1.
Perdix
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Perdix is a genus of Galliform gamebirds known collectively as the true partridges. The genus name is the Latin for partridge, and is derived from Ancient Greek perdix. These birds are unrelated to the species that have been named after the partridge due to similar size. There are representatives of Perdix in most of temperate Europe and Asia, one member of the genus, the grey partridge, has been introduced to the United States and Canada for the purpose of hunting. The nest is a scrape in or near cover. They feed on a variety of seeds and some insect food. These are medium-sized partridges with dull-coloured bills and legs, streaked brown upperparts, neither sex has spurs on the legs, and the only plumage distinction is that females tend to be duller in appearance. Grey and Daurian partridges are very closely related and similar in appearance, Tibetan partridge has a striking black and white face pattern, black breast barring and 16 tail feathers instead of the 18 of the other species. None of the species is threatened on a scale. The grey partridge has been affected by agricultural changes. The Tibetan partridge seems secure in its extensive and often inaccessible range on the Tibetan plateau, the bird shares its name with the nephew of Daedalus of Greek mythology, who was transformed into the bird when his uncle murdered him in jealousy. He was killed when thrown headlong down from the hill of Minerva, so, mindful of his fall. Perdix is the given to Autonomous Drones, designed/developed for military use. Developed by 20-30 somethings at MIT Lincoln Labs, grey partridge, Perdix perdix Daurian partridge, Perdix dauurica Tibetan partridge, Perdix hodgsoniae A prehistoric species only known from fossils was described as Perdix palaeoperdix. Occurring all over southern Europe during the Early–Late Pleistocene, it was a food of the Cro-Magnons. Madge, Steve, McGowan, Philip J. K. & Kirwan, Guy M. Pheasants, partidges and grouse, a guide to the pheasants, partridges, quails, grouse, guineafowl, buttonquails and sandgrouse of the world
2.
Crested partridge
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It is the only member of the genus Rollulus. This small partridge is a resident breeder in lowland rainforests in south Burma, south Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra and its nest is a ground scrape lined with leaves, which is concealed under a heap of leaf litter. Five or six eggs are incubated for 18 days. Unusually for a species, the young are fed bill-to-bill by both parents instead of pecking from the ground, and although precocial, they roost in the nest while small. Crested partridge is a rotund short-tailed bird,25 cm in length, with the male marginally larger than the female, both sexes have a scarlet patch of bare skin around the eye and red legs without a spur or hind toe. The male is green above with glossy dark blue underparts. The head is adorned with a red crest, a white forehead spot. The female has pea-green body plumage apart from the wing coverts. She has a head with the bristles but no spot or crest. Young birds are duller versions of the adult of the same sex, the song is a mournful whistled si-ul. The crested partridge is usually seen singly or in pairs as it uses its feet to probe the forest floor for fruit, seeds, when disturbed, it prefers to run but if necessary it flies a short distance on its rounded wings. There is some concern about the effect of habitat destruction on this bird, however, it seems to be somewhat more adaptable than other southeast Asian pheasants. The crested wood partridge is evaluated as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and it is listed on Appendix III of CITES. Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse by Madge and McGowan, ISBN 0-7136-3966-0 ARKive - images and movies of the Crested Wood Partridge BirdLife Species Factsheet Red Data Book
3.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
4.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
5.
Chordate
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Chordates are deuterostomes, as during the embryo development stage the anus forms before the mouth. They are also bilaterally symmetric coelomates, in the case of vertebrate chordates, the notochord is usually replaced by a vertebral column during development, and they may have body plans organized via segmentation. There are also additional extinct taxa, the Vertebrata are sometimes considered as a subgroup of the clade Craniata, consisting of chordates with a skull, the Craniata and Tunicata compose the clade Olfactores. Of the more than 65,000 living species of chordates, the worlds largest and fastest animals, the blue whale and peregrine falcon respectively, are chordates, as are humans. Fossil chordates are known from at least as early as the Cambrian explosion, Hemichordata, which includes the acorn worms, has been presented as a fourth chordate subphylum, but it now is usually treated as a separate phylum. The Hemichordata, along with the Echinodermata, form the Ambulacraria, the Chordata and Ambulacraria form the superphylum Deuterostomia, composed of the deuterostomes. Attempts to work out the relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses. All of the earliest chordate fossils have found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna. Because the fossil record of early chordates is poor, only molecular phylogenetics offers a prospect of dating their emergence. However, the use of molecular phylogenetics for dating evolutionary transitions is controversial and it has also proved difficult to produce a detailed classification within the living chordates. Attempts to produce family trees shows that many of the traditional classes are paraphyletic. While this has been known since the 19th century, an insistence on only monophyletic taxa has resulted in vertebrate classification being in a state of flux. Although the name Chordata is attributed to William Bateson, it was already in prevalent use by 1880, ernst Haeckel described a taxon comprising tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates in 1866. Though he used the German vernacular form, it is allowed under the ICZN code because of its subsequent latinization, among the vertebrate sub-group of chordates the notochord develops into the spine, and in wholly aquatic species this helps the animal to swim by flexing its tail. In fish and other vertebrates, this develops into the spinal cord, the pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth. In fish, the slits are modified to form gills, a muscular tail that extends backwards behind the anus. This is a groove in the wall of the pharynx. In filter-feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus and it also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland
6.
Bird
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Birds, a subgroup of Reptiles, are the last living examples of Dinosaurs. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at ten thousand. Birds are the closest living relatives of crocodilians, the fossil record indicates that birds evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs. True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species, the digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved for swimming. Many species annually migrate great distances, Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous or, rarely, Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents, most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser, Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry, the first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use, Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda, Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
7.
Galliformes
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The name derives from gallus, Latin for cock or rooster. Common names are gamefowl or gamebirds, landfowl, gallinaceous birds, wildfowl or just fowl are also often used for the Galliformes, but usually these terms also refer to waterfowl, and occasionally to other commonly hunted birds. This group has about 290 species, one or more of which are found in every part of the worlds continents. They are rarer on islands, and in contrast to the closely related waterfowl, are absent from oceanic islands—unless introduced there by humans. Several species have been domesticated during their long and extensive relationships with humans and this order contains five families, Phasianidae, Odontophoridae, Numididae, Cracidae, and Megapodiidae. They are important as seed dispersers and predators in the ecosystems they inhabit, many gallinaceous species are skilled runners and escape predators by running rather than flying. Males of most species are more colorful than the females, males often have elaborate courtship behaviors that include strutting, fluffing of tail or head feathers, and vocal sounds. The living Galliformes were once divided into seven or more families, despite their distinctive appearance, grouse and turkeys probably do not warrant separation as families due to their recent origin from partridge- or pheasant-like birds. The turkeys became larger after their ancestors colonized temperate and subtropical North America, the ancestors of grouse, though, adapted to harsh climates and could thereby colonize subarctic regions. Consequently, the Phasianidae are expanded in current taxonomy to include the former Tetraonidae and Meleagrididae as subfamilies, the Anseriformes and the Galliformes together make up the Galloanserae. They are basal among the living birds, and normally follow the Paleognathae in modern bird classification systems. This was first proposed in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and has been the one major change of that proposed scheme that was almost universally adopted. However, the Galliformes as they were traditionally delimited are called Gallomorphae in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and this is not a natural group, however, but rather an erroneous result of the now-obsolete phenetic methodology employed in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. Phenetic studies do not distinguish between plesiomorphic and apomorphic characters, which leads to basal lineages appearing as monophyletic groups, historically, the buttonquails, mesites and the hoatzin were placed in the Galliformes, too. The former are now known to be adapted to an inland lifestyle, whereas the mesites are probably closely related to pigeons. The relationships of the hoatzin are entirely obscure, and it is treated as a monotypic order Opisthocomiformes to signify this. The earliest galliform-like fossils hail from the Late Cretaceous, most notably those of Austinornis lentus and its partial left tarsometatarsus was found in the Austin Chalk near Fort McKinney, Texas, dating to about 85 million years ago. This bird was quite closely related to Galliformes, but whether it was a part of these or belongs elsewhere in the little-known galliform branch of Galloanserae is not clear
8.
Phasianidae
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The Phasianidae are a family of heavy, groundliving birds which includes pheasants, partridges, junglefowl, chickens, Old World quail, and peafowl. The family includes many of the most popular gamebirds, the family is a large one, and is occasionally broken up into two subfamilies, the Phasianinae, and the Perdicinae. Sometimes, additional families and birds are treated as part of this family, for example, the American Ornithologists Union includes Tetraonidae, Numididae, and Meleagrididae as subfamilies in Phasianidae. They range in weight from 43 g in the case of the quail to 6 kg in the case of the Indian peafowl. If turkeys are included, rather than classified as a separate family, then the considerably heavier wild turkey reaches a maximum weight of more than 17 kg. Length in this family can vary from 12.5 cm in the king quail up to 300 cm in green peafowl. There is generally sexual dimorphism in size, with males tending to be larger than females and they are generally plump, with broad relatively short wings and strong legs. Many have a spur on their legs, a feature shared only with guineafowl, the bill is short and generally strong, particularly in species that dig for food. Males of the species often have brightly coloured plumage as well as facial ornaments such as wattles or crests. Phasianidae is mostly an Old World family, with a distribution that includes most of Europe and Asia, all of Africa except the driest deserts and down into much of eastern Australia, meleagridinae are native to the New World, while Tetraoninae are circumpolar. The greatest diversity of species is in Southeast Asia and Africa, the Congo peacock is specific to the African Congo. The subfamily Perdicinae has a more widespread distribution. Within their range they occupy almost every habitat except for the boreal forests. The family is generally sedentary and resident, although some quails undertake long migrations, several species in the family have been widely introduced around the world, particularly pheasants which have been introduced to Europe, Australia and the Americas, specifically for hunting purposes. Captive populations of peacocks and chickens have also escaped and become feral, most species either specialise in feeding on plant matter or are predatory, although the chicks of most species are insectivorous. In addition to the variation in diet there is an amount of variation in breeding strategies among the Phasianidae. Compared to birds in general there is a number of species that do not engage in monogamy. Nesting usually occurs on the ground, only the tragopans nest higher up in stumps of bushes, nests can vary from mounds of vegetation to slight scrapes in the ground
9.
Thomas Horsfield
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Thomas Horsfield M. D. was an American physician and naturalist who worked extensively in Indonesia, describing numerous species of plants and animals from the region. He was later a curator of the East India Company Museum in London, Horsfield was born in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. He was the grandson of Timothy Horsfield, Sr. who was born in Liverpool, moving in 1725 to New York, he and his brother Isaac ran a butcher shop. The Horsfield family converted from the Church of England to Moravianism, in 1748 he applied for permission to reside in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. He however moved only his family to Bethlehem and joined them the next year, when Northampton County was created in 1752, he was made a justice of peace by Governor Hamilton. In 1763 he was commissioned a colonel in the defending the frontiers against Indian raids. One of the sons, Joseph Horsfield was a delegate in the Pennsylvania convention to ratify the Federal Constitution, grandfather Horsfield was a friend of Benjamin Franklin and finds mention in the latters autobiography. Horsfields father was Timothy Horsfield, Jr. and he married Juliana Sarah Parsons of Philadelphia in 1738, Thomas Horsfield was born in Bethlehem on May 12,1773. He went to school at the Moravian schools in Bethlehem and Nazareth and he took an interest in biology and took a pharmacy course under a Dr Otto. In 1798 he graduated in medicine from the University of Pennsylvania, in 1790 he accepted a post as surgeon on the vessel China, a merchant vessel that was to sail to Java. He passed through Batavia and took a great interest in plants of medicinal value, in 1801 he applied as a surgeon with the Dutch Colonial Army in Batavia. Taking up appointment here, he took an interest in the flora, fauna, the East India Company took control of the island from the Dutch in 1811, and Horsfield began to collect plants and animals on behalf of the governor and friend Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. In 1816 Java was restored to the Dutch and Horsfield moved east to Sumatra, in 1819 he was forced to leave the island due to ill health and returned to London on board the Lady Raffles. He stayed in position, later as a curator, until his death on July 24,1859. Horsfield took an interest in geology, botany, zoology as well as entomology and he was influenced by William Sharp Macleay and his quinarian system of classification. He was a fellow of the Royal Society of London and a fellow of the Linnean Society, Horsfield was appointed assistant secretary of the Zoological Society of London at its formation in 1826. In 1833, he was a founder of what became the Royal Entomological Society of London and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1828. In 1838 he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, Horsfield died at his home in Camden Town and was buried at the Moravian cemetery in Chelsea
10.
Perdicinae
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Perdicinae is a subfamily of birds in the pheasant family, Phasianidae, regrouping the partridges, Old World quails, and francolins. For example, some partridges are more affiliated to pheasants, whereas Old World quails. Perdicinae is a non-migratory Old World group and these are medium-sized birds, and are native to Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. The subfamily includes the partridges, the snowcocks, the francolins, the spurfowl and the Old World quail
11.
Alectoris
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The genus Alectoris is a well-defined group of partridge species of the order Galliformes, allied with coturnix and snowcocks and also related to partridge-francolins and junglebush quail. They are known collectively as rock partridges, the genus name is from Ancient Greek alektoris a farmyard chicken. Their fossils date back to the early Pleistocene, with extant representatives in southern Europe, North Africa and Arabia and these are non-migratory birds of dry, open and often hilly country. They nest in a lined ground scrape laying up to 20 eggs. They feed on a variety of seeds and vegetation. The face is white or whitish with a dark gorget and their specialized flank coverts give them the appearance of being more rotund than they actually are. Alectoris exhibit rufous-streaked flanks and red legs armed with well-developed, ball hammer like spurs, when disturbed they run very rapidly, often uphill. When pressed, rock partridges take to the wing and their wings are long and fairly sharp, shaped rather like those of the ptarmigan and spruce grouse, suggesting that the birds sustain themselves in flight over substantial distances to find food. This probably occurs most often during winter, members of the genus, notably the chukar and red-legged partridge, have been introduced to the United States, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Another one, A. baryosefi, has been described from Early Pleistocene fossils found at El-Ubeidiya, Israel
12.
Ammoperdix
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Ammoperdix is a small genus in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes. Both are resident breeders in dry, open country, often in hill areas, both partridges in this genus are 22–25 cm long, rotund birds. They are mainly brown, with wavy white and brown stripes on their flanks. The males have distinctively-patterned grey heads, but the females are very washed-out in comparison, when disturbed, Ammoperdix partridges prefer to run rather than take to the air, but if necessary they will fly a short distance on rounded wings. Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse by Madge and McGowan, ISBN 0-7136-3966-0
13.
Snow partridge
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The snow partridge is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae found widely distributed across the high-altitude Himalayan regions of India, Pakistan, Nepal and China. It is the species within its genus. The species is found in pastures and open hillside above the treeline. Males and females similar in plumage but males have a spur on their tarsus. This partridge appears grey above and chestnut below with bright red bill and legs, in flight the pattern of dark brown primaries and secondaries with a narrow trailing white margin make them somewhat like the much larger Tibetan snowcock. The 14-feathered tail is dark and barred in white, there is variation in the shade and some birds have a nearly black crown. The primaries and secondaries are brown and the breast is deep chestnut, the abdomen has more white and the lower flanks and feathers around the vent are barred brown and white. The under-tail coverts are chestnut with black streaks and white tips. Young birds have the lower parts mottled and the less distinct. The tarsus is feathered on the front of the leg half-way to the toes and it measures 38–40 cm in length. Females weigh 450–580 g, males, 550–700 g, sexes are similar in plumage, female lacks spurs on the tarsus while the male has a blunt spur and sometimes a second incipient spur. Downy chicks have a resemblance to the chicks of the blood pheasant, chicks are born with the tarsi feathered and the nostril opening is covered by feathers. This species was first described by Brian Houghton Hodgson in 1833, Hodgson initially placed it in the genus Perdix calling it Perdix lerwa. A subspecies, L. l. major was described by Richard Meinertzhagen from Szechuan while L. l. callipygia from south Kansu was noted by Stegmann in 1938, but these are not usually recognized. The species has been retained in this genus due to various peculiarities including the tarsus feathering. Snow partridge is found in the Himalayas from Pakistan to Arunachal Pradesh along the higher ranges and it is found above the tree line but not on as bare and stony terrain as the snowcocks. Although said to be found in Afghanistan, there is no evidence, the species is found over a large area is generally considered to be of low conservation concern. It is hunted to some extent, due to its habit of being more approachable than snowcock and has declined in population in some areas, the usual habitat is alpine pastures, open grassy hillsides with grass, lichens, moss, ferns and rhododendrons
14.
Tetraophasis
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Tetraophasis is a genus of Galliform in the family Phasianidae, which includes pheasants, Perdixs, grouse, turkeyss, tragopan, and koklass. Monal-partridge are close relatives of monals and more related to tragopan. They are boreal adapted species of high altitudes, like monals they dig in alpine biomes for tubers, rhizomes and invertebrates as well as rodent pups and voles. Monal-partridges are important prey species for raptors, owls and yellow-throated martens, like monals, monal-partridges are strictly monogamous. The female incubates the eggs until the last 48 hours when the male may take over night time nest brooding and this is a habit documented in blood pheasants, tragopans and monals. Both sexes rear the chicks, which are not fully mature until their second year, unlike monals the sexes do not separate during winter. They evidently compete with koklass as the two are rarely to be heard or seen in the same valleys
15.
Game (hunting)
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Game or quarry is any animal hunted for sport or for food. The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world, in some countries, game is classified, including legal classification with respect to licences required, as either small game or large game. Game or quarry is any animal hunted for sport or for food, the term game arises in medieval hunting terminology by the late 13th century and is particular to English, from the generic meaning of Old English gamen joy, amusement, sport, merriment. Small game includes animals, such as rabbits, pheasants. Large game includes animals like deer and bear, big game is a term sometimes used interchangeably with large game although in other contexts it refers to large, typically African, mammals which are hunted mainly for trophies in safaris. The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world and this is influenced by climate, animal diversity, local taste and locally accepted views about what can or cannot be legitimately hunted. Sometimes a distinction is made between varieties and species of a particular animal, such as wild turkey and domestic turkey. Fish caught for sport are referred to as game fish, the flesh of the animal, when butchered for consumption is often described as having a gamey flavour. This difference in taste can be attributed to the diet of the animal. In some countries, game is classified, including legal classification with respect to licences required, a single small game licence may cover all small game species and be subject to yearly bag limits. Large game are often subject to individual licensing where a licence is required for each individual animal taken. In some parts of Africa, wild animals hunted for their meat are called bushmeat, see article for more detailed information on how this operates within the economy. In Africa, animals hunted for their pelts or ivory are sometimes referred to as the big game, also see the legal definition of game in Swaziland. South Africa has 62 species of gamebirds, including guineafowl, francolin, partridge, quail, sandgrouse, duck, geese, snipe, bustard, of the remaining 41 species,24 have shown an increase in numbers and distribution range in the last 25 years or so. The status of 14 species appears unchanged, with insufficient information being available for the three species. S. and Canada, deer are the most commonly hunted big game. Other game species include, In the PRC there is a special category called ye wei. In the UK game is defined in law by the Game Act 1831 and it is illegal to shoot game on Sundays or at night. Other that are hunted for food in the UK are specified under the Wildlife, the ban is generally considered voluntary on private lands, and few birds live away from RSPB or Forestry Commission land allegedly
16.
Old World
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The Old World consists of Africa, Europe, and Asia, regarded collectively as the part of the world known to Europeans before contact with the Americas. It is used in the context of, and contrast with and these regions were connected via the Silk Road trade route, and they have a pronounced Iron Age period following the Bronze Age. The concept of the three continents in the Old World, viz. Asia, Africa, and Europe, goes back to classical antiquity and their boundaries as defined by Ptolemy and other geographers of antiquity were drawn along the Nile and Don rivers. This definition remained influential throughout the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, the Old world has areas of North Africa, Eurasia, parts of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. The mainland of Afro-Eurasia has been referred to as the World Island, the term may have been coined by Sir Halford John Mackinder in The Geographical Pivot of History. The equivalent of the Old World had names in some of its ancient cultures, including Midgard in Germanic cosmology, synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Afro-Eurasia
17.
Taxon
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In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is known by a particular name and given a particular ranking, especially if. It is not uncommon, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon, if a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping. Many modern systematists, such as advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature, use cladistic methods that require taxa to be monophyletic and their basic unit, therefore, is the clade rather than the taxon. Similarly, among those contemporary taxonomists working with the traditional Linnean nomenclature, an example of a well-established taxon that is not also a clade is the class Reptilia, the reptiles, birds are descendants of reptiles but are not included in the Reptilia. The term taxon was first used in 1926 by Adolf Meyer-Abich for animal groups, for plants, it was proposed by Herman Johannes Lam in 1948, and it was adopted at the VII International Botanical Congress, held in 1950. The Glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines a taxon, a taxon encompasses all included taxa of lower rank and individual organisms. A taxon can be assigned a rank, usually when it is given a formal name. Phylum applies formally to any domain, but traditionally it was always used for animals, whereas Division was traditionally often used for plants, fungi. A prefix is used to indicate a ranking of lesser importance, the prefix super- indicates a rank above, the prefix sub- indicates a rank below. In zoology the prefix infra- indicates a rank below sub-, for instance, among the additional ranks of class are superclass, subclass and infraclass. Rank is relative, and restricted to a particular systematic schema, for example, liverworts have been grouped, in various systems of classification, as a family, order, class, or division. Many cladists do not see any need to depart from traditional nomenclature as governed by the ICZN, ICN, etc
18.
Pheasant
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Pheasants are birds of several genera within the subfamily Phasianinae, of the family Phasianidae in the order Galliformes. The familys native range is restricted to Asia, Pheasants are characterised by strong sexual dimorphism, males being highly decorated with bright colors and adornments such as wattles. Males are usually larger than females and have longer tails, males play no part in rearing the young. Pheasants typically eat seeds and some insects, the best-known is the common pheasant, which is widespread throughout the world in introduced feral populations and in farm operations. Various other pheasant species are popular in aviaries, such as the golden pheasant and this list is ordered to show presumed relationships between species. Madge and McGowan, Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse ISBN 0-7136-3966-0 Videos of pheasants in the Internet Bird Collection
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Junglefowl
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Junglefowl are the four living species of bird from the genus Gallus in the Gallinaceous bird order, which occur in India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. These are large birds, with colourful male plumage, but are difficult to see in the dense vegetation they inhabit. As with many birds in the pheasant family, the male takes no part in the incubation of the egg or rearing of the precocial young and these duties are performed by the drab and well-camouflaged female. The junglefowl are seed-eaters, but insects are taken, particularly by the young birds. The Sri Lankan junglefowl is the bird of Sri Lanka. Gallus imereticus Gallus meschtscheriensis Gallus georgicus Gallus sp, steve Madge, Philip J. K. McGowan, Guy M. Kirwan. Pheasants, Partidges and Grouse, A Guide to the Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Grouse, Guineafowl, Buttonquails and Sandgrouse of the World
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Quail
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Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds generally placed in the order Galliformes. Old World quail are placed in the family Phasianidae, and New World quail are placed in the family Odontophoridae, the species of buttonquail are named for their superficial resemblance to quail, and form the family Turnicidae in the order Charadriiformes. The king quail, an Old World quail, often is sold in the pet trade, in 2007,40 million quail were produced in the U. S. The collective noun for a group of quail is a flock, covey or bevy
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Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
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Asia
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Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres, about 30% of Earths total land area and 8. 7% of the Earths total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its large size and population. In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, the western boundary with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains, China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 A. D. The accidental discovery of America by Columbus in search for India demonstrates this deep fascination, the Silk Road became the main East-West trading route in the Asian hitherland while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties, the boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia, the border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. In Sweden, five years after Peters death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Urals as the border of Asia, the Russians were enthusiastic about the concept, which allowed them to keep their European identity in geography. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg, the latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century, the border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, the border between Asia and the loosely defined region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the possessions of the various empires there. Lewis and Wigen assert, The narrowing of Southeast Asia to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process, Asia is larger and more culturally diverse than Europe. It does not exactly correspond to the borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them
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Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
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Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
25.
Grey partridge
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The grey partridge, also known as the English partridge, Hungarian partridge, or hun, is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds. The scientific name is the Latin for partridge, and is derived from Ancient Greek perdix. Widespread and common throughout much of its range, the partridge is evaluated as of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, it has suffered a decline in the UK. This partridge breeds on farmland across most of Europe into western Asia, a popular gamebird in vast areas of North America, it is commonly known as Hungarian partridge or just hun. The grey partridge is a bird, 28–32 cm long, brown-backed, with grey flanks. The belly is white, usually marked with a large chestnut-brown horse-shoe mark in males, hens lay up to twenty eggs in a ground nest. The nest is usually in the margin of a cereal field and these are present after around 16 weeks of age when the birds have moulted into adult plumage. Young grey partridges are mostly yellow-brown and lack the distinctive face, the song is a harsh kieerr-ik, and when disturbed, like most of the gamebirds, it flies a short distance on rounded wings, often calling rick rick rick as it rises. They are a species, but the young in particular take insects as an essential protein supply. During the first 10 days of life, the young can only digest insects, the parents lead their chicks to the edges of cereal fields, where they can forage for insects. They are also a terrestrial species, and form flocks outside the breeding season. Their numbers have fallen in these areas by as much as 85% in the last 25 years, efforts are being made in Great Britain by organizations such as the Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust to halt this decline by creating conservation headlands. In 1995, it was nominated a Biodiversity Action Plan species, gray Partridge Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Ageing and sexing by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Feathers of Grey partridge
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Red-legged partridge
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The red-legged partridge is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds. It is sometimes known as French partridge, to distinguish it from the English or grey partridge, the genus name is from Ancient Greek alektoris a farmyard chicken, and rufa is Latin for red or rufous. It is a bird, with a light brown back, grey breast. The face is white with a black gorget and it has rufous-streaked flanks and red legs. When disturbed, it prefers to run rather than fly, and this is a seed-eating species, but the young in particular take insects as an essential protein supply. The call is a three-syllable ka-chu-chu and this partridge breeds naturally in southwestern Europe. It is replaced in southeastern Europe by the very similar rock partridge and it is a non-migratory terrestrial species, which forms flocks outside the breeding season. This species breeds on dry lowlands, such as farmland and open stony areas, there are three recognized subspecies, A. r. hispanica - northern and western Iberian Peninsula A. r. intercedens - eastern and southern Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands A. r. The lores have a bar of black feathering above a patch of pinkish-red skin. This black colouration continues behind the eye, where it broadens, there is a patch of pale buff-brown feathering on the ear-coverts, adjoining the black. The eye is surrounded by a bright red eye-ring, the chin and upper throat are creamy-white, and are bordered behind and below by a solid black gorget. The black colour continues down onto the throat as a patch of broad triangular black streaks on a pale sandy-grey background. Similar, but narrower, black streaks are present on a pale blue-grey background on the upper neck-sides, the breast is pale blue-grey, and the belly pinkish-buff. The upper parts are plain, unmarked dark sandy-grey, the uppertail-coverts are similar in colour, and contrast with the pinkish-rufous tail-feathers. The bill is red, the iris is medium brown. Red-legged partridge are bred for shooting, and sold and eaten as game, the natural range of the red-legged partridge is France, Spain and Portugal. However, it was introduced from France to Great Britain in the 18th century, as it is a mediterranean species, it thrives in hot, dry areas with sandy soil. The ability to breed two clutches simultaneously has led to it being extensively reared in captivity, and released for shooting, the breeding of chukars and red-legged/chukar hybrids is prohibited, due to its impact on wild populations of red-legs
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Chestnut-bellied partridge
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It has a rufous belly with white on the middle. The young has whitish face and reddish brown bill, an Indonesian endemic, the chestnut-bellied partridge is distributed to hill and mountain forests of west and east Java. The female lays up to four eggs in a domed nest of long grasses, a common species in its limited range, the chestnut-bellied partridge is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
28.
Daedalus
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Alfred Darlington, better known by his stage name Daedelus, is a producer based in Los Angeles, California. He is a part of the groups The Long Lost and Adventure Time and he is affiliated with the internet radio station Dublab. He attended the University of Southern California Thornton School of Music studying Jazz on Double Bass, Daedelus released the album, Invention, on Plug Research in 2002. The Household EP was released on Eastern Developments in 2003 and he also released The Weather, a collaborative album with Busdriver and Radioinactive, on Mush Records that year. He released the solo album, Of Snowdonia, on Plug Research in 2004. It was followed by another album, A Gent Agent. His 2005 album, Exquisite Corpse, featured guest appearances from MF Doom, Mike Ladd, in the following year, he released Denies the Days Demise on Mush Records. His 2008 album, Love to Make Music To, and 2011 album and he released the Righteous Fists of Harmony EP in 2010. Followed by The Light Brigade LP in 2014 both on Brainfeeder and his studio album, Drown Out, was released on Anticon in 2013. 2016 released Labyrinths an LP with vocal features and guest instrumentation on his own imprint Magical Properties, axe Murderation Remixes Throw a Fit Fair Weather Friends Touchtone & FWF Remixes Friends of Friends Vol. M
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Perdix (mythology)
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Perdix was a nephew and student of Daedalus in Greek mythology. Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival and his sister, sometimes named as Perdix, had placed her son under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts. He was an apt scholar and showed striking evidence of ingenuity, while walking on the seashore, he picked up the spine of a fish, or a serpents jaw. Imitating it, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge and he made a pair of compasses by putting two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends. Daedalus was so envious of his nephews accomplishments that he took an opportunity, but Athena, who favors ingenuity, saw him falling and arrested his fate by changing him into a bird called after his name, the Perdix. This bird does not build its nest in the trees, nor take lofty flights, but nestles in the hedges, for this crime, Daedalus was tried and banished. Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London
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Athena
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Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is the goddess of wisdom, craft, and war in ancient Greek religion and mythology. Minerva is the Roman goddess identified with Athena, Athena is known for her calm temperament, as she moves slowly to anger. She is noted to have fought for just reasons. Athena is portrayed as a companion of heroes and is the patron goddess of heroic endeavour. She is the patroness of Athens. The Athenians founded the Parthenon on the Acropolis of her city, Athens. Veneration of Athena was so persistent that archaic myths about her were recast to adapt to cultural changes, in her role as a protector of the city, many people throughout the Greek world worshipped Athena as Athena Polias. While the city of Athens and the goddess Athena essentially bear the same name, Athena is associated with Athens, a plural name, because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood, the Athenai, in earliest times. Mycenae was the city where the Goddess was called Mykene, at Thebes she was called Thebe, and the city again a plural, Thebae. Similarly, at Athens she was called Athena, and the city Athenae, Athena had a special relationship with Athens, as is shown by the etymological connection of the names of the goddess and the city. According to mythical lore, she competed with Poseidon and she won by creating the olive tree, the Athenians would accept her gift and name the city after her. In history, the citizens of Athens built a statue of Athena as a temple to the goddess, which had piercing eyes, a helmet on her head, attired with an aegis or cuirass, and an extremely long spear. It also had a shield with the head of the Gorgon on it. A large snake accompanied her and she held Nike, the goddess of victory, therefore, Mylonas believes that Athena was a Mycenaean creation. On the other hand, Nilsson claims that she was the goddess of the palace who protected the king, a-ta-no-dju-wa-ja is also found in Linear A Minoan, the final part being regarded as the Linear A Minoan equivalent of the Linear B Mycenaean di-u-ja or di-wi-ja. Divine Athena also was a weaver and the deity of crafts, whether her name is attested in Eteocretan or not will have to wait for decipherment of Linear A. Perhaps, however, the name Theonoe may mean she who knows divine things better than others. Thus for Plato her name was to be derived from Greek Ἀθεονόα, Plato also noted that the citizens of Sais in Egypt worshipped a goddess whose Egyptian name was Neith, and which was identified with Athena. Neith was the war goddess and huntress deity of the Egyptians since the ancient Pre-Dynastic period, in addition, ancient Greek myths reported that Athena had visited many mythological places such as Libyas Triton River in North Africa and the Phlegraean plain
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Rage (emotion)
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Rage is a feeling of intense, violent, or growing anger. It is sometimes associated with the response, and is often activated in response to being in the presence of a threat. The phrase thrown into a fit of rage expresses the nature of rage that occurs from extended exposure to a threat. If left unchecked, rage may lead to violence against the threat, old French raige, rage, from Medieval Latin rabia, from Latin rabies, akin to Sanskrit rabhas. Rage can sometimes lead to a state of mind where the individual experiencing it believes they can do and those experiencing rage usually feel the effects of high adrenaline levels in the body. This increase in adrenal output raises the strength and endurance levels of the person and sharpens their senses. High levels of adrenaline actually impair memory, as brought to light in Golds article, temporal perspective is also affected, people in a rage have described experiencing events in slow-motion. Time dilation occurs due to the individual becoming hyper aware of the hind brain, rational thought and reasoning would inhibit an individual from acting rapidly upon impulse. Since humans gauge time based on the amount of things they can remember and it is safe to assume that there is truth in both theories. A person in rage may also experience tunnel vision, muffled hearing, increased heart rate and their vision may also become rose-tinted. They often focus only on the source of their anger, the large amounts of adrenaline and oxygen in the bloodstream may cause a persons extremities to shake. Psychiatrists consider rage to be at one end of the spectrum of anger, in 1995, rage was hypothesized to occur when oxytocin, vasopressin, and corticotropin-releasing hormone are rapidly released from the hypothalamus. This results in the pituitary gland producing and releasing large amounts of the adrenocorticotropic hormone and this chain reaction occurs when faced with a threatening situation. Nearly two decades later, more came to be known about the impacts of high epinephrine, as the focus in neuroscience began to shift towards the roles of white matter tissues, a more full bodied understanding of this complex emotion was able to be extrapolated. Memory, being the “retention of perceptions”, can be viewed as a giant mosaic and this mosaic would consist of fragmented perceptions being held together by astrocytes, creating resistance. A ratio of 3,2 could indicate a demand on neurons being held together. This also raises the possibility that a more developed memory improved an individual’s fitness, in addition, an increase in white matter tissues assisted in an individuals ability to adapt to new cultures and environments. The metaphor of a kaleidoscope is often utilized when expressing the extraordinary ability humans have at adapting to different cultures by engaging in different patterns of thought, such lines of reasoning are strengthened through the use of deductive reasoning
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The Twelve Days of Christmas (song)
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The Twelve Days of Christmas is an English Christmas carol that enumerates in the manner of a cumulative song a series of increasingly grand gifts given on each of the twelve days of Christmas. The song, published in England in 1780 without music as a chant or rhyme, is thought to be French in origin, the Twelve Days of Christmas has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 68. The tunes of collected versions vary, the Twelve Days of Christmas is a cumulative song, meaning that each verse is built on top of the previous verses. There are twelve verses, each describing a given by my true love on one of the twelve days of Christmas. There are many variations in the lyrics, the lyrics given here are from Frederic Austins 1909 publication that first established the current form of the carol. On was added in Austins 1909 version, and became very popular thereafter, in the early versions my true love sent me the gifts. However, a 20th-century variant has my true love gave to me, in one nineteenth century variant, the gifts come from my mother rather than my true love. Some variants have juniper tree or June apple tree rather than pear tree, the 1780 version has four colly birds—colly being a regional English expression for black. This wording must have been opaque to many even in the 19th century, canary birds, colourd birds, curley birds, the five gold rings may become five golden rings, especially in North America. In the standard melody, this change enables singers to fit one syllable per musical note, the gifts associated with the final four days are often reordered. For example, the pipers may be on the day rather than the eleventh. A similar cumulative verse from Scotland, The Yule Days, has likened to The Twelve Days of Christmas in the scholarly literature. It has thirteen days rather than twelve, and the number of gifts does not increase in the manner of The Twelve Days. Its final verse, as published in Chambers, Popular Rhymes, Fireside Stories, in the Faroe Islands, there is a comparable counting Christmas song. These were illustrated in 1994 by local cartoonist Óli Petersen on a series of two stamps issued by the Faroese Philatelic Office, les Douze Mois is another similar cumulative verse from France that has been likened to The Twelve Days of Christmas. The exact origins and the meaning of the song are unknown, the twelve days in the song are the twelve days starting with Christmas Day, or in some traditions, the day after Christmas, to the day before Epiphany, or the Feast of the Epiphany. One hundred years later, Lady Gomme, a collector of folktales and rhymes, described how it used to be played every Twelfth Day night before eating mince pies and twelfth cake. Halliwell, writing in 1842, stated that ach child in succession repeats the gifts of the day, salmon, writing from Newcastle, claimed in 1855 that the song been, up to within twenty years, extremely popular as a schoolboys Christmas chant
33.
Pear
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The pear is any of several tree and shrub species of genus Pyrus /ˈpaɪrəs/, in the family Rosaceae. It is also the name of the fruit of the trees. Several species of pear are valued for their fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamental trees. The word “pear” is probably from Germanic pera as a loanword of Vulgar Latin pira, the term pyriform is used to describe something pear-shaped. The pear is native to coastal and mildly temperate regions of the Old World, from western Europe and it is a medium-sized tree, reaching 10–17 metres tall, often with a tall, narrow crown, a few species are shrubby. The leaves are arranged, simple, 2–12 centimetres long, glossy green on some species, densely silvery-hairy in some others. Most pears are deciduous, but one or two species in southeast Asia are evergreen, most are cold-hardy, withstanding temperatures between −25 °C and −40 °C in winter, except for the evergreen species, which only tolerate temperatures down to about −15 °C. The flowers are white, rarely tinted yellow or pink, 2–4 centimetres diameter, the fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the fruit, five cartilaginous carpels. From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five petals, pears and apples cannot always be distinguished by the form of the fruit, some pears look very much like some apples, e. g. the nashi pear. One major difference is that the flesh of pear fruit contains stone cells, Pear cultivation in cool temperate climates extends to the remotest antiquity, and there is evidence of its use as a food since prehistoric times. Many traces of it have been found in pile dwellings around Lake Zurich. The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who ate the raw or cooked. Plinys Natural History recommended stewing them with honey and noted three dozen varieties, the Roman cookbook De re coquinaria has a recipe for a spiced, stewed-pear patina, or soufflé. A certain race of pears, with white down on the undersurface of their leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of perry. Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their early ripening and apple-like fruit, may be referred to as P. cordata, pears have been cultivated in China for approximately 3000 years. Court accounts of Henry III of England record pears shipped from La Rochelle-Normande, Asian species with medium to large edible fruit include P. pyrifolia, P. ussuriensis, P. × bretschneideri, P. × sinkiangensis, and P. pashia. Other small-fruited species are used as rootstocks for the cultivated forms
34.
Kurds
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The Kurds are culturally and linguistically closely related to the Iranian peoples and, as a result, are often themselves classified as an Iranian people. A recent Kurdish diaspora has also developed in Western countries, primarily in Germany, the Kurdish language refers collectively to the related dialects spoken by the Kurds. It is mainly spoken in parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria. Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, the Kurdish languages belong to the northwestern sub‑group of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. According to Mackenzie, there are few features that all Kurdish dialects have in common. And the fact that this reflects the sense of ethnic identity and unity of the Kurds. The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at close to 30 million, Kurds comprise anywhere from 18% to 20% of the population in Turkey, possibly as high as 25%,15 to 20% in Iraq, 10% in Iran, and 9% in Syria. Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, viz. in Turkish Kurdistan, the Kurds are the fourth largest ethnic group in West Asia after the Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 18% in Iraq, 24% in Iran, and 4% in Syria. Recent emigration accounts for a population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries and this groups population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990. The land of Karda is mentioned on a Sumerian clay-tablet dated to the 3rd millennium B. C. This land was inhabited by the people of Su who dwelt in the regions of Lake Van. Other Sumerian clay-tables referred the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as the Qarduchi and the Qurti. Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes, an ancient Iranian people, the claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem, We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow. The Kurdish languages form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages like Median, some researchers consider the independent Kardouchoi as the ancestors of the Kurds. The term Kurd, however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century, the Kurds have ethnically diverse origins. During the Sassanid era, in Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, after initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds. In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe, Ardavan V, the usage of the term Kurd during this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group
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Arabian partridge
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The Arabian partridge is a species of bird in the family Phasianidae, native to the southern Arabian peninsula. Two subspecies are recognised, A. m. melanocephala and A. m. guichardi and it sometimes hybridises with Philbys partridge and with the rock partridge. Larger than other members of its genus, Alectoris, the Arabian partridge reaches a length of about 41 cm, the sexes are similar in appearance but males are a little larger than females weighing on average 724 grams against the females 522 grams. The crown and nape are black and there is a white band above the eye, separated from the white chin. This starts at the corner of the beak, passes below the eye, the sides of the neck are pale brown and the body, wings and tail are bluish-grey with much dark barring on the flanks. The legs and beak are pink, males have a knob on the tarsus. The Arabian partridge is native to southern Saudi Arabia, Yemen, the subspecies A. m. guichardi occurs in eastern Hadramut and eastern Yemen and A. m. melanocephala occurs in the rest of the range. It is found on slopes and stony ground with a reasonable amount of vegetation cover. A ground-dwelling bird, it feeds on seeds, other plant material such as Mediterranean grass and cudweed, the breeding season starts in March and a clutch of five to eight eggs is laid in a shallow scoop on the ground. The eggs are pale buff flecked with brown and are incubated for about 25 days before hatching into precocial young that are able to leave the nest. The Arabian partridge has a range and is common in many parts of this. The total size of the population is unknown but the trend appears to be steady. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the conservation status as being of least concern
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Rock partridge
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The rock partridge is a gamebird in the pheasant family, Phasianidae, of the order Galliformes. This partridge has its main range in southwestern Asia and southeastern Europe, and is related and very similar to its eastern equivalent. This is a resident breeder in dry, open and often hilly country and it nests in a scantily lined ground scrape laying 5-21 eggs. The rock partridge takes a variety of seeds and some insect food. The rock partridge is a bird, with a light brown back, grey breast. The face is white with a black gorget and it has rufous-streaked flanks and red legs. When disturbed, it prefers to run rather than fly, and it is very similar to the chukar partridge, but is greyer on the back and has a white, not yellowish foreneck. The sharply defined gorget distinguishes this species from red-legged partridge, the song is a noisy ga-ga-ga-ga-chakera- chakera- chakera. This species is declining in parts of its due to habitat loss. While it generally manages to hold its own, the status of the Sicilian population may be more precarious and this species is closely related to the chukar, Przevalskis, and Philbys partridges, forming a superspecies. The Western Mediterranean red-legged and Barbary partridges with their spotted neck collar are slightly more distant relatives, in these areas, hybrids between this species, the chukar, and the red-legged partridge are usually found. A. g. saxatilis - central rock partridge Southern half of the Alps to W Bosnia, a. g. whitakeri Schiebel,1934 - Sicilian rock partridge Restricted to Sicily. The proposed subspecies from the Apennines, A. g. orlandoi Priolo,1984, is of doubtful validity and it is usually included in saxatilis, but apparently mostly derives from Albanian A. g. graeca. As they nonetheless constitute a discrete subpopulation evolving towards subspecies status, in addition, there was a paleosubspecies, A. g. martelensis, which is only known from fossils. In, del Hoyo, Josep, Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 2, New World Vultures to Guineafowl,485, ISBN 84-87334-15-6 Randi, Ettore, Evolutionary and conservation genetics of the rock partridge, Alectoris graeca
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