1.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
2.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
3.
Quebec nationalism
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Quebec nationalism or Québécois nationalism asserts that the Québécois people are a nation, distinct from the rest of Canada, and promotes the unity of the Québécois people in the province of Quebec. Canada was first a French colony, Jacques Cartier claimed it for France in 1534, and permanent French settlement began in 1608. It was part of New France, which constituted all French colonies in North America, up until 1760, Canadien nationalism had developed itself free of all external influences. However, during the Seven Years War, the British army invaded the French colony as part of its North American strategy, at the Treaty of Paris, France agreed to abandon its claims in Canada in return for permanent French control of Guadeloupe. From the 1760s onward, Canadien nationalism developed within a British constitutional context, in effect, this enlightened action by leaders in the British Parliament allowed French Canada to retain its unique characteristics. With the Loyalists splitting the Province of Quebec into two identities, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, Canadiens were now labelled by the Loyalists as French Canadians. These battles succeeded in creating independent republican states in regions of the world, but they failed in other places, such as Ireland, Upper Canada, Lower Canada. There is no consensus on the time of the birth of a national consciousness in French Canada. Some historians defend the thesis that it existed before the 19th century, however, the use of the expression la nation canadienne by French Canadians is a reality of the 19th century. The idea of a nation canadienne was supported by the liberal or professional class in Lower Canada, lawyers, notaries, librarians, accountants, doctors, journalists, and architects, among others. A political movement for the independence of the Canadien people slowly took form following the enactment of the Constitutional Act of 1791, the Act of the British Parliament created two colonies, Lower Canada and Upper Canada, each of which had its own political institutions. Most of the members of the council and the executive council were part of the British ruling class, composed of wealthy merchants, judges, military men. From early 1800 to 1837, the government and the assembly were at odds on virtually every issue. Under the leadership of Speaker Louis-Joseph Papineau, the Parti canadien initiated a movement of reform of the institutions of Lower Canada. The partys constitutional policy, summed up in the Ninety-Two Resolutions of 1834, the movement of reform gathered the support of the majority of the representatives of the people among Francophones but also among liberal Anglophones. The formal rejection of all 92 resolutions by the Parliament of Great Britain in 1837 led to a radicalization of the patriotic movements actions, Louis-Joseph Papineau took the leadership of a new strategy which included the boycott of all British imports. During the summer, many popular gatherings were organized to protest against the policy of Great Britain in Lower Canada, in November, Governor Archibald Acheson ordered the arrest of 26 leaders of the patriote movement, among whom Louis-Joseph Papineau and many other reformists were members of parliament. This instigated a conflict which developed into the Lower Canada Rebellion
4.
Quebec sovereignty movement
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The Quebec sovereignty movement is a political movement as well as an ideology of values, concepts and ideas that advocates independence for the Canadian province of Quebec. Several diverse political groups coalesced in the late 1960s in the formation of the Parti Québécois, since 1968 the party has appealed for constitutional negotiations on the matter of provincial sovereignty, in addition to holding two provincial referendums on the matter. Approximately 60% of Quebecs voting public rejected the idea put forth by Parti Québécois leader René Lévesque, the response was again in the negative, though this time by a far closer margin, with a mere 50. 58% against the proposal. Though the Parti Québécois has long spearheaded the sovereignty movement, they are not alone, other minority provincial political parties, such as Option nationale and Québec Solidaire, also support sovereignty, but are not always supportive of the Parti Québécois. Thus, Quebec politics is divided into two camps, principally opposed over the sovereignty issue. Quebec sovereignty is politically opposed to the ideology of Canadian federalism. Most groups within this movement seek to gain independence through peaceful means, using negotiation-based diplomatic intervention, the primary mainstream political vehicle for the movement is the Parti Québécois, which has governed Quebec on multiple occasions. In 2012 it was elected to a minority government, in which its leader, Pauline Marois, however, only eighteen months later, the PQ was defeated by the Liberal Party of Quebec in the 2014 election. The term independentist is preferred by some supporters, other distinguishing factors, such as religious differences, are also used to justify either separation or ethno-nationalist social policies advocated by the Parti Québécois. It argues that the people of Quebec are the descendants of a people who are due their national sovereignty. This perspective was popular in the 1950s and 1960s when European countries were giving up their colonies in the name of independence throughout much of Africa, eight of the other Canadian provinces are overwhelmingly English-speaking, while New Brunswick is officially bilingual and about one-third Francophone. Another rationale is based on resentment of anti-Quebec sentiment, with regard to the creation of the sovereignist movement, language issues were but a sub-stratum of larger cultural, social and political differences. Many supporters of Quebec sovereignty often compare their situation with Catalonia in regards to Spain, supporters of sovereignty for Quebec believe that the current relationship between Quebec and the rest of Canada does not reflect Quebecs best social, political and economic development interests. A key component in the argument in favour of political independence is that new legislation. This was a move to recognize that other provinces represent distinct cultural entities, perhaps the most significant basis of support for Quebecs sovereignty movement lies in more recent political events. René Lévesque, architect of the first referendum on sovereignty, claimed a willingness to work for change in the Canadian framework after the federalist victory in the referendum of 1980. This approach was dubbed le beau risque, and it led to ministers of the Lévesques government to resign in protest. The 1982 patriation of the Canadian constitution did not solve the issue in the point of view of the majority of sovereignists, the constitutional amendment of 1982 was agreed to by representatives from 9 of the 10 provinces
5.
Social democracy
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In this period, social democrats embraced a mixed economy based on the predominance of private property, with only a minority of essential utilities and public services under public ownership. By 1868–1869, Marxism had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, in this period, social democracy became associated with reformist socialism. The origins of social democracy have been traced to the 1860s, with the rise of the first major party in Europe. 1864 saw the founding of the International Workingmens Association, also known as the First International, another issue in the First International was the role of reformism. Although Lassalle was not a Marxist, he was influenced by the theories of Marx and Engels, however unlike Marxs and Engelss The Communist Manifesto, Lassalle promoted class struggle in a more moderate form. While Marx viewed the state negatively as an instrument of class rule that should only exist temporarily upon the rise to power of the proletariat and then dismantled, Lassalle accepted the state. Lassalle viewed the state as a means through which workers could enhance their interests, Lassalles strategy was primarily electoral and reformist, with Lassalleans contending that the working class needed a political party that fought above all for universal adult male suffrage. The ADAVs party newspaper was called Der Sozialdemokrat, Marx and Engels responded to the title Sozialdemocrat with distaste, Engels once writing, But what a title, Sozialdemokrat. Why dont they simply call it The Proletarian. Marx agreed with Engels that Sozialdemokrat was a bad title, there was a Marxist faction within the ADAV represented by Wilhelm Liebknecht who became one of the editors of the Die Sozialdemokrat. Friction in the ADAV arose over Lassalles policy of an approach to Bismarck that had assumed incorrectly that Bismarck in turn would be friendly towards them. This approach was opposed by the partys Marxists, including Liebknecht, opposition in the ADAV to Lassalles friendly approach to Bismarcks government resulted in Liebknecht resigning from his position as editor of Die Sozialdemokrat and leaving the ADAV in 1865. Though the SDAP was not officially Marxist, it was the first major organization to be led by Marxists and Marx. The party adopted stances similar to those adopted by Marx at the First International, there was intense rivalry and antagonism between the SDAP and the ADAV, with the SDAP being highly hostile to the Prussian government while the ADAV pursued a reformist and more cooperative approach. In spite of such militant rhetoric to appeal to the working class, in 1875 Marx attacked the Gotha Program that became the program of Social Democratic Party of Germany in the same year in his Critique of the Gotha Program. Marx was not optimistic that Germany at the time was not open to a means to achieve socialism. In addition he noticed a change over the relations between the two classes. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 make an approach to universal suffrage. The Fabian Society was founded as a group from the Fellowship of the New Life due to opposition within that group to socialism
6.
Political spectrum
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A political spectrum is a system of classifying different political positions upon one or more geometric axes that symbolize independent political dimensions. Most long-standing spectra include a wing and left wing, which originally referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament after the Revolution. According to the simplest left–right axis, communism and socialism are usually regarded internationally as being on the left, liberalism can mean different things in different contexts, sometimes on the left, sometimes on the right. Those with an intermediate outlook are classified as centrists or moderates, politics that rejects the conventional left–right spectrum is known as syncretic politics. Political scientists have noted that a single left–right axis is insufficient for describing the existing variation in political beliefs. As seen from the Speakers seat at the front of the Assembly, the aristocracy sat on the right, originally, the defining point on the ideological spectrum was the Ancien Régime. The Right thus implied support for aristocratic or royal interests, and the church, while The Left implied support for republicanism, secularism, and civil liberties. Because the political franchise at the start of the revolution was relatively narrow, the original Left represented mainly the interests of the bourgeoisie and their political interests in the French Revolution lay with opposition to the aristocracy, and so they found themselves allied with the early capitalists. However, this did not mean that their interests lay with the laissez-faire policies of those representing them politically. As capitalist economies developed, the aristocracy became less relevant and were replaced by capitalist representatives. This evolution has often pulled parliamentary politicians away from laissez-faire economic policies, for almost a century, social scientists have considered the problem of how best to describe political variation. In 1950, Leonard W. Submitting the results to factor analysis and this system was derived empirically, rather than devising a political model on purely theoretical grounds and testing it, Fergusons research was exploratory. As a result of method, care must be taken in the interpretation of Fergusons three factors, as factor analysis will output an abstract factor whether an objectively real factor exists or not. Although replication of the Nationalism factor was inconsistent, the finding of Religionism and Humanitarianism had a number of replications by Ferguson, shortly afterward, Hans Eysenck began researching political attitudes in Great Britain. He believed that there was something similar about the National Socialists on the one hand. Submitting this value questionnaire to the process of factor analysis used by Ferguson. Such analysis produces a factor whether or not it corresponds to a real-world phenomenon, Eysencks dimensions of R and T were found by factor analyses of values in Germany and Sweden, France, and Japan. According to Eysenck, members of both ideologies were tough-minded, in this context, Eysenck carried out studies on nazism and communist groups, claiming to find members of both groups to be more dominant and more aggressive than control groups
7.
National Assembly of Quebec
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The National Assembly of Quebec is the legislative body of the Province of Quebec in Canada. The Lieutenant Governor, and the National Assembly compose the Legislature of Quebec, the National Assembly was formerly the lower house of Quebecs legislature and was then called the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. In 1968, the house, the Legislative Council, was abolished. The current President of the National Assembly is Liberal MNA Jacques Chagnon, the Legislative Assembly was created in Lower Canada by the Constitutional Act of 1791. It was abolished from 1841 to 1867 under the 1840 Act of Union which merged Upper Canada, the Constitution Act,1867, which created Canada, split the Province of Canada into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario. The Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada was thus restored as the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Quebec, the original Quebec legislature was bicameral, consisting of the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. Before 1968, there had been unsuccessful attempts at abolishing the Legislative Council. In 1978, television cameras were brought in for the first time to televise parliamentary debates, the colour of the walls was changed to suit the needs of television and the salon vert became the salon bleu. Its facade presents a pantheon representing significant events and people of the history of Quebec, additional buildings were added next to the Parliament Buildings, Édifice André-Laurendeau was added from 1935 to 1937 to house the Ministry of Transport. Édifice Honoré-Mercier was added from 1922 to 1925 to house the Ministries of the Treasury, the Attorney General, Édifice Jean-Antoine-Panet was added from 1931 to 1932 for the Ministry of Agriculture. Édifice Pamphile-Le May added from 1910 to 1915 for the Library of the National Assembly, various government offices. General elections are held five years or less. Any person holding Canadian citizenship and who has resided in Quebec for at least six months qualifies to be on the electoral list. Normally, the leader of the party with the largest number of elected candidates is asked by the Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec to form the government as premier. Quebecs territory is divided into 125 electoral districts, in each riding, the candidate who receives the most votes is elected and becomes a Member of the National Assembly. This is known as the first-past-the-post voting system and it tends to produce strong disparities in the number of seats won compared to the popular vote, perhaps best exemplified by the 1966,1970,1973, and 1998 elections. Quebec elections have tended to be volatile since the 1970s. Consequently, existing political parties often lose more than half their seats with the rise of new or opposition political parties, for instance, the 1970 and 1973 saw the demise of the Union Nationale and rise of the Parti Québécois which managed to take power in 1976
8.
Politics of Quebec
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The politics of Quebec are centred on a provincial government resembling that of the other Canadian provinces, namely a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. The capital of Quebec is Quebec City, where the Lieutenant Governor, Premier, the legislature, the unicameral legislature — the National Assembly of Quebec — has 125 members. Government is conducted based on the Westminster model, the British-type parliamentarism based on the Westminster system was introduced in the Province of Lower Canada in 1791. The diagram at right represents the system of Québec since the 1968 reform. Prior to this reform, the Parliament of Québec was bicameral, Lieutenant Governor asks the leader of the majority party to form a government in which he will serve as Premier enacts the laws adopted by the National Assembly has a theoretical veto power. Many of Quebecs political institutions are among the oldest in North America, the first part of this article presents the main political institutions of Quebec society. The last part presents Québecs current politics and issues, the Parliament of Québec holds the legislative power. It consists of the National Assembly of Québec and the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the National Assembly is part of a legislature based on the Westminster System. The representatives of the Québec people are elected with the first-past-the-post electoral method, the government is constituted by the majority party and it is responsible to the National Assembly. Since the abolition of the Legislative Council at the end of 1968, the government of Quebec consists of all the ministries and governmental branches that do not have the status of independent institutions, such as municipalities and regional county municipalities. The Executive Council is the responsible for decision-making in the government. It is composed of the Lieutenant Governor, the Premier, the government ministers, the Executive Council directs the government and the civil service, and oversees the enforcement of laws, regulations and policies. Together with the Lieutenant Governor, it constitutes the government of Québec, the Ombudsman has certain powers defined by the Public Protector Act. The Québec Ombudsman has a contract with Québécois to ensure the transparency of the state. The Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse is a publicly funded agency created by the Charter of Human Rights and its members are appointed by the National Assembly. The commission has been given powers to promote and protect human rights within all sectors of Québec society, Government institutions and Parliament are bound by the provisions of the Charter. The commission may investigate into possible cases of discrimination, whether by the State or by private parties and it may introduce litigation if its recommendations were not followed. The Office Québécois de la Langue Française is an organization created in 1961 and its mandate was greatly expanded by the 1977 Charter of the French Language
9.
Elections in Quebec
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This article provides a summary of results for the general elections to the Canadian province of Quebecs unicameral legislative body, the National Assembly of Quebec. The number of seats has increased over time, from 65 for the first six elections. The chart on the right shows the information graphically, with the most recent elections towards the right. The Conservative party disappeared after 1935 and was replaced by the Union Nationale, the nineteen seventies saw the arrival of the sovereignist Parti Québécois, to be followed by Québec Solidaire and the Coalition Avenir Québec in 2006 and 2011, respectively. This article only covers elections since the Canadian confederation in 1867, for Quebecs first 15 elections as Lower Canada from 1792 to 1840, see Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada. For the 8 joint elections of Ontario and Quebec as the Province of Canada, from 1840 to 1867, the table below shows the total number of seats won by the political parties in each election. It also shows the percentage of the vote obtained by each party, the winning partys totals are shown in bold. There have been five elections in which the party did not have the largest share of the popular vote. Full details on any election are linked via the year of the election at the start of the row, a Includes all Independent Conservative candidates elected from 1875 to 1892. B Results include the by-election on 20 May 2003 in the Champlain electoral district to break a tie in the general election. C Results include the by-election on 14 December 1998 in the Masson electoral district due to the death of PQ candidate Yves Blais on 22 November 1998, D Results include the by-election on 24 October 1994 in the Saint-Jean electoral district to break a tie in the original general election. E Includes Independent Liberal candidate, the 27 May 1912 election of Gustave Lemieux by acclamation in Gaspé, F Includes the Independent Liberal candidate elected. G Includes the Conservative candidate elected in the held in Kamouraska on 11 February 1869. H Power went back and forth a few times after the 1878 election, for most of that legislature, the Liberals controlled a minority parliament with the support of some Conservative members. I The Action démocratique du Québec ran from 1994–2008, the Coalition avenir Québec was founded in 2011, merged with the ADQ, and ran in its first election in 2012. La répartition des voix aux élections générales, la répartition des sièges aux élections générales. Le Directeur Général des Élections du Québec
10.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
11.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign
12.
COPPPAL
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The Permanent Conference of Political Parties of Latin America and the Caribbean is an international organization of political parties in Latin America and the Caribbean. Today COPPPAL is the most important forum of political parties in Latin America and its first president was Gustavo Carvajal Moreno Mexico. Its current president is the Dominican politic Manolo Pichardo, COPPPAL was established during an October 12,1979, conference in Oaxaca, Mexico, on the initiative of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional, the ruling party in Mexico at the time. The organization was led by the PRI between its establishment in 1979 and 1984, and again between 1989 and 2005, antonio Cafiero of the Justicialist Party was elected president of the coordinating committee in 2005, and Gustavo Carvajal Moreno of the PRI was elected as its adjunct president. Cafiero was succeeded in 2011 by Pedro Joaquín Coldwell of the PRI, the committee coordinates youth exchange, consultative, and other activities among its member parties, as well as with the International Conference of Asian Political Parties. The following political parties from the Americas are represented at COPPPAL, International Conference of Asian Political Parties Official website
13.
Quebec Liberal Party
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The Quebec Liberal Party QLP is a federalist provincial political party in Quebec, Canada. It has been independent of the federal Liberal Party of Canada since 1955, while the party has been described as centre-right in the context of Canadian politics, the party believes in a strong role for government in the economy and supports socially liberal policies. Also the party has had a prominent social-democratic faction within it that was prominent in the party during the Quiet Revolution. The Quebec Liberals have always associated with the colour red. The most notable figure of this period was Louis-Joseph Papineau, the Liberals were in opposition to the ruling Conservatives for most of the first 20 years after Canadian Confederation, except for 18 months of Liberal minority government in 1878-1879. However, the changed in 1885 when the federal Conservative government executed Louis Riel. This decision was unpopular in Quebec, honoré Mercier rode this wave of discontent to power in 1887, but was brought down by a scandal in 1891. He was later cleared of all charges, the Conservatives returned to power until 1897. The Liberals won the 1897 election, and held power without interruption for the next 39 years and this mirrored the situation in Ottawa, where the arrival of Wilfrid Laurier in the 1896 federal election marked the beginning of Liberal Party of Canada dominance at the federal level. Notable long-serving Premiers of Quebec in this era were Lomer Gouin, by 1935, however, the Conservatives had an ambitious new leader, Maurice Duplessis. Duplessis merged his party with dissident ex-Liberals who had formed the Action libérale nationale, Duplessis led the new party, the Union Nationale, to power in the 1936 election. The Liberals returned to power in the 1939 election, but lost it again in the 1944 election and they remained in opposition to the Union Nationale until one year after Duplessiss death in 1959. In 1955, the PLQ severed its affiliation with the Liberal Party of Canada, under Jean Lesage, the party won an historic election in 1960, ending sixteen years of rule by the national-conservative Union Nationale. This marked the beginning of the Quiet Revolution, which dramatically changed Québec society, under Lesage, the Liberals developed a Quebec nationalist wing. In October 1967, former cabinet minister René Lévesques proposed that the party endorse his plan for sovereignty association, relations soured between the Quebec Liberal Party and the federal Liberal Party under Lesage, and worsened further under Robert Bourassa who had a poor relationship with Pierre Trudeau. Reelected in 1973, his government was embarrassed by several scandals. Bourassa resigned from the leadership after the loss of the 1976 election to René Lévesques Parti Québécois. Bourassa was succeeded as Liberal leader by Claude Ryan, the director of the respected Montréal newspaper
14.
Quebec general election, 1970
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The Quebec general election of 1970 was held on April 29,1970, to elect members of the National Assembly of Quebec, Canada. The former Legislative Assembly had been renamed the National Assembly in 1968, the Quebec Liberal Party, led by Robert Bourassa, defeated the incumbent Union Nationale, led by Jean-Jacques Bertrand. This election marked the first appearance by a new party, the sovereigntist Parti Québécois, the PQ won a modest seven seats, although Lévesque was defeated in his own riding. The Union Nationale, which had governed Quebec through most of the 1940s and 1950s and this was partly because a significant number of the Union Nationales younger supporters had embraced sovereigntism, and shifted their support to the PQ. Note, * Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election,1 including results of Rassemblement pour lindépendance nationale and Ralliement national from previous election
15.
Quebec general election, 1973
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The Quebec general election of 1973 was held on October 29,1973 to elect members to National Assembly of Quebec, Canada. The incumbent Quebec Liberal Party, led by Robert Bourassa, won re-election, defeating the Parti Québécois, led by René Lévesque, the Liberals won a large majority of the seats. The Union Nationale, which had held power until the previous 1970 general election, was wiped off the electoral map, however, UN candidate Maurice Bellemare later won a seat in a 1974 by-election. The Parti Québécois held its own, dropping one seat. The popular vote was not lopsided as the distribution of seats would indicate, the Parti Québécois, for instance, won 30% of the popular vote, a significant improvement over their previous showing of 23% in the 1970 election. However, Quebec elections have produced significant disparities in party seat counts
16.
Union Nationale (Quebec)
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The Union Nationale was a conservative and nationalist provincial political party in Quebec, Canada, that identified with Québécois autonomism. It was created during the Great Depression and held power in Quebec from 1936 to 1939, the party was founded by Maurice Duplessis, who led it until his death in 1959. The party was referred to in English as the National Union, especially when it was still an electoral force. The party started when the Action libérale nationale, a group of dissidents from the Quebec Liberal Party, in the 1935 Quebec election the two parties agreed to run only one candidate of either party in each riding. The Action libérale nationale elected 26 out of 57 candidates and the Conservatives won 16 seats out of 33 districts, Conservative leader Maurice Duplessis became Leader of the Opposition. The new party had no ties to the federal Conservatives. It ran candidates in district and won a majority of the seats in the 1936 election. Even though Duplessis had run on ideas inspired from the ALN platform, rené Chaloult, Oscar Drouin, Joseph-Ernest Grégoire, Philippe Hamel, François Leduc and Adolphe Marcoux quit the party, while Rouville Beaudry and Grégoire Bélanger left politics. For instance, it gave the Catholic clergy government money to public education, health care. Duplessis called an election shortly after Canada declared war against Germany, federal Cabinet Member Ernest Lapointe, the Quebec lieutenant of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, promised that no one would face conscription if voters supported the Liberals. The pledge was devastating to the Union Nationale, which lost the 1939 election, while serving in His Majestys Loyal Opposition, the party opposed Womens suffrage which was enacted by the government of Adélard Godbout in 1940. The Union Nationale enjoyed a surge after a majority of Canadian voters allowed the government to pass conscription. The Liberals won a plurality of the vote in the 1944 election, however, since rural areas were significantly overrepresented, the Union Nationale won 48 seats to the Liberals 37, allowing Duplessis to return as premier. World War II prosperity kept unemployment low, machine politics, fiscal conservatism and a program of rural electrification consolidated the dominance of the Union Nationale over the province. The Duplessis government adopted the current flag of Quebec to replace the Union Jack and it won a landslide victory in the 1948 election. The Liberals were decimated, nearly all of their 14 MNAs were from Montreals West Island, Godbout himself lost his own seat, leaving the Liberals without a full-time leader in the legislature. On the debit side, Duplessis relations with labour in general and trade unions in particular were difficult, the government was also accused of being too strongly aligned with the Catholic clergy. Indeed, many priests openly supported the Duplessis government and attacked the Liberals by using the slogan Le ciel est bleu, nonetheless, the Union Nationale was re-elected in the 1952 election with a reduced majority, and in the 1956 election
17.
Quebec general election, 1976
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The Quebec general election of 1976 was held on November 15,1976 to elect members to National Assembly of the Province of Quebec, Canada. It was one of the most significant elections in Quebec history, rivalled only by the 1960 general election, the Parti Québécois, led by René Lévesque, defeated the incumbent Quebec Liberal Party, led by Robert Bourassa. The Parti Québécoiss campaign focused on providing good government, to contrast the many scandals that had plagued the Liberals since 1973, the Parti Québécois used its term in office to introduce numerous bills to implement its agenda. The legislative number of bill, Bill One, was intended to signify the importance of this bill for the new government. The bill was withdrawn and significantly altered, however, and was eventually re-introduced as Bill 101, with some modifications, the Charter of the French Language remains in effect today and has shaped modern Quebec society in far-reaching ways. The 1976 election also set the stage for the 1980 Quebec referendum on the PQs proposal for independence in an economic union with the rest of Canada called sovereignty-association. The proposal was defeated in the referendum. Bourassa had called the election only three years, well before the five-year maximum possible term. He not only lost the election, but was defeated in his own riding by a PQ challenger. Bourassa resigned as Liberal leader, and his career appeared to be over. He left Quebec and took up teaching positions in the United States, however he later made a remarkable comeback in the 1985 general election. The once-powerful Union Nationale made a modest comeback after being evicted from the three years earlier. It won 11 seats under Rodrigue Biron, and for the first time won significant support from some anglophone voters, an anglophone UN member, William Shaw was elected to the National Assembly. However, this proved to be the partys last hurrah and it never won another seat in any subsequent election, though it would continue to nominally exist until 1989. The overall results were, Note, * Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election
18.
Premier of Quebec
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The Premier of Quebec is the head of government of the Canadian province of Quebec. The current Premier of Quebec is Philippe Couillard of the Quebec Liberal Party, the Premier of Quebec is appointed as president of the Executive Council by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the viceregal representative of the Queen in Right of Quebec. The Premier is most usually the head of the party winning the most seats in the National Assembly of Quebec, an exception to this rule occurs when the winning partys leader fails to win the riding in which he or she is running. In that case, the premier would have to attain a seat by winning a by-election and this has happened, for example, to Robert Bourassa in 1985. The role of the Premier of Quebec is to set the priorities on the opening speech of the National Assembly. He or she represents the party and must have the confidence of the assembly, as expressed by votes on budgets. The term premier is used in English, while French employs premier ministre, in at least one instance, the term Prime Minister of the Province of Quebec was used in an English-language advertisement. The term is used for the Podium Ceremony of the annual Formula One Grand Prix du Canada in Montreal. The Premiers of Quebec are chosen according to the principle of responsible government and this principle is a matter of constitutional convention, since the Constitution Act,1867 does not mention it. Politics of Quebec List of premiers of Quebec List of premiers of Quebec by time in office Prime Minister of Canada Premier Premier of Quebec official site
19.
English-speaking Quebecers
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English-speaking Quebecers refers to the English-speaking minority of the primarily French-speaking province of Quebec, Canada. The English-speaking community in Quebec constitutes an official linguistic minority population under Canadian law and this makes estimating the population difficult. According to the 2011 Canadian census,599,225 in Quebec declare English as a mother tongue, statistics Canada uses census data to keep track of minority language communities in Canada. It has recorded mother tongue since 1921, home language since 1971, in addition, conversational knowledge of English and French is documented. A considerable number of respondents in each category cite equal proficiency, knowledge. In this case, census respondents are divided evenly among the groups involved. It is used by the government and Quebec anglophone community organizations to determine the demand for minority language services. Specifically, it classifies members of immigrant groups who learn English before French as English-speaking, half of the people equally proficient since childhood in both English and French are placed into each linguistic community. The English-speaking population has shown a decline in population between 1971 and 2001. During this interval, the number of mother tongue anglophones has decreased from 788,830 to 591,365 representing a drop in its share of the Quebec population from 13. 1% to 8. 3%. This is attributed primarily to an exodus of anglophones to other provinces, immigration from other countries and integration of allophones helped to partially alleviate the impact of this trend. In 2001, one in three immigrants to Quebec was English-speaking and settled in Montreal and this made the decrease in home-language anglophones less pronounced, particularly in the Montreal area. The 2006 census showed an increase of the Anglophone population in Quebec, the rise of 16,000 people represents a growth rate of +2. 7%, which is higher than that for the Francophone population for the same period. This increase is attributed to a reduced net outmigration of Anglophones. In a survey on the matter, English-speaking Quebecers cited limited economic prospects and these political factors are also cited as having led to fewer Canadians from other provinces settling in Quebec. Anglophones are also likely to migrate within the province than Francophones and Allophones. At the time, this forecast made researcher Jack Jedwab predict a long term decline of the community. A large proportion of Quebecs English-speaking population resides in or near Montreal, the earliest English-speaking Quebecers arrived in Montreal at the beginning of the British regime in the second half of the 18th century
20.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
21.
Quebec general election, 1981
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The Quebec general election of 1981 was held on April 13,1981, to elect members of the National Assembly of the Province of Quebec, Canada. The incumbent Parti Québécois, led by René Lévesque, won re-election, defeating the Quebec Liberal Party, led by Claude Ryan. To some extent, they were helped by Claude Ryans old-fashioned campaign style, he refused to sound bites for the evening news. Despite finishing only three percent behind the PQ, the Liberals still finished a distant second, with 42 seats to the PQs 80. The Union Nationale, which had won 11 seats in a modest comeback in the 1976 general election, was reduced to five seats at dissolution by numerous floor crossings, retirements and resignations. Among the departures was that of its leader in the 1976 election, Rodrigue Biron, the once-proud party lost all of its remaining seats, never to return. The party essentially ended at this point, though it lingered in desultory fashion until 1989, the overall results were, Note, * Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election or information not available. List of Quebec premiers Politics of Quebec Timeline of Quebec history List of Quebec political parties 32nd National Assembly of Quebec CBC TV video clip Results by party Results for all ridings
22.
Socialist International
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The Socialist International is a worldwide association of political parties, most of which seek to establish democratic socialism. It consists mostly of democratic socialist, social-democratic and labour political parties, although formed in 1951 as a successor to the Labour and Socialist International, it has antecedents to the late nineteenth century. Initially dominated by parties from Western Europe, it has grown to include 153 member parties from over 100 countries and its members have governed in many countries including most of Europe. The Party of European Socialists, a major European political party, is an organisation of the SI. The current secretary general of the SI is Luis Ayala, who has held the post since 1989, the current president of the SI is the former Prime Minister of Greece George Papandreou. The International Workingmens Association was the first international body to bring together organisations representing the working class and it was formed in London on 28 September 1864 by socialist, communist and anarchist political groups and trade unions. Tensions between moderates and revolutionaries led to its dissolution in 1876 in Philadelphia, the Second International was formed in Paris on 14 July 1889 as an association of the socialist parties. Differences over World War I led to the Second International being dissolved in 1916, International Socialist Commission was formed in February 1919 at a meeting in Berne by parties that wanted to resurrect the Second International. In March 1919 communist parties formed Comintern at a meeting in Moscow, Parties which did not want to be a part of the resurrected Second International or Comintern formed the International Working Union of Socialist Parties on 27 February 1921 at a conference in Vienna. The ISC and the IWUSP joined to form the Labour and Socialist International in May 1923 at a meeting in Hamburg, the rise of Nazism and the start of World War II led to the dissolution of the LSI in 1940. The Socialist International was formed in Frankfurt in July 1951 as a successor to the LSI, during the post-World War II period, the SI aided social democratic parties in re-establishing themselves when dictatorship gave way to democracy in Portugal and Spain. Until its 1976 Geneva Congress, the SI had few members outside Europe, in the 1980s, most SI parties gave their backing to the Nicaraguan Sandinistas, whose left-wing government had incited enmity from the United States. The SI supported détente and disarmament agreements, such as SALTII, START and they had several meetings and discussion in Washington, D. C. with President Jimmy Carter and Vice-President George Bush and in Moscow with Secretaries General Leonid Brezhnev and Mikhail Gorbachev. The SIs delegations to these discussions were led by the Finnish Prime Minister Kalevi Sorsa, following the Tunisian revolution, the Constitutional Democratic Rally was expelled from the SI in January 2011. Later that month, the Egyptian National Democratic Party was also expelled, as a result of the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis, the Ivorian Popular Front was expelled in March 2011. However, according to section 5.1.3 of the statutes of the Socialist International, Social Democracy and Southern Africa by Vladimir Shubin,1989. Julius Braunthal, The Rebirth of Social Democracy, Foreign Affairs, in JSTOR Pentti Vaananen, The Rose and the Fist, SYS Print,2014, pp. 50–230
23.
New Democratic Party
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The New Democratic Party is a social-democratic political party in Canada. Mulcair will remain as leader, until his replacement is chosen at an election to be held in 2017. The NDP was founded in 1961 out of the merger of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation with the Canadian Labour Congress, one provincial wing of the NDP forms government in Alberta. Unlike other political parties in Canada, the federal and provincial level NDPs are fully integrated, following the 1993 federal election the NDP was reduced to fourth place behind the Bloc Québécois, a position it would maintain for most of the next two decades. The NDP then lost 59 seats during the 2015 federal election and fell back to place in Parliament. The NDP evolved in 1961 from a merger of the Canadian Labour Congress, the CCF grew from populist, agrarian and socialist roots into a modern socialist party. Although the CCF was part of the Christian left and the Social Gospel movement and it has broadened to include concerns of the New Left, and advocates issues such as LGBT rights, international peace, and environmental stewardship. It formed the Official Opposition for the first time in the 41st Canadian Parliament, before 2011, the party had been a stable presence in the Canadian parliament, and was the third largest political party from 1961 to 1993, when the party lost official status. The NDPs peak period of influence in those periods was during the minority Liberal governments of Lester B. Pearson. After reattaining official party status in 1997, the NDP played a role in the Liberal. Provincial New Democratic parties, which are sections of the federal party, have governed in six of the ten provinces. The NDP has previously formed the government in the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, while members of the party are active municipally, the party does not organize at that level. For example, though former Toronto mayor David Miller was an NDP member during his successful 2003 and 2006 mayoral campaigns, his campaigns were not affiliated with the NDP. In 1958 a joint CCF-CLC committee, the National Committee for the New Party, was formed to create a new political party. The NCNP spent the three years laying down the foundations of the New Party. In 1960, before the NDP was founded, one candidate, Walter Pitman, the influence of organized labour on the party is still reflected in the partys conventions as affiliated trade unions send delegates on a formula based on their number of members. At the 1971 leadership convention, an activist group called The Waffle tried to control of the party. The following year, most of The Waffle split from the NDP, the NDP itself supported the minority government formed by the Pierre Trudeau-led Liberals from 1972 to 1974, although the two parties never entered into a coalition
24.
Quebec general election, 1985
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The Quebec general election of 1985 was held on December 2,1985, to elect members of the National Assembly of the Province of Quebec, Canada. The Quebec Liberal Party, led by former premier Robert Bourassa, defeated the incumbent Parti Québécois and this election marked the comeback of Robert Bourassa, whose political career had been thought to be over after losing the 1976 general election and resigning as Liberal leader. However, Bourassa personally failed to win his own seat in the Bertrand electoral district, the 1985 Quebec general election result produced by far the largest majority of any Canadian legislative election by a winning party whose leader failed to win his own seat. Johnson, son of former Union Nationale premier Daniel Johnson Sr. was unable to revive the PQs fortune after he succeeded René Lévesque as party leader and premier, pierre-Marcs brother, Daniel Johnson Jr. later became leader of the Liberal Party and briefly served as premier. This election was the last contested by the Union Nationale and it only ran candidates in 19 ridings, none of whom came close to being elected. The party would be wound up by authorities in 1989. The overall results were, Note, * Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election, list of Quebec premiers Politics of Quebec Timeline of Quebec history 33rd National Assembly of Quebec CBC TV video clip Results by party Results for all ridings
25.
Robert Bourassa
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Robert Bourassa, GOQ was a politician in Quebec, Canada. The span between his two mandates is the longest of any Premier, Bourassa also has the longest span between his first and last day as a Quebec Premier. Bourassa was born to a working family in Montreal, the son of Adrienne and Aubert Bourassa. Robert Bourassa graduated from the Université de Montréal law school in 1956 and was admitted to the Barreau du Québec the following year, on August 23,1958, he married Andrée Simard, an heiress of the powerful shipbuilding Simard family of Sorel, Quebec. Later, he studied at the University of Oxford and also obtained a degree in economy at Harvard University in 1960. On his return to Quebec, he was employed at the federal Department of National Revenue as a fiscal adviser and he also worked as a professor of public finance at Université de Montréal and Université Laval. Bourassa was first elected as a Member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec for the riding of Mercier in 1966 and he positioned himself as a young, competent administrator. He chose 100000 jobs as his slogan, which emphasized that jobs creation would be his priority, Bourassa felt the extensive hydro-electric resources of Quebec were the most effective means of completing the modernization of Quebec and sustaining job creation. He successfully led his party into government in the 1970 election, defeating the conservative Union Nationale government, Bourassa requested that Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoke the War Measures Act, as a result of which the Canadian armed forces quelled the insurgents. The army was withdrawn on 4 January 1971, and Paul Rose, Bourassa and Trudeau often clashed over issues of federal-provincial relations and Quebec nationalism, with Trudeau opposing what he saw as concessions to sovereignism. On 8 October 1971, Trudeau announced in the House of Commons that, after much deliberation, the policy document tabled in the House dissociates culture from language, which seemed to Bourassa a questionable basis on which to found a policy. Bourassa declared that Quebec did not accept the governments approach to the principle of multiculturalism. During his time in power, Bourassa implemented policies aimed at protecting the status of the French language in Quebec, in 1974, he introduced Bill 22, which declared French to be the sole official language of the province. As a result, Quebec was no longer institutionally bilingual, though the rights of anglophones were still protected under the British North America Acts, many businesses and professionals were unable to operate under such requirements. Bill 22 angered Anglophones while not going far enough for many Francophones, Bourassa initiated the James Bay hydroelectric project in 1971 that led to the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement of 1975 with the Cree and Inuit inhabitants of the region. The Bourassa government also played a role in rescuing the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal from huge cost overruns. Bourassas government became embroiled in corruption scandals, Bourassa himself was heavily defeated in his own riding by PQ challenger Gérald Godin. He resigned as Liberal Party leader and accepted teaching positions in Europe and he remained in political exile until he returned to politics by winning the Quebec Liberal Party leadership election on October 15,1983
26.
Charlottetown Accord
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The Charlottetown Accord was a package of proposed amendments to the Constitution of Canada, proposed by the Canadian federal and provincial governments in 1992. It was submitted to a referendum on October 26 of that year. This was followed by a resurgence in the Quebec sovereignty movement, former Prime Minister Joe Clark was appointed Minister responsible for Constitutional Affairs, and was responsible for pulling together a new constitutional agreement. Clark conducted a negotiation with the non-Quebec premiers on a new constitutional accord, while Quebec was not physically present, communications were held through a back channel. Broad agreement was made for the Meech Lake provisions to be included, a recognition of aboriginal self-government, Mulroney, advised of the agreement while in Paris, was shocked and dismayed, as he believed the Senate arrangements would doom any agreement in Quebec. However, a refusal of the agreement would necessitate the resignation of the popular and influential Clark from Cabinet, Mulroney decided to work with the agreement, and on August 28,1992, the agreement known as the Charlottetown Accord was reached. The Charlottetown Accord attempted to resolve long-standing disputes around the division of powers between federal and provincial jurisdiction, the accord also required the federal and provincial governments to harmonize policy in telecommunications, labour development and training, regional development, and immigration. The accord formally institutionalized the federal-provincial-territorial consultative process, and provided for Aboriginal inclusion in certain circumstances and it also increased the number of matters in the existing constitutional amending formula that required unanimous consent. The Accord proposed a number of reforms to Federal institutions. The Canadian Senate would have reformed, with senators to be elected either in a general election or by provincial legislatures at the discretion of the provinces. Six would be assigned for every province and one for each territory, on matters related to francophone culture and language, passage of a bill would require a majority in the Senate as a whole and a majority of francophone senators. Changes were also proposed for the House of Commons, following the equalization of the Senate, the Houses seat distribution would also be based more so on population than previously, with more seats allotted to Ontario and the Western provinces. In exchange for Quebec losing Senate seats under a Triple-E Senate, a central component of the Charlottetown Accord was the Canada Clause, which was intended to be an interpretive section of the Canadian Constitution. The Canada Clause set out general values which it asserted defined the nature of the Canadian character, one such value was the recognition of Quebec as a distinct society within Canada. The purpose of this Clause was to recognize what the leaders believed to be the core values of Canada. On a more level, it would require the courts to interpret the Constitution in accordance with the basic values outlined. The accord also proposed a charter to promote such objectives as health care, welfare, education, environmental protection. The Accord would have altered the status of Aboriginal groups in Canadian political society
27.
Constitution of Canada
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The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada, the countrys constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It is one of the oldest working constitutions in the world, the constitution outlines Canadas system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada. Canadian constitutional law relates to the interpretation and application of the constitution, the Supreme Court of Canada held that the list is not exhaustive and includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. See list of Canadian constitutional documents for details, the first semblance of a constitution for Canada was the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The act renamed the portion of the former French province of New France as Province of Quebec. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec, the winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both of the Canadas, with the result they were rejoined as the Province of Canada in 1841. This was reversed by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada. Initially, on 1 July 1867, there were four provinces in confederation as One dominion under the name of Canada, Canada West, Canada East, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Title to the Northwest Territories was transferred by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1870, British Columbia joined confederation in 1871, followed by Prince Edward Island in 1873. The Yukon Territory was created by Parliament in 1898, followed by Alberta, the Dominion of Newfoundland, Britains oldest colony in the Americas, joined Canada as a province in 1949. An Imperial Conference in 1926 that included the leaders of all Dominions and representatives from India, Newfoundland never ratified the statute, so it was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did ratify the statute, but had requested an exception because the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on a formula for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved, in the interim, the British parliament periodically passed enabling acts with respect to amendments to Canadas constitution, this was never anything but a rubber stamp. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed both acts as law on 17 April 1982, Constitution Act,1982, included the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the charter, there were various statutes which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, the charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. Enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has also fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law, the act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the constitution significantly more difficult. Since the act, amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the portion of the Canadian constitution. This was an Act of the British parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867 and it outlined Canadas system of government, which combines Britains Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of sovereignty
28.
Jacques Parizeau
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Parizeau was born in Montreal, Quebec, the son of Germaine and Gérard Parizeau, from a family of wealth and privilege. Gérard Parizeau built one of Quebec’s great fortunes and one of the province’s largest financial firms from a brokerage he established in the 1930s, Jacques great-grandfather was a founder of the Montreal Chambre de Commerce and his grandfather was a doctor of renown and a Chevalier of the Legion d’honneur. As a teenager, Parizeau had radical views and distributed leaflets for Communist Fred Roses election campaigns, while sympathetic to the Labor-Progressive Party he never joined. His parents supported bilingualism and sent him to English summer camp and he attended Collège Stanislas, a Roman Catholic private school. He went on to graduate with a PhD from the London School of Economics in London, England, as well as degrees at HEC Montréal, Paris Institute of Political Studies and Faculté de droit de Paris. Because of a commitment to return to instruct at HEC, he left England. He served an internship with the Bank of Canada in Ottawa, Parizeaus predilection for three-piece, Savile Row suits, and proper manner of speaking French and English, earned him the nickname Monsieur. A believer in economic interventionism, he was one of the most important advisors to the government during the 1960s. He joked that the Quiet Revolution was essentially carried out by three or four ministers, two dozen civil servants and 50 chansonniers. Parizeau gradually became a committed sovereigntist, and officially joined the Parti Québécois on September 19,1969, in 1970, he became the president of the PQ’s executive council until 1973. He ran for office in the Montreal districts of Ahuntsic in 1970 and Crémazie in 1973, but lost in both. After the PQ was elected to office in the 1976 provincial election, which saw Parizeau elected in the district of LAssomption, Parizeau played an important role in the 1980 Quebec referendum campaign in favour of the governments proposals for sovereignty-association. As Minister of Finance in Quebec, he was responsible for a number of innovative economic proposals, including the Quebec Stock Savings Plan, as of November 2014, the latters net assets were $10.5 billion. Married to Polish immigrant Alice Poznanska, Jacques Parizeau was criticized for supporting the Charter of the French Language and this law limits access to English-language public schools to children whose parents didnt receive their education in English in Canada, and was generally opposed by the English-speaking minority. In 1984, he had an out with Lévesque. Lévesque had moved away from pursuing sovereignty to accept a negotiation with the Federal Government, Parizeau opposed this shift, resigned from Cabinet along with many other members, and temporarily retired from politics. Lévesque was taken by surprise with all these retirements and retired soon after and he was replaced by Pierre-Marc Johnson. In 1987, Johnson also left the PQ leadership after losing the 1985 election, Parizeau, still a widely liked figure, was elected to replace him as party leader on March 19,1988
29.
Quebec general election, 1994
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The Quebec general election of 1994 was held on September 12,1994, to elect members of the National Assembly of Quebec, Canada. The Parti Québécois, led by Jacques Parizeau, defeated the incumbent Quebec Liberal Party, both his father, Daniel Sr. and brother, Pierre-Marc, had previously served as premiers of Quebec as leaders of different parties. This election was significant for Quebec history, because it set the stage for the 1995 Quebec referendum on independence for Quebec from Canada. In this referendum, the PQs proposals for sovereignty were very narrowly defeated. Mario Dumont, a president of the Liberal partys youth wing, and then leader of the newly formed Action démocratique du Québec, won his own seat. In Saint-Jean there was a tie between incumbent Liberal candidate Michel Charbonneau and PQ candidate Roger Paquin, a new election was held on October 24 and was won by Paquin by a margin of 532 votes. The overall results were, List of Quebec premiers Politics of Quebec Timeline of Quebec history 35th National Assembly of Quebec CBC TV video clip Results by party Results for all ridings
30.
Quebec referendum, 1995
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Voting took place on October 30,1995, and featured the largest voter turnout in Quebecs history. The No option carried by 54,288 votes, Quebec, a province in Canada since its foundation in 1867, has always been the sole majority French-speaking province. Among these was René Lévesque, who would found the Parti Québécois with like-minded groups seeking independence from Canada. After arriving in power in 1976, the PQ government held a referendum in 1980 seeking a mandate to negotiate sovereignty-association with Canada that was decisively defeated. During tense negotiations in November 1981, an agreement was reached between Trudeau and nine of the ten premiers by Trudeau, but not Lévesque, the Constitution Act of 1982 was enacted without the Quebec National Assemblys symbolic approval. Trudeaus successor as Prime Minister, Brian Mulroney, and Quebec Liberal premier Robert Bourassa sought a series of Constitutional amendments designed to address Quebecs concerns. The Accord, after debate in English Canada, fell apart in dramatic fashion in the summer of 1990, prompting outrage in Quebec. Following these events, Bourassa proclaimed that a referendum would occur in 1992 and this prompted a national referendum on the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, a series of amendments that included the proposals of Meech Lake as well as concerns of the broader Canadian federation. The Accord failed in Quebec and English Canada, in the 1993 federal election, as the Liberals returned to power with a majority government under Jean Chrétien, who had been Minister of Justice during the 1980-81 constitutional discussions. The Bloc Québécois won 54 seats with 49. 3% of Quebecs vote, in Quebec, the 1994 provincial election brought the sovereigntist Parti Québécois back to power, led by Jacques Parizeau. The partys platform promised to hold a referendum on sovereignty during his term in office as premier, the PQ won a majority government with 44. 75% of the popular vote. The Commission was boycotted by the Liberal Party of Quebec, the Liberal Party of Canada, the primary issue of debate within the sovereignty movement became on what terms sovereignty would be put before the electorate. Parizeaus stance created opposition in the sovereignty movement, which coalesced around Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard, a popular and charismatic figure, Bouchard had come close to death from necrotizing fasciitis and lost his left leg. His recovery, and subsequent public appearances on crutches, provided a point for sovereigntists. Bouchard thought a proposal lacking a partnership would doom the project among soft nationalists who worried about the consequences of separation. As polls showed Parizeaus approach as highly unlikely to even exceed 40% support in a referendum, after Parizeau moved the planned referendum date to the fall, Deputy Premier Bernard Landry aroused ire by stating he would not want to be involved in a charge of the light brigade. During the Blocs April conference, after a speech demanding a change in direction, Mario Dumont, leader of the new Action démocratique du Québec, also stated that he would only consider participation in the referendum if a partnership was made part of the question. The final findings of the National Commission, issued April 19, most importantly for Parizeau, the agreement also allowed the government to declare immediate independence if negotiations were not successful or heard after a successful referendum
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Lucien Bouchard
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Lucien Bouchard, PC GOQ is a French Canadian lawyer, diplomat, politician and former Minister of the Environment of the Canadian Federal Government. He was the founder of the Bloc Québécois, Leader of the Opposition in the Canadian House of Commons from 1993 to 1996, and he became a central figure for the Yes side in the 1995 Quebec referendum. He is a recipient of the title of Commander of the Légion dHonneur, in 1994, while serving as Leader of the Opposition, Bouchard lost his left leg to a type of flesh-eating bacteria. Bouchard was born in Saint-Cœur-de-Marie, Québec, the son of Alice and his brother is the historian Gérard Bouchard. Lucien Bouchard graduated from Jonquière Classical College in 1959, and obtained a degree in social science. He was called to the Bar of Quebec later that year, from then, he acted as a coordinator or member of many special teams on behalf of Quebecs government in the trade union negotiations for the public sector. Bouchard has been a Quebec nationalist during his political career. Contrary to popular belief, during the 1970 Quebec general election and he was deeply shaken by the events of Quebecs October Crisis, especially by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeaus imposition of the War Measures Act requested by then Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa. Bouchard worked with the Yes side during the 1980 Quebec referendum on sovereignty, in 1984 Brian Mulroney, Bouchards close friend from his law school days at Université Laval, became Canadian Prime Minister. Mulroney would go on to ask Bouchard to serve in official capacities. In 1988, Bouchard returned to Canada to serve as Mulroneys Quebec lieutenant and he was immediately named to Cabinet as Secretary of State and later Minister of the Environment. While still a strong Quebec nationalist, he believed that Mulroneys Meech Lake Accord was sufficient to placate nationalist feelings, however, after a commission headed by Jean Charest recommended some changes to the Accord, Bouchard opposed them, saying they diluted the original spirit and objectives of Meech. Soon afterward, Bouchard declared himself a sovereigntist and sent a message of support to the PQ, when Mulroney learned about this, he fired Bouchard from cabinet. The two have not spoken to each other then, though they have occasionally run into each other in Montreal. Mulroney later commented that his most regrettable and costly error as Prime Minister was having trusted Bouchard, Mulroney believed that Bouchard had planned to defect before the commission’s report, and only used it as an excuse. Bouchard resigned from the Progressive Conservatives soon afterward, and sat as an independent for a few months, after the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, Bouchard formed the sovereigntist Bloc Québécois with five former Tories and two former Liberals. The Parti Québécois campaigned for the Bloc in the 1993 federal election in order to prepare Quebec for sovereignty, in this election, the Bloc Québécois won 54 out of 75 ridings in Quebec, including a near-sweep of the francophone ridings. Despite only running candidates in Quebec, its concentration of support there was enough to give it the second-most seats in the House
32.
Brian Mulroney
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Martin Brian Mulroney PC, CC, GOQ is a Canadian politician who served as the 18th Prime Minister of Canada from September 17,1984, to June 25,1993. His tenure as minister was marked by the introduction of major economic reforms. Free Trade Agreement and the Goods and Services Tax, and the rejection of constitutional reforms such as the Meech Lake Accord, prior to his political career, he was a prominent lawyer and businessman in Montreal. Mulroney was born on March 20,1939, in Baie-Comeau, Quebec and he is the son of Irish Canadian Catholic parents, Mary Irene and Benedict Martin Mulroney, who was a paper mill electrician. Benedict Mulroney worked overtime and ran a business to earn extra money for his childrens education. Mulroney would frequently tell stories about newspaper publisher Robert R. McCormick, Mulroney would sing Irish songs for McCormick, and the publisher would slip him $50. He grew up speaking English and French fluently, on May 26,1973, he married Mila Pivnički, the daughter of a Serbian doctor, Dimitrije Mita Pivnički, from Sarajevo. The Mulroneys have four children, Caroline, Benedict, Mark, Ben is a CTV media personality and a host of eTalk. On September 16,2000, Caroline Mulroney married Andrew Lapham, Caroline Mulroney is currently associate director of the New York Universitys Center for Law and Business, having graduated from NYU with a law degree in 2001. Mulroney had not been involved in politics at any prior to entering St. Francis Xavier University in the fall of 1955 as a 16-year-old freshman. His political life began when he was recruited to the campus Progressive Conservative group by Lowell Murray and others, Murray would become a close friend, mentor, and adviser who was appointed to the Canadian Senate in 1979. Other important, lasting friendships made there by Mulroney included Gerald Doucet, Fred Doucet, Sam Wakim, Mulroney became a youth delegate and attended the 1956 leadership convention in Ottawa. While initially undecided, Mulroney was captivated by John Diefenbakers powerful oratory, Mulroney joined the Youth for Diefenbaker committee which was led by Ted Rogers, a future scion of Canadian business. Mulroney struck a friendship with Diefenbaker and received telephone calls from him. Mulroney won several public speaking contests at St. Francis Xavier University, was a member of the schools debating team. He was also active in campus politics, serving with distinction in several Model Parliaments. Mulroney also assisted with the 1958 national election campaign at the level in Nova Scotia. After graduating from St. Francis Xavier with a degree in science in 1959
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