors, who wanted to move BMWs image into the future. Dan Neil of The Los Angeles Times named the new 7-series one of the 50 Worst Cars of All Time, dimensionally the E657 Series is 45mm longer, 38mm wider and 60mm taller than the E38. The wheelbase was increased by 60mm over the outgoing model, despite these increased dimensions the E657 Series is only 15 kg heavier than the E38. BMW removed the traditional console mounted gear selector replacing it with a steering-column mounted stalk, peeling paint and textured materials are a well documented problem, so BMW addressed this issue by using still higher quality paint in the LCI model. Compared to the outgoing E38 model, the E657 Series has more room in the front. The BMW E657 Series was the most technically advanced production vehicle BMW had ever produced at the time, as the flagship model, it introduced a large number of new technologies that were eventually carried over to the next generation of BMWs
15.
Audi A8
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The Audi A8 is a four-door, full-size, luxury sedan manufactured and marketed by the German automaker Audi since 1994. Succeeding the Audi V8, and now in its third generation, the first two generations employed the Volkswagen Group D platform, with the current generation deriving from the MLB platform. After the original models 1994 release, Audi released the second generation in late 2002, notable for being the first mass-market car with an aluminium chassis, all A8 models have used this construction method co-developed with Alcoa and marketed as the Audi Space Frame. A mechanically-upgraded, high-performance version of the A8 debuted in 1996 as the Audi S8, produced exclusively at Audis Neckarsulm plant, unlike the donor A8 model, the S8 has been available only in short-wheelbase form and is fitted standard with Audis quattro all-wheel drive system. In 1982, Ferdinand Piëch signed an agreement with Aluminum Company of America, the objective was to design and develop a car that would be substantially lighter than any other vehicles in its class. In the late 1980s, it was decided that the vehicle would be a successor to the V8 flagship introduced in 1988. By 1991, a design by Chris Bird and Dirk van Braeckel was chosen and frozen for series production in 1992. In September 1993, the Audi Space Frame Concept was unveiled at the 1993 Frankfurt Motor Show as a D2 Typ 4D prototype in polished aluminum, pilot production began in December 1993 and development ended in early 1994, at a total cost of $700 million. The saloon/sedan was offered in both the A8, and the A8 L extended or long-wheelbase version, the A8 L adds 5 inches of rear legroom. Updates to the car in 1997 included the addition of six interior airbags. The A8 was designed as a competitor to fellow German rivals Mercedes Benz S Class and the BMW7 Series. In 1997, Audi introduced the first series production ESP Electronic stability control for all-wheel drive vehicles – the worlds first production cars with front and rear side airbags. For 1997, the new A8 was available with either front-wheel drive, or the Torsen-based quattro permanent four-wheel drive. The FWD models are powered by a 2. 8-litre V6 engine, producing 142 kilowatts, the A8 is available with standard luxury amenities, including dual-zone climate control, wood and leather interior trim, 14-way power and heated seats, and an enhanced Bose audio system. In 1999, Audis flagship received side airbags, new colours. The North American warm weather package added a sunroof which allows the interior ventilation fans to run. Changes to all models included a larger passenger-side mirror, and a first aid kit located in the centre armrest. In 1999 for the 2000 model year came a minor front-end restyle, with new, larger, clear headlights, a revised grille, on the interior, the seats received a new, horizontal stitch pattern. Also, the 3. 7-litre V8 FWD model was dropped, leaving the 2.8 V6 model and these restyled cars also featured revised external door handles and an integrated radio antenna
16.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
17.
Rally racing
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Rallying is a form of motorsport that takes place on public or private roads with modified production or specially built road-legal cars. Rallies may be won by pure speed within the stages or alternatively by driving to a predetermined ideal journey time within the stages, the term rally, as a branch of motorsport, probably dates from the first Monte Carlo Rally of January 1911. Until the late 1920s, few if any other used the term. The first of these races was the Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race of June 1895, won by Paul Koechlin in a Peugeot. Levassors time for the 1,178 km course, running virtually without a break, was 48 hours and 48 minutes, an average speed of 24 km/h. Speeds had now far outstripped the safe limits of dusty highways thronged with spectators and open to traffic, people and animals, there were numerous crashes, many injuries. The French government stopped the race and banned this style of event, from then on, racing in Europe would be on closed circuits, initially on long loops of public highway and then, in 1907, on the first purpose-built track, Englands Brooklands. Racing was going its own separate way, Italy had been running road competitions since 1895, when a reliability trial was run from Turin to Asti and back. The countrys first true motor race was held in 1897 along the shore of Lake Maggiore, from Arona to Stresa, the first Alpine event was held in 1898, the Austrian Touring Clubs three-day Automobile Run through South Tyrol, which included the infamous Stelvio Pass. Seventy vehicles took part, the majority of them trade entries and they had to complete thirteen stages of route varying in length from 43 to 123 miles at average speeds of up to the legal limit of 12 mph, and tackle six hillclimb or speed tests. On rest days and at lunch halts, the cars were shown to the public in exhibition halls, the Motor Cycling Club allowed cars to enter its trials and runs from 1904. In 1924, the exercise was repeated as the Small Car Trials, in Germany, the Herkomer Trophy was first held in 1905, and again in 1906. This challenging five-day event attracted over 100 entrants to tackle its 1,000 km road section, a hillclimb and a speed trial, but sadly it was marred by poor organisation and confusing regulations. One participant had been Prince Henry of Austria, who was inspired to do better, another trial was held in 1910. These were very successful, attracting top drivers and works cars from major teams – several manufacturers added Prince Henry models to their ranges. The first Alpine Trial was held in 1909, in Austria, by 1914, the competitive elements were slight, but getting to Monaco in winter was a challenge in itself. A second event was held in 1912, two ultra long distance challenges took place at this time. The New York–Paris of the year, which went via Japan and Siberia, was won by George Schuster
18.
Drifting (motorsport)
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Car drifting is caused when the rear slip angle is greater than the front slip angle, to such an extent that often the front wheels are pointing in the opposite direction to the turn. The desired line is usually dictated by the judge or judges, although the origin of drifting is not known, Japan was one of the birthplaces of drifting as a sport. It was most popular in the All Japan Touring Car Championship races, the famous motorcyclist turned driver, Kunimitsu Takahashi, was the foremost creator of drifting techniques in the 1970s. This earned him several championships and a legion of fans who enjoyed the spectacle of smoking tires, the bias ply racing tires of the 1960s-1980s lent themselves to driving styles with a high slip angle. As professional racers in Japan drove this way, so did the street racers, Keiichi Tsuchiya, known as the Drift King, became particularly interested by Takahashis drift techniques. Tsuchiya began practicing his skills on the mountain roads of Japan. In 1987, several popular car magazines and tuning garages agreed to produce a video of Tsuchiyas drifting skills, the video, known as Pluspy, became a hit and inspired many of the professional drifting drivers on the circuits today. In 1988, alongside Option magazine founder and chief editor Daijiro Inada and he also drifted every turn in Tsukuba Circuit in Japan. One of the earliest recorded drift events outside Japan was in 1996, held at Willow Springs Raceway in Willow Springs, California, hosted by the Japanese drifting magazine and organization Option. Daijiro Inada, the NHRA Funny Car drag racer Kenji Okazaki, rhys Millen and Bryan Norris being two of the entrants. Drifting has then since exploded into a form of motorsport in North America, Australia, Asia, Drifting has evolved into a competitive sport where drivers compete to earn points from judges based on various factors. At the top levels of competition, the D1 Grand Prix in Japan pioneered the sport, the drivers within these series were are able to keep their cars sliding for extended periods of time, often linking several turns. Drifting competitions are judged based on line, angle, speed, style, line involves taking the correct line, which is usually announced beforehand by judges. The show factor is based on things, such as the amount of smoke, how close the car is to the wall or designated clipping point. Angle is the angle of a car and more importantly the wheels in a drift, speed is the speed entering a turn, the speed through a turn. Style is scored on a combination of a rate-to-angle during the initiation, how fluid the car looks through the course, the rate-to-angle is how quickly during initiation or Furidashi and transitions or Furikaeshi a car gets to its sliding angle. Commitment is about how much throttle the driver applies, and the confidence and dedication the driver shows when approaching track edges, the judging takes place on just a small part of the circuit, a few linking corners that provide good viewing, and opportunities for drifting. The rest of the circuit is irrelevant, except as it pertains to controlling the temperature of the tires, there are typically two sessions - a qualifying/practice session, and a final session
19.
Saab 9-5
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The Saab 9-5 is an executive car that was produced by the Swedish automobile maker Saab. The first generation 9-5 was introduced in 1997 as the replacement to the Saab 9000 for the 1998 model year, at the time, the car represented a great leap forward for Saab. In the United States, the 9-5 was introduced in the spring of 1998, on September 15,2009, the second generation was presented at the Frankfurt Motor Show and production began in June 2010. It was the first Saab to be launched under Spyker Cars ownership, Saab badged the model as the Saab 95, but consistently advertised it as the Saab 9-5, pronounced nine five rather than ninety-five. This model should not be confused with the Saab 95, produced from 1959 to 1978, the first generation 9-5 was available with sedan and station wagon body styles. Aerodynamically, the drag coefficient is 0.29, and the station wagons is 0.31. It features such innovations as floor tracks to secure cargo and a load floor to make loading easier. The 9-5 was the first production vehicle to offer ventilated seats, the last 9-5 sedan of the first generation rolled off the Trollhättan production line at the beginning of July 2009, the last wagon was assembled on February 1,2010. Since the summer of 1997, when the 9-5 production began,252,236 sedans, the total production 483,593 units, was narrowly beaten by its predecessor, the 9000, of which 503,000 were built. Production equipment associated with the first-generation 9-5 was sold by General Motors to BAIC of China in 2009, a turbocharged version of the GM 54° V6 engine, designated by Saab as B308, had a unique asymmetrical low-pressure turbocharger and was available from 1999 to 2003. This engine was only with an automatic transmission, and cars with this engine installed are distinguishable by their twin tailpipes. The V6 was only available on Arc, SE, and Griffin models, in 2004, the V6 engine was replaced by a high pressure turbo straight-4 engine producing 220 hp. By 2006 this engine was producing 260 hp even in the non-Aero or non-sport models, the B205 & B235-based 9-5 models have suffered a high rate of engine failures due to engine oil sludge. This primarily affected the 1999–2003 models, Saab refined the engines positive crankcase ventilation system for the 2004 and later model years and required use of fully synthetic oil, virtually eliminating the problem. Additionally, SAAB created update kits to retrofit to the 1999–2003 cars since they cannot be modified to accept the 2004. Saab recommends the use of Full Synthetic or Synthetic blend oil as a preventative measure, the 9-5 was available with an Aisin AW 4-speed automatic transmission from 1997 to 2001. A new Aisin AW unit replaced the dated four-speed automatic with a five-speed automatic, a five-speed manual transmission is fitted as standard to the base models and the Aero. A six-speed manual transmission was never offered in first-generation 9-5s, in 2005, an updated version of the 2.0 L turbocharged I4 was introduced in the European market together with the 2006 9-5
20.
Disc brake
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The energy of motion is converted into waste heat which must be dispersed. Hydraulic disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor vehicles, compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance because the disc is more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the brake fade caused when brake components overheat, disc brakes also recover more quickly from immersion. Most drum brake designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect and this tends to give the driver better feel and helps to avoid impending lockup. Drums are also prone to bell mouthing and trap worn lining material within the assembly, the brake disc is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle, friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. The development of disc-type brakes began in England in the 1890s, successful application began in airplanes before World War II, and even the German Tiger tank was fitted with discs in 1942. The Jaguar racing team won, using disc brake equipped cars, mass production began with the 1955 Citroën DS. Development of disc brakes began in England in the 1890s, the first caliper-type automobile disc brake was patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars. However, the choice of metals in this period meant that he had to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc. The poor state of the roads at this time, no more than dusty, rough tracks, successful application began in airplanes and tanks before and during World War II. At Germanys Argus Motoren, Hermann Klaue had patented disc brakes in 1940, Argus supplied wheels fitted with disc brakes e. g. for the Arado Ar 96. The German Tiger I heavy tank, was introduced in 1942 with a 55 cm Argus-Werke disc on each drive shaft, the American Crosley Hot Shot is often given credit for the first production disc brakes. For six months in 1950, Crosley built a car with these brakes, lack of sufficient research caused reliability problems, such as sticking and corrosion, especially in regions using salt on winter roads. Drum brake conversions for Hot Shots were quite popular, the Crosley disc was a Goodyear development, a caliper type with ventilated disc, originally designed for aircraft applications. Chrysler developed a braking system, offered from 1949 to 1953. Instead of the disc with caliper squeezing on it, this system used twin expanding discs that rubbed against the surface of a cast-iron brake drum. The discs spread apart to create friction against the drum surface through the action of standard wheel cylinders
21.
Transmission brake
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A transmission brake or driveline parking brake is an inboard vehicle brake that is applied to the drivetrain rather than to the wheels. Historically, some early cars used transmission brakes as the normal driving brake and often had wheel brakes on one axle. In current vehicles, these brakes are now rare and they are found in some makes, notably Land Rover, usually for light off-road vehicles. Simple transmission brakes could be found in large vehicles too, such as the 16 inch single disc parking brake used in the M19 Tank Transporter of World War II, the transmission brake is provided solely as a parking brake or handbrake. Normal wheel brakes are provided for use when driving, drum brakes originally. Transmission brakes use drum brakes, rather than disc brakes, as they are intended as a parking brake. Drum brakes allow simpler adjustment with cable-actuated hand lever mechanisms, the brake is mounted to the rear output shaft of the transfer box. As the transmission brake is mounted inboard of the drive and its reduction gearing, the brake rotates relatively faster. The apparently undersized transmission brake thus has more holding ability than its small size might suggest, the braking forces would also be passed through the final drive and axle drive shafts, with possible risk of overloading them. One advantage of a brake is that it locks the entire drivetrain. However any differential action, either within an axle or front-to-back on an all wheel drive vehicle can still allow movement. For this reason a transmission brake is convenient as a parking brake, a second advantage is that they remove the need to provide cable connections to the wheel brakes, on off-road vehicles where such may be prone to damage. A form of brake is commonly fitted to automatic transmissions. These brakes use a dog clutch or pawl system, rather than friction linings and they thus provide a simple and positive lock when stationary, but cannot be engaged when moving. In the USA, this is the form of parking brake and leads to the handbrake being almost entirely ignored
22.
Line lock
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A line lock is a device that allows the front brakes to lock independently of the rear brakes via a switch. The device is a solenoid that controls a valve which allows the brakes to be controlled individually, this allows the front brakes to be locked. This allows the driver to spin the wheels without wasting the rear brakes. This method is referred to as lock and is popular among enthusiasts who like to do burnouts frequently. Drag racing is a motorsport often run using cars with manual transmissions, however, launching a vehicle requires simultaneous gas pedal and clutch pedal inputs, preventing drivers from manipulating the brakes with their feet. Without brake input, drivers staging their vehicle at the line would roll if the clutch was slightly engaged. If the drivers vehicle rolled across the line before the start of a drag race, driver would red light. The line lock prevents vehicles from rolling by allowing the driver to control the clutch and accelerator using foot input, in an automatic transmission vehicle, a line lock allows the engine to rev up to its peak power RPM and launch aggressively from the starting line. Line locks are used for burnouts by fully locking the front wheels and then engaging the gas pedal and disengaging the clutch pedal. Although less common, rolling burnouts can be achieved with modified line locks by proportionally increasing the front brake pressure and this makes the rear tires slip and spin faster than the front tires and burnout. Line locks are used to stop the car rolling off start lines so the driver can keep their feet on the accelerator. Additionally, line locks can be installed on the brake lines. When the line lock is activated, fluid pressure is prevented from being transferred to the rear and this allows one to creep at varying speeds while maintaining a burnout. Achieving such a burnout requires manipulation of both throttle and brake inputs, the burnout is initiated by manipulating the clutch with the left foot and both the brake and gas pedal with the right foot. The brakes must be held while revving up the engine, then the clutch is released while continuing to hold the brakes, once the rear tires start spinning, the left foot is used to control the brakes while the right foot continues to control the throttle. The only advantage for such a setup is the ability to maintain a burnout at relatively low wheel low speeds, many modern sport-oriented cars now offer optional line locks for drag and show purposes, such as the so-called burnout mode found on the 2015 Ford Mustang
23.
Jack (device)
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A jack, screwjack or jackscrew is a mechanical device used as a lifting device to lift heavy loads or to apply great forces. A mechanical jack employs a screw thread for lifting heavy equipment, a hydraulic jack uses hydraulic power. The most common form is a car jack, floor jack or garage jack, jacks are usually rated for a maximum lifting capacity. Industrial jacks can be rated for many tons of load, the personal name Jack, which came into English usage around the thirteenth century as a nickname form of John, came in the sixteenth century to be used as a colloquial word for a man. From here, the word was applied to things which in some way take the place of a lad or man, scissor car jacks usually use mechanical advantage to allow a human to lift a vehicle by manual force alone. The jack shown at the right is made for a modern vehicle, earlier versions have a platform to lift on a vehicles frame or axle. Electrically operated car scissor jacks are powered by 12 volt electricity supplied directly from the cigarette lighter receptacle. The electrical energy is used to power these car jacks to raise, electric jacks require less effort from the motorist for operation. A house jack, also called a jack, is a mechanical device primarily used to lift buildings from their foundations for repairs or relocation. A series of jacks is used and then wood cribbing temporarily supports the structure and this process is repeated until the desired height is reached. The house jack can be used for jacking carrying beams that have settled or for installing new structural beams, on the top of the jack is a cast iron circular pad that the jacking post rests on. This pad moves independently of the jack so that it does not turn as the acme-threaded rod is turned with a metal rod. This piece tilts very slightly, but not enough to render the post dangerously out of plumb. In 1851, inventor Richard Dudgeon was granted a patent for a hydraulic press - the hydraulic jack. Hydraulic jacks are used for shop work, rather than as an emergency jack to be carried with the vehicle. Use of jacks not designed for a vehicle requires more than the usual care in selecting ground conditions, the jacking point on a vehicle. Hydraulic jacks are used to lift elevators in low and medium rise buildings. A hydraulic jack uses a liquid, which is incompressible, that is forced into a cylinder by a pump plunger, oil is used since it is self lubricating and stable
24.
Alfasud
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The company was based in the poor southern region of Italy as a part of the labour policy of the government. It is considered one of Alfa Romeos most successful models, with 893,719 examples sold between 1972 and 1983, plus 121,434 Sprint coupé versions between 1976 and 1989, a common nickname for the car is ’Sud. The car went through two facelifts, the first in 1977 and the one in 1980. It was developed by Austrian Rudolf Hruska, who created a unique engineering package, the car was built at a new factory at Pomigliano dArco in southern Italy, hence the cars name, Alfa Sud. January 18,1968, saw the registration at Naples of a new company named Industria Napoletana Costruzioni Autoveicoli Alfa Romeo-Alfasud S. p. A. 90% of the capital was subscribed by Alfa Romeo and 10% by Finmeccanica. Construction work on the companys new state-sponsored plant at nearby Pomigliano dArco began in April 1968, the Alfasud was shown at the Turin Motor Show three years later in 1971 and was immediately praised by journalists for its styling. The four-door saloon featured an 1,186 cc Boxer water-cooled engine with an overhead camshaft on each cylinder head. It also featured an elaborate setup for a car in its class. Other unusual features for this size of car were four-wheel disc brakes, the engine design allowed the Alfasud to have a low bonnet line, making it very aerodynamic for its day, also giving it a low centre of gravity. As a result of design features, the car had excellent performance for its engine size. Despite its two-box shape, a hatchback was not initially part of the range, some of the controls were unorthodox, the lights, turn indicators, horn, wipers and heater fan all being operated by pulling, turning or pushing the two column stalks. In November 1973 the first Alfasud sport model joined the range, along with a 5-speed gearbox, it featured a more powerful version of the 1.2 litre engine, brought to 68 PS by adopting a Weber twin-choke carburettor, allowing the small saloon to reach 160 km/h. In 1974, Alfa Romeo launched an upscale model, the Alfasud SE. The SE was replaced by the Alfasud L model introduced at the Bruxelles Motor Show in January 1975, a three-door estate model called the Alfasud Giardinetta was introduced in May 1975, with the same equipment of the Alfasud L. The Lusso model was produced until 1976, and was replaced by the new Alfasud 5m model. Presented at the March 1976 Geneva Motor Show, it was equipped like the Lusso it replaced, in September 1976, the Alfasud Sprint coupé was launched. Built on the platform of the saloon, it featured lower, more angular bodywork, again by Giorgetto Giugiaro
25.
Saab 99
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The Saab 99 was a compact executive car produced by Saab from 1968 to 1984. It was manufactured both in Sweden and Finland, on 2 April 1964, Gudmunds day in Sweden, after several years of planning, the Saab board started Project Gudmund. This was a project to develop a new and larger car to take the manufacturer beyond the market for the smaller Saab 96 and this new car became the Saab 99, designed by Sixten Sason and unveiled in Stockholm on November 22,1967. The first prototypes of the 99 were built by cutting a Saab 96 lengthwise and widening it by 20 centimetres, this created the so-called Paddan, which was a disguise for the new project. After that phase, also as a disguise, the first 99 body shell was badged daihatsu as that name could be made up out of the badging available for the Saab Sport. Although Saab engineers liked the companys existing two-stroke engine, it was decided that an engine was necessary. This was the same Triumph Slant-4 engine used in the Triumph Dolomite, a run of 48 Saab 99s were equipped with a Triumph Stag V8, but the V8 was later dropped in favour of a turbocharged unit which later powered the 99 Turbo. A three-door estate version was planned from the start, but never made it into production, in 1971 the work on an estate was restarted, this time as a five-door. The first engine used in the original 99 was a four-cylinder in-line engine which was tilted at 45 degrees, the 1709 cc Triumph-sourced engine produced 87 PS SAE gross at 5500 rpm. The engine was conventionally water-cooled, but unlike most cars of the time it had a cooling fan. Triumph soon upgraded the engine to 1. 85L, the appearance in February 1971 of the four-door Saab 99 coincided with the adoption of the new, Saab experienced reliability problems with the Triumph-sourced engines and decided to bring the design in-house. From September 1972 the 1985 cc Saab B engine was used, during the lifetime of the 99 model, several subsequent engine developments took place, including the incorporation of fuel injection for some versions. The 99 was front-wheel-drive, its engine being unconventionally fitted back to front, drive to the under-mounted gearbox was by triplex chain. Front-wheel-drive was still an uncommon configuration at the time of the 99s introduction. The bonnet was front-hinged and the panel extended over the front wheel-arches, the windscreen was wrap-around and very deep for the era. The A-pillar had an angle, providing excellent driver visibility. In 1968, the English test-driver Archie Vicar wrote in Mass Motorist magazine, The little 99 has been given a striking and it gives the flavour of an aeroplane on four wheels. The Cw value was 0.37 while other cars of the time had 0.4 to 0.5, the chassis was also designed for passive safety, with deformation zones front and rear
26.
Subaru
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Subaru is the automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate Subaru Corporation, the twenty-second largest automaker by production worldwide in 2012. Subaru cars are known for the use of a boxer engine layout in most vehicles above 1500 cc, most Subaru models have used the Symmetrical All Wheel Drive drive-train layout since 1972. The lone exception is the BRZ, introduced in 2012, which uses the boxer engine, Subaru also offers turbocharged versions of their passenger cars, such as the Impreza WRX and the Legacy 2. 5GT. The 2. 5XT trims of the Outback and Forester also include a turbocharged engine, in Western markets, the Subaru brand has traditionally been popular among a dedicated core of buyers. Marketing is targeted towards specific niches centered on those who desire the companys signature drive train, in particular the outdoors enthusiast and affordable sports car markets. Subaru is the Japanese name for the Pleiades star cluster M45, or The Seven Sisters, Fuji Heavy Industries started out as The Aircraft Research Laboratory in 1915, headed by Chikuhei Nakajima. In 1932, the company was reorganized as Nakajima Aircraft Company, Ltd, at the end of the Second World War Nakajima Aircraft was again reorganized, this time as Fuji Sangyo Co, Ltd. In 1946, the created the Fuji Rabbit motor scooter with spare aircraft parts from the war. In 1950, Fuji Sangyo was divided into 12 smaller corporations according to the Japanese Governments 1950 Corporate Credit Rearrangement Act, between 1953 and 1955, four of these corporations and a newly formed corporation decided to merge to form Fuji Heavy Industries. Kenji Kita, CEO of Fuji Heavy Industries at the time, wanted the new company to be involved in car manufacturing, mr. Kita canvassed the company for suggestions about naming the P1, but none of the proposals was appealing enough. In the end he gave the company a Japanese name that he had been cherishing in his heart, Subaru, the first Subaru car was named the Subaru 1500. Only twenty were manufactured owing to supply issues. Subsequently, the designed and manufactured dozens of vehicles including the 1500, the tiny air-cooled 360, the Sambar. Nissan would utilize FHIs bus manufacturing capability and expertise for their Nissan Diesel line of buses, in turn many Subaru vehicles, even today, use parts from the Nissan manufacturing keiretsu. The Subaru automatic transmission, known as the 4EAT, is used in the first generation Nissan Pathfinder. While under this arrangement with Nissan, Subaru introduced the R-2, the Rex and the Leone, the BRAT, Alcyone, the Legacy, the Impreza, upon Nissans acquisition by Renault, its stake in FHI was sold to General Motors in 1999. Troy Clarke, of General Motors served as representative to Fuji Heavy Industries on their corporate board, during that time, Subaru introduced the Baja, and the Tribeca. The Subaru Forester was sold as a Chevrolet Forester in India in exchange for the Opel Zafira being sold as a Subaru Traviq in Japan, also, the Chevrolet Borrego concept was presented in 2002, a crossover coupe/pickup truck being derived from the Japanese-market Legacy Turbo platform
27.
Wheel chock
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Wheel chocks are wedges of sturdy material placed closely against a vehicles wheels to prevent accidental movement. Chocks are placed for safety in addition to setting the brakes, the bottom surface is sometimes coated in rubber to enhance grip with the ground. For ease of removal, a rope may be tied to the chock or a set of two chocks, one edge of the wedge has a concave profile to contour to the wheel and increase the force necessary to overrun the chock. Most commonly, chocks are seen on aircraft and train cars, automobiles usually have parking brakes on the rear wheels. If the rear axle is jacked off the ground with only the parking brake set, chocking the front wheels prevents this mishap. Motorcycle and bicycle chocks are bifurcated and fit around the wheel, supporting the bike, the mining industry uses wheel chocks to protect lubrication trucks and heavy maintenance vehicles from slipping on off-road terrain when placed in Park. The huge haul trucks, which can weigh up to 450 tonnes and these circumstances will benefit from urethane wheel chocks that are lightweight enough to be maneuvered, yet can withstand the responsibility of holding a truck if a brake should fail. To use, wheel chocks must be selected to match the size of the tires on the vehicle and used in pairs, as the size of the tire is designed to be proportional to the vehicles weight and size. For a maximum slope of approximately 15.6 degrees, use a chock 1/4 height of the wheel as per SAE J348. The maximum slope angle for any given chock is c h o c k h e i g h t r a d i u s o f t h e w h e e l ÷0.032. For example, for a chock 1/6 the height of the wheel, some manufacturers recommend wheel chocks that are slightly bigger than 1/4 the height of the wheel. Three main factors affect the performance of wheel chocks, The angle of the road surface, parking on an angle greater than 10 degrees increases the risk of the car rolling off or over the chock. The size of the wheel compared to the wheel height. Extra large wheel chocks are suitable for e. g. parked air craft where wind forces may come into effect, the surface slip or friction of the road surface, as the wheel chock may slide downhill due to wet grass or ice. Increasing the size of the wheel chock will not necessary allow the parking on inclines greater than 30% gradient, Wheel chocks must be used on a level surface, some rubber wheel chocks have steel grates and ice cleat accessories. The vehicle is placed in park and the parking or emergency brake is applied, the wheel chocks are then snugly positioned against the center of the tires in the direction of the grade, on both the left and right side of the vehicle. On even surfaces, chocks are applied to the rear-facing as well as the side of each tire. A parking space commonly contains a parking chock, a barrier which is used to prevent cars from pulling too far into the space and obstructing an adjacent parking space, curb, in a parking garage, the barrier will often be a concrete wall
28.
Emergency brake (train)
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A completely separate mechanism from the conventional braking system, designed to stop the train as quickly as possible. A handle or plunger which may be applied by a passenger in an emergency situation, the emergency brake applies considerably more braking force than the standard full-service brake. The driver can press a button and hold the brakes off whilst he/she chooses a safe place to stop the train. Because of possible problems, severe fines and/or imprisonment penalties are in place to stop people from activating the brake without good reason. In most locomotives the master controller undergoes auto-regression, with the notches falling to zero rapidly as the motive power is switched off. The guard may also notice the loss of pressure and is expected to apply their brakes immediately as well. However, such an act by the driver of deliberately ignoring an indication of alarm-chain pulling is a serious matter, ACP also causes a small lever to be released near the emergency brake valve, which does not retract to its normal position even when the chain is released. This allows the driver to find out in which coach the ACP actually occurred, when the coach is isolated, the lever needs to be manually reset. Until this is done, the lamp and buzzer in the cab are continuously activated. Despite the obvious safety hazards, sometimes this is resorted to by drivers when driving trains through sections where spurious ACP incidents are very common. These statemachines represents the state of the art in Germany, it is recommended to be implemented or retrofitted to avoid the problems experienced at the S-Bahn Rhine-Neckar. In Germany, passenger vehicles “must have easily visible and reachable emergency brake handles” and it is allowed that the emergency brake can be reset, on S-Bahn vehicles its allowed to only result in a display when used outside of platforms. Unlike the System NBÜ2004, which is used in trains, the brake was not activated, because it is only an indicator light. Equipment for this override is necessary in tunnels above 1000 m, for regional trains, UIC 541-5 is not sufficient since 2011, long distance trains must at least be equipped with UIC 541-5. The sections where not to stop are marked with yellow bars on the kilometer signs, regional trains, except MUs, are usually equipped with NBÜ2004, which results in a display and a break a few seconds later if the train driver doesnt respond. For DB Regio, the rules for the staff are given in Ril 494, long distance trains are mostly equipped with system DB, which uses the UIC558 control wire, which results in conflicts with some door control systems and is therefore not used in regional trains. In MUs, usually a special implementation is used, for trams, emergency brakes are also necessary. In tunnels and track sections without safety area, using them outside a station may stop the tram at the platform instead of immediately
29.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
30.
Rolling stock
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The term rolling stock originally referred to any vehicles that move on a railway. It has since expanded to include the vehicles used by businesses on roadways. It usually includes both powered and unpowered vehicles, for locomotives, railroad cars, coaches, and wagons. Rolling stock is considered to be an asset, or close to it, since the value of the vehicle can be readily estimated. The term contrasts with fixed stock, which is a term for the track, signals, stations, other buildings, electric wires. In Great Britain, types of rolling stock were given code names and these codes were telegraphese, somewhat analogous to the SMS language of today. List of railway vehicles Great Western Railway telegraphic codes Great Western Railway wagons The dictionary definition of rolling stock at Wiktionary
31.
Bogie
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A bogie is a chassis or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle, thus serving as a modular subassembly of wheels and axles. Bogies take various forms in various modes of transport, while bogie is the preferred spelling and first-listed variant in various dictionaries, bogey and bogy are also used. A bogie in the UK, or a truck, wheel truck. In Indian English, bogie may also refer to a railway carriage. In South Africa, the bogie is often alternatively used to refer to a freight or goods wagon. The first standard gauge British railway to build coaches with bogies, an alternate configuration often is used in articulated vehicles, which places the bogies under the connection between the carriages or wagons. Most bogies have two axles, but some cars designed for heavy loads have more axles per bogie, heavy-duty cars may have more than two bogies using span bolsters to equalize the load and connect the bogies to the cars. Suspension to absorb shocks between the frame and the rail vehicle body, Common types are coil springs, or rubber airbags. At least one wheelset, composed of an axle with bearings and a wheel at each end The bolster, the railway car is supported at the pivot point on the bolster. Axle box suspensions absorb shocks between the bearings and the bogie frame. The axle box suspension usually consists of a spring between the frame and axle bearings to permit up-and-down movement, and sliders to prevent lateral movement. A more modern design uses solid rubber springs, brake equipment, Two main types are used, brake shoes that are pressed against the tread of the wheel, and disc brakes and pads. More modern, bolsterless bogie designs omit these features, instead taking advantage of the movement of the suspension to permit rotational movement. The Commonwealth bogie, manufactured by the English Steel Corporation under licence from the Commonwealth Steel Company in Illinois, fitted with SKF or Timken bearings, it was introduced in the late 1950s for all BR Mark 1 vehicles. It was a heavy, cast-steel design weighing about 6.5 long tons, with sealed roller bearings on the axle ends, the leaf springs were replaced by coil springs running vertically rather than horizontally. The advanced design gave a better quality than the BR1. The side frame of the bogie was usually of bar construction, with simple horn guides attached, the axle boxes had a cast-steel equaliser beam or bar resting on them. The bar had two steel coil springs placed on it and the bogie frame rested on the springs, the effect was to allow the bar to act as a compensating lever between the two axles and to use both springs to soften shocks from either axle
32.
Railway air brake
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A railway air brake is a railway brake power braking system with compressed air as the operating medium. Modern trains rely upon a fail-safe air brake system that is based upon a design patented by George Westinghouse on March 5,1868, the Westinghouse Air Brake Company was subsequently organized to manufacture and sell Westinghouses invention. In various forms, it has nearly universally adopted. The Westinghouse system uses air pressure to charge air reservoirs on each car, full air pressure signals each car to release the brakes. A reduction or loss of air pressure signals each car to apply its brakes, in the air brakes simplest form, called the straight air system, compressed air pushes on a piston in a cylinder. The piston is connected through mechanical linkage to brake shoes that can rub on the train wheels, the mechanical linkage can become quite elaborate, as it evenly distributes force from one pressurized air cylinder to 8 or 12 wheels. The pressurized air comes from an air compressor in the locomotive and is sent from car to car by a line made up of pipes beneath each car. The principal problem with the air braking system is that any separation between hoses and pipes causes loss of air pressure and hence the loss of the force applying the brakes. This could easily cause a runaway train, straight air brakes are still used on locomotives, although as a dual circuit system, usually with each bogie having its own circuit. Unlike the straight air system, the Westinghouse system uses a reduction in air pressure in the line to apply the brakes. The triple valve is described as being so named as it performs three functions, Charging air into an air tank ready to be used, applying the brakes, in so doing, it supports certain other actions. When he soon improved the device by removing the poppet valve action, if the pressure in the train line is lower than that of the reservoir, the brake cylinder exhaust portal is closed and air from the cars reservoir is fed into the brake cylinder. Pressure increases in the cylinder, applying the brakes, while decreasing in the reservoir and this action continues until equilibrium between the brake pipe pressure and reservoir pressure is achieved. At that point, the airflow from the reservoir to the cylinder is lapped off. If the pressure in the line is higher than that of the reservoir. The triple valve also causes the cylinder to be exhausted to the atmosphere. As the pressure in the line and that of the reservoir equalize, the triple valve closes, causing the air in the reservoir to be sealed in. When the engine operator releases the brake, the brake valve portal to atmosphere is closed
33.
Train
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A train is a form of rail transport consisting of a series of vehicles that usually runs along a rail track to transport cargo or passengers. Motive power is provided by a locomotive or individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Although historically steam propulsion dominated, the most common forms are diesel and electric locomotives. Other energy sources include horses, engine or water-driven rope or wire winch, gravity, pneumatics, batteries, the word train comes from the Old French trahiner, from the Latin trahere pull, draw. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train may consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles which can often be very long, one notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. In order to much faster operation over 500 km/h, innovative Maglev technology has been researched for years. In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law, a freight train uses freight cars to transport goods or materials. Freight and passengers may be carried in the train in a mixed consist. Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc. are termed maintenance of way equipment, similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train line, such as garbage or revenue collection. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train can consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, special kinds of trains running on corresponding special railways are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives and coaches, alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a multiple unit. In many parts of the world, particularly the Far East and Europe, freight trains are composed of wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains are outwardly more like passenger trains. Trains can also be mixed, comprising both passenger accommodation and freight vehicles, special trains are also used for track maintenance, in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as top and tailed, where a second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks or grades it is referred to as banking in the UK, or helper service in North America. Recently, many loaded trains in the United States have been made up one or more locomotives in the middle or at the rear of the train
34.
Railway brake
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Brakes are used on the cars of railway trains to enable deceleration, control acceleration or to keep them standing when parked. Clasp brakes are one type of historically used on trains. In the earliest days of railways, braking technology was primitive, some railways fitted a special deep-noted brake whistle to locomotives to indicate to the porters the necessity to apply the brakes. All the brakes at this stage of development were applied by operation of a screw and linkage to brake blocks applied to wheel treads, and it was also unreliable, as the application of brakes by guards depended upon them hearing and responding quickly to a whistle for brakes. This had become apparent from the trials on railway brakes carried out at Newark in the previous year, the chief types of solution were, The chain brake, such as the Heberlein brake, in which a chain was connected continuously along the train. As with car brakes, actuating pressure to apply brakes was transmitted hydraulically and these found some favor in the UK, but even in the UK problems were found with the water used as brake fluid freezing The Westinghouse air brake system. The Westinghouse system uses smaller air reservoirs and brake cylinders than the vacuum equipment. An ejector on the created a vacuum in a continuous pipe along the train. This system was very cheap and effective, but it had the weakness that it became inoperative if the train became divided or if the train pipe was ruptured. This system was similar to the vacuum system, except that the creation of vacuum in the train pipe exhausted vacuum reservoirs on every vehicle. If the driver applied the brake, his drivers brake valve admitted atmospheric air to the pipe. Being an automatic brake, this system applies braking effort if the train divided or if the train pipe is ruptured. Its disadvantage is that the vacuum reservoirs were required on every vehicle, and their bulk. Note, there are a number of variants and developments of all these systems, the Newark trials showed the braking performance of the Westinghouse air-brakes to be distinctly superior but for other reasons it was the vacuum system that was generally adopted on UK railways. Goods and mineral vehicles were provided with hand brakes by which the brakes could be applied by a lever operated by staff on the ground. Early goods vehicles had brake handles on one side only and random alignment of the vehicles gave the guard sufficient braking but, from about 1930 and these trains, not fitted with continuous brakes were described as unfitted trains and they survived in British practice until about 1985. By 1952 only 14% of open wagons, 55% of covered, in the early days of diesel locomotives, a purpose-built brake tender was attached to the locomotive to increase braking effort when hauling unfitted trains. The brake tender was low, so that the driver could see the line and signals ahead if the brake tender was propelled ahead of the locomotive
35.
Brakeman
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A brakeman is a rail transport worker whose original job was to assist the braking of a train by applying brakes on individual wagons. The earliest known use of the term to describe this occupation occurred in 1833, the advent of through brakes on trains made this role redundant, although the name lives on in the United States where brakemen carry out a variety of functions both on the track and within trains. In the US, the brakeman was a member of a trains crew responsible for assisting with braking a train when the conductor wanted the train to slow down. A brakemans duties also included ensuring that the couplings between cars were set, lining switches, and signaling to the train operators while performing switching operations. In rare cases, such as descending a long, steep grade, brakemen might be assigned to several cars and be required to operate the brakes from atop the train while the train was moving. By the start of the 20th century, some local U. S. labor laws noted that enough brakemen would be staffed on every train such that a brakeman would be responsible for no more than two cars. A brakemans job was very dangerous with numerous reports of brakemen falling from trains. Individually operated car brakes were replaced by remotely-operated air brakes, eliminating the need for the brakeman to walk atop a train to set the brakes. Link and pin couplings were replaced with automatic couplings, and hand signals are now supplemented by two-way radio communication. As of 2012,24,380 brakeman jobs were staffed in the U. S. with 93% of them employed in the transport industry with much of the remainder employed by supporting companies. By 2016, the number had dropped to 19,860, with the highest employment rates in Texas, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Illinois and Georgia. In Germany, the brakemen occupied brakemans cabins on several or even all wagons in a train and it was a dangerous and uncomfortable role, especially in winter when it was not uncommon for brakemen to freeze to death in the unheated cabins. The function was abolished in the 1920s with the introduction of air brakes, a brakeman is sometimes seen as an assistant to the conductor in a trains operations. A passenger service trainman is often required to qualify as a conductor after 1 to 2 years experience, the rear end trainman signals to the conductor when all the trains doors are safely closed, then boards and closes his/her door. The brakeman is responsible for slowing the train down when necessary and stopping it in the station at the end of the ride
36.
Boxcar
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A boxcar is a North American railroad car that is enclosed and generally used to carry freight. The boxcar, while not the simplest freight car design, is probably the most versatile, boxcars have side doors of varying size and operation, and some include end doors and adjustable bulkheads to load very large items. Similar covered freight cars outside North America are covered wagons and, depending on the region, are called goods van, louvre van. Boxcars can carry most kinds of freight, originally they were hand-loaded, but in more recent years mechanical assistance such as forklifts have been used to load and empty them faster. Their generalized design is still slower to load and unload than specialized designs of car, the other cause for this decline is the dramatic shift of waterborne cargo transport to container shipping. Even loose loads such as coal, grain and ore can be carried in a boxcar with boards over the door openings. Later grain transport would use metal reinforced cardboard which was nailed over the door and this was more common in earlier days, it was susceptible to losing much loading during the journey, and damaged the boxcar. It was also impossible to load and unload. Grain can also be transported in boxcars designed specifically for purpose, specialized equipment. However grain is transported in covered hopper cars. Livestock can be transported in a boxcar, but there is insufficient ventilation in warm weather, specially-built stock cars or converted boxcars are preferable. Insulated boxcars are used for types of perishable loads that do not require the precise temperature control provided by a refrigerator car. Circuses used boxcars to transport their workers, supplies, and animals to get from town to town, box cars were used for bulk commodities such as coal, particularly in the Midwestern United States in the early 20th century. This use was widespread that several companies developed competing box-car loaders to automate coal loading. By 1905,350 to 400 such machines were in use, historically automobiles were carried in boxcars, but during the 1960s specially built autoracks took over, these carried more cars in the same space and were easier to load and unload. The automotive parts business, however, has always been a big user of the boxcar, special boxcars carry newsprint paper and other damage-sensitive cargo. While not holding the dominant position in the world of rail borne freight that they had before World War II, the most common boxcars are 50-6 to 60-9 in length, 9-4 to 9-6 wide, and 10-10 to 11 high. A hi-roof boxcar is 13 in height, corresponding exterior dimensions would be 55-5 to 67-11 in length, and 10-6 to 10-8 in width
37.
Railroad Safety Appliance Act
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The Safety Appliance Act is a United States federal law that made air brakes and automatic couplers mandatory on all trains in the United States. It was enacted on March 2,1893, and took effect in 1900, the act is credited with a sharp drop in accidents on American railroads in the early 20th century. Following the end of the Civil War, railroads expanded throughout the United States. The increased traffic was accompanied by an increase in accidents among railroad personnel, many accidents were associated with coupling and uncoupling of railroad cars, and particularly with the use of link-and-pin couplers, which were widely in use at the time. The operation of manually operated brakes was also very hazardous, the rise in accidents led to calls for safety legislation, as early as the 1870s. In the 1880s, the number of fatalities of railroad workers was second only to those of coal miners. Through that decade, several state legislatures enacted safety laws, the sixth section imposes for every violation of the act a penalty of $100. By an order promulgated June 6,1910, the Commission increased the number of cars whose train brakes must be under the engineers control to 85 percent. A1910 legislative amendment required additional equipment, including ladders, sill steps, need safety checks on locomotive and a sufficient number of cars. Also need sufficient number of cars equipped with power or train brakes so engineer in the locomotive can control its speed without requiring a brakeman to use a hand brake to do so. Need automatic couplers that can be uncoupled without man going between, will submit these standards to the Interstate Commerce Commission, which will inform the carriers. If ARA fails to set standard, ICC will do so before July 1,1894, after July 1,1895, no cars can be used that don’t comply. Any common carrier in violation of any provisions will be liable to pay a penalty of $100 for every violation, can extend time within which carriers need to comply with this act. ICC can extend period from time to time with a full hearing, if someone working for a non-compliant train is injured. Southern Railway Co. v. United States United States v. Erie Railroad Co, history of rail transport in the United States
38.
Johnson bar (vehicle)
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A Johnson bar is a hand lever with several distinct positions and a positive latch to hold the lever in the selected position. This is an American English term, in British English, the lever is named for its function. Many steam locomotives have valve gear controls which are set using a Johnson bar as referenced in Fred Eaglesmiths Back There, Hey Porter, tell that engineer, tell him to let go that Johnson bar. I got places I got to go, many trucks and buses use a hand brake which is controlled with a Johnson bar. These are sometimes called Johnson bar brakes, truck drivers call the lever control for air-operated trailer brakes Johnson bars. On Caterpillar tractors, the lever is also called a Johnson bar. Some light general aviation aircraft use Johnson bars to actuate flaps, the Cessna 162 Skycatcher uses a Johnson bar for flap operation. A small number of aircraft also have landing gear actuated by Johnson bars. On the Boeing 707/720 aircraft, the Johnson bar was used to extend the nose landing gear. This was only used if the normal gear extension failed
39.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
40.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
41.
Automotive navigation system
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An automotive navigation system is part of the automobile controls or a third party add-on used to find direction in an automobile. It typically uses a navigation device to get its position data which is then correlated to a position on a road. When directions are needed routing can be calculated, on the fly traffic information can be used to adjust the route. Automotive navigation systems represent a convergence of a number of diverse technologies many of which have available for many years. Limitations such as batteries, display, and processing power had to be overcome before the product became commercially viable, etak made an early system that used map-matching to improve on dead reckoning instrumentation. Digital map information was stored on cassette tapes. 1966, General Motors Research was working on a non-satellite-based navigation, after initial tests GM found that it was not a scalable or practical way to provide navigation assistance. Decades later, however, the concept would be reborn as OnStar,1980, Electronic Auto Compass with new mechanism on the Toyota Crown. 1981, navigation computer on the Toyota Celica,1987, Toyota introduced the Worlds first CD-ROM-based navigation system on the Toyota Crown. 1990, Mazda Eunos Cosmo became the first car with built-in GPS-navigation system 1991,1991, Mitsubishi introduced GPS car navigation on the Mitsubishi Debonair. 1992, Voice assisted GPS navigation system on the Toyota Celsior, bitMAP attends Comdex in Las Vegas the same year, but doesnt manage to market itself properly. 1994, BMW7 series E38 first European model featuring GPS sat nav, the navigation system was developed in cooperation with Philips. 1995, Oldsmobile introduced the first GPS navigation system available in a United States production car,1995, Device called Mobile Assistant or short, MASS, produced by Munich-based company ComRoad AG, won the title Best Product in Mobile Computing on CeBit by magazine Byte. It offered turn-by-turn navigation via wireless connection, with both GPS and speed sensor in the car. Street names or numbers and house numbers are encoded as geographic coordinates so that the user can find some desired destination by street address, points of interest are stored with their geographic coordinates. Formats are almost uniformly proprietary, there is no standard for satellite navigation maps, although some companies are trying to address this with SDAL. Map data vendors such as Tele Atlas and Navteq create the map in a Geographic Data Files format. GDF is not a CD standard for car navigation systems, GDF is used and converted onto the CD-ROM in the internal format of the navigation system
42.
Global Positioning System
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The Global Positioning System is a space-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception, the GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, however, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War. The U. S. Department of Defense developed the system and it became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A, getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes, in 2000, the U. S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a denial of access. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System was developed contemporaneously with GPS, GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system and Chinas BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earths observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to 10 kilometers per day, the relativistic time effect of the GPS clocks running faster than the clocks on earth was corrected for in the design of GPS. The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkinss Applied Physics Laboratory, decided to monitor Sputniks radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, the Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. The next spring, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem — pinpointing the users location and this led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. In 1959, ARPA also played a role in TRANSIT, the first satellite navigation system, TRANSIT, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour, in 1967, the U. S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required by GPS. In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy, during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded and it is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time
