1.
Human rights movement
–
Human rights movement refers to a nongovernmental social movement engaged in activism related to the issues of human rights. The foundations of the human rights movement involve resistance to, colonialism, imperialism, slavery, racism, apartheid, patriarchy. A key principle of the human movement is its appeal to universality. Human rights activism predates the 20th century, and includes, for example, historical movements were usually concerned with a limited set of issues, and they were more local than global. One account identifies the 1899 Hague Convention as a point for the idea that humans have rights independent of the states that control them. The activities of the International Federation for Human Rights —founded in France by the labor movement in the 1920s—can be seen as a precursor to the modern movements. This organization was quickly embraced by the United States and European powers, another major global human rights movement grew out of resistance to colonialism. The Congo Reform Association, founded in 1904, has also described as a foundational modern human rights movement. This group used photographs to document terror wrought by Belgians in the course of demanding rubber production in the Congo, ten thousand pulpits and ten thousand presses are saying the good word for me all the time and placidly and convincingly denying the mutilations. Then that trivial little kodak, that a child can carry in its pocket, gets up, uttering never a word, the photos and subsequent literature triggered international outrage at Belgian crimes committed against the Congolese. As the century went on, African Americans including W. E. B, Du Bois, Walter White, and Paul Robeson joined with leaders of the African diaspora to make a global demand for basic rights. Although the origins of this movement were multifaceted, a moment of international solidarity came after Italys annexation of Ethiopia in 1935. In the aftermath of World War II, the Pan-Africanist contingent played a role in causing the United Nations to explicitly protect human rights in its founding documents. Du Bois compared colonies across the world to ghettos in the United States, representatives of small countries, as well as Du Bois and other activists, were unhappy with the version of human rights envisioned for the UN Charter at Dumbarton Oaks in 1944. Du Bois stated at the time that, evidently, the way to human equality is through the philanthropy of the masters. However, the US government supported powerful domestic organizations willing to promote its concept of rights, such as the American Bar Association. These organizations won public approval of the United Nations and the human rights concept, the concept of human rights was indeed built into United Nations with institutions such as the United Nations Commission on Human Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Active diplomacy by Latin American countries was instrumental to the process of promoting these ideas, as a result of this pressure, more human rights language was adopted at the 1945 San Francisco Conference to create the UN Charter
2.
Pakistan
–
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
3.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
–
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, located in the northwestern region of the country. It was formerly known as North-West Frontier Province and commonly called Sarhad and its provincial capital and largest city is Peshawar, followed by Mardan. It shares borders with the Federally Administered Tribal Areas to the west, Gilgit–Baltistan to the northeast, Azad Kashmir, Islamabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa does not share a border with Balochistan, which lies to its southwest. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa also shares a border with Afghanistan, connected through the Khyber Pass. It is also the site of the ancient kingdom Gandhara, the ruins of its capital, Pushkalavati, and the most prominent center of learning in the Peshawar Valley, Takht-i-Bahi. It has been under the suzerainty of the Persians, Greeks, Mauryans, Kushans, Shahis, Ghaznavids, Mughals, Afghanistan, Sikhs, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the third largest province of Pakistan by the size of both population and economy though it is geographically the smallest of four. It comprises 10. 5% of Pakistans economy, and is home to 11. 9% of Pakistans total population, with the majority of the inhabitants being Pashtuns, Hazarewal, Chitrali. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa means Khyber side of the land of Pakhtuns while only the word Pakhtunkhwa means Land of Pakhtuns and according to scholars it means Pakhtun culture. When the British established it as a province, they called it North West Frontier Province due to its location being in north west of their Indian Empire. After independence of Pakistan, Pakistan continued with this name but a Pakhtun nationalist party and their logic behind that demand was that Punjabi people, Sindhi people and Balochi people have their provinces named after their ethnicities but that is not the case for Pashtun people. Major political parties especially Pakistan Muslim League were against that name since it was too similar to Bacha Khans demand of separate nation Pashtunistan. The ancient Aryan Migration is believed to have taken place around 2000 BCE, darius Hystaspes sent Scylax, a Greek seaman from Karyanda, to explore the course of the Indus river. Darius Hystaspes subsequently subdued the races dwelling west of the Indus, Gandhara was incorporated into the Persian Empire as one of its far easternmost satrapy system of government. The satrapy of Gandhara is recorded to have sent troops for Xerxes invasion of Greece in 480 BCE, in the spring of 327 BCE Alexander the Great crossed the Indian Caucasus and advanced to Nicaea, where Omphis, king of Taxila and other chiefs joined him. Alexander then dispatched part of his force through the valley of the Kabul River, while he advanced into modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwas Bajaur. Alexander then made Embolima his base, after Alexanders death in 323 BCE Porus obtained possession of the region, but was murdered by Eudemus in 317 BCE. Eudemus then left the region, and with his departure Macedonian power collapsed, sandrocottus, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, then declared himself master of the province. His grandson, Ashoka, made Buddhism the dominant religion in ancient Gandhara, after Ashokas death the Mauryan empire collapse, just as in the west the Seleucid power was rising
4.
Federally Administered Tribal Areas
–
The territory is almost exclusively inhabited by the Pashtuns, who also live in the neighbouring provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Northern Balochistan, they are largely Muslims. The main towns of the territory are Parachinar, Miranshah, Razmak, Kaniguram, Wana, Kalaya, Landi Kotal, Ghalanai and Khaar. The annexed areas continued under the same governance after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, through the Dominion of Pakistan in 1947, in 2001, the Tehrik-e-Taliban militants began entering into the region. In 2003, Taliban forces sheltered in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas began crossing the border into Afghanistan, attacking military, shkin, Afghanistan is a key location for these frequent battles. This heavily fortified military base has housed mostly American special operations forces since 2002 and is located just six kilometers from the Pakistani border and it is considered the most dangerous location in Afghanistan. With the encouragement of the United States,80,000 Pakistani troops entered the Federally Administered Tribal Areas in March 2004 to search for al-Qaeda operatives and they were met with fierce resistance from Pakistani Taliban. It was not the elders, but the Pakistani Taliban who negotiated a truce with the army, troops entered the region, into South Waziristan and North Waziristan eight more times between 2004 and 2006 and faced further Pakistani Taliban resistance. On 4 June 2007, the National Security Council of Pakistan met to decide the fate of Waziristan and take up a number of political, the meeting was chaired by President Pervez Musharraf and it was attended by the Chief Ministers and Governors of all four provinces. They discussed the law and order situation and the threat posed to state security. The Federally Administered Tribal Areas are bordered by, Afghanistan to the north and west with the border marked by the Durand Line, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the east, and Balochistan to the south. The seven Tribal Areas lie in a strip that is adjacent to the west side of the six Frontier Regions. The areas within each of two regions are geographically arranged in a sequence from north to south. The geographical arrangement of the seven Tribal Areas in order from north to south is, Bajaur, Mohmand, Khyber, Orakzai, Kurram, North Waziristan, South Waziristan. The geographical arrangement of the six Frontier Regions in order from north to south is, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Lakki Marwat, Tank, Dera Ismail Khan. The total population of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas was estimated in 2000 to be about 3,341,080 people, only 3. 1% of the population resides in established townships. It is thus the most rural administrative unit in Pakistan, according to 2011 estimates FATA gained 62. 1% population over its 1998 figures totaling up to 4,452,913. This is the fourth highest increase in population after Balochistan, Sindh,99. 1% of population speaks the Pashto language. However, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas were not allowed to organize political parties and this was a departure from prior tribal politics, where power was focused in the hands of secular authorities, Maliks
5.
Balochistan, Pakistan
–
Balochistan, is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, located in the southwestern region of the country. Its provincial capital and largest city is Quetta and it shares borders with Punjab and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas to the northeast, Sindh to the southeast, the Arabian Sea to the south, Iran to the west, and Afghanistan to the north. The name Balochistan means the land of the Baloch in many regional languages, although largely underdeveloped, the provincial economy is dominated by natural resources, especially its natural gas fields, which supply the entire country. Gwadar Port also plays a significant role in the development of the province. Balochistan is noted for its culture and extremely dry desert climate. Baloch people practice Islam and are predominantly Sunni, similar to the rest of Pakistan, Balochistan marked the westernmost extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Centuries before the arrival of Islam in the 7th Century, parts of Balochistan was ruled by the Paratarajas, at certain times, the Kushans also held political sway in parts of Balochistan. With time, Baloch tribes linguistically absorbed all the people in Makran, southern Sistan. By 654, the whole of what is now Balochistan was controlled by the Rashidun Caliphate, however, this town was later conquered during the reign of Caliph Ali. Abdulrehman ibn Samrah made Zaranj his provincial capital and remained governor of these areas from 654 to 656. During the Caliphate of Ali, revolt broke out in southern Balochistans Makran region. Due to civil war in the Rashidun Caliphate, Ali was unable to deal with these areas until 660, Haris ibn Marah Abdi arrived in Makran and conquered it by force, and then moved northward to north-eastern Balochistan and reconquered Qandabil. Finally, he moved south and conquered Kalat after a fierce battle, Muslim forces later regained control of the area during the Umayyad reign. It also remained a part of the Abbasid Caliphate, ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the Afghan Empire, also won the allegiance of that areas rulers. Most of the area would revert to local Baloch control, after Afghan rule. During the period of the British Raj, there were four Princely States in Balochistan, Makran, Kharan, Las Bela and Kalat. After the Second Afghan War was ended by the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, on 1 April 1883, the British took control of the Bolan Pass, south-east of Quetta, from the Khan of Kalat. In 1887, small areas of Balochistan were declared British territory
6.
Islamabad
–
Islamabad is the capital city of Pakistan located within the federal Islamabad Capital Territory. The city is the seat of Pakistan and is administered by the Islamabad Metropolitan Corporation. Islamabad is located in the Pothohar Plateau in the part of the country. The region has historically been a part of the crossroads of Punjab, Islamabad was built during the 1960s to replace Karachi as Pakistans capital. The city is known for the presence of several parks and forests, including the Margalla Hills National Park, the city is home several landmarks, including the Faisal Mosque, the largest mosque in South Asia and the fourth largest in the world. Other landmarks include the Pakistans National Monument and Democracy Square, Islamabad is a gamma+ world city, it is categorised as very high on the Human Development Index, the highest in the country. The city has the highest cost of living in Pakistan, and its population is dominated by middle, the city is home to sixteen universities, including the Quaid-e-Azam University and NUST. The city is one of the safest in Pakistan, and has a surveillance system with 1,900 CCTV cameras. The name of the city, Islamabad is derived from two words, Islam and abad, meaning City of Islam, Islam is an Arabic word which refers to the religion of Islam and -abad is a Persian place name that means inhabited place or city. Islamabad Capital Territory, located on the Pothohar Plateau of the Punjab region, is considered one of the earliest sites of settlement in Asia. Some of the earliest Stone Age artefacts in the world have found on the plateau. Rudimentary stones recovered from the terraces of the Soan River testify to the endeavours of early man in the inter-glacial period, items of pottery and utensils dating back to prehistory have been found. Excavations have revealed evidence of a prehistoric culture, one end of the Indus Valley Civilization flourished here between the 23rd and 18th centuries BC. Later the area was a settlement of the Aryan community. A Buddhist town once existed in the region, many great armies such as those of Zahiruddin Babur, Genghis Khan, Timur and Ahmad Shah Durrani used the corridor through Islamabad on their way to invade the rest of the Indian Subcontinent. Modern Islamabad is based on the old settlement known as Saidpur, the British took control of the region from the Sikhs in 1849 and built South Asias largest cantonment in the region. When Pakistan gained independence in 1947, the port city of Karachi was its first national capital. In the 1960s, Islamabad was constructed as a capital for several reasons
7.
Lahore
–
Lahore is the capital city of the Pakistani province of Punjab. It is the second most populous city in Pakistan and the 32nd most populous city in the world, the city is located in the north-eastern end of Pakistans Punjab province, near the border with the Indian state of Punjab. Lahore is ranked as a world city, and is one of Pakistans wealthiest cities with an estimated GDP of $58.14 billion as of 2014. Lahore is the cultural centre of the Punjab region, and is the largest Punjabi city in the world. The city has a history, and was once under the rule of the Hindu Shahis, Ghaznavids, Ghurids. Lahore reached the height of its splendour under the Mughal Empire, the city was contested between the Maratha Empire and Durrani Empire, then became capital of the Sikh Empire, before becoming the capital of the Punjab under British rule. Following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, Lahore became the capital of Pakistans Punjab province, Lahore is one of Pakistans most liberal and cosmopolitan cities. It exerts a strong influence over Pakistan. Lahore is a centre for Pakistans publishing industry, and remains the foremost centre of Pakistans literary scene. The city is also a centre of education in Pakistan. Lahore is also home to Pakistans film industry, Lollywood, and is a centre of Qawwali music. The city is much of Pakistans tourist industry, with major attractions including the old Walled City. Lahore is also home to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Lahore Fort, the etymology of Lahore is uncertain, but according to legend the city was once known as Lavapura, in honour of Prince Lava of the Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana. Lahore Fort also contains a vacant Lava temple, dedicated to the founder of the city. Lahore was called by different names throughout history, to date there is no conclusive evidence as to when it was founded. Lahore is described as a Hindu principality in the Rajput accounts, keneksen, the founder of Suryavansha, is believed to have migrated out from the city. The Solanki tribe, belonging to Amukhara Pattan, which included the Bhatti Rajputs of Jaisalmer, Lahore appears as the capital of the Punjab for the first time under Anandapala – the Hindu Shahi king who is referred to as the ruler of –after leaving the earlier capital of Waihind. Few references to Lahore remain from before its capture by Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi in the 11th century, the sultan took Lahore after a long siege and battle in which the city was torched and depopulated
8.
Karachi
–
Karachi is the capital of Sindh, and is the largest and most populous city in Pakistan, as well as the 7th largest in the world and the worlds second most populous city proper. Ranked as a world city, the city is Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre. Karachi is also Pakistans most cosmopolitan city, though the Karachi region has been inhabited for millennia, the city was founded as a village named Kolachi that was established as a fortified settlement in 1729. By the time of the Partition of British India, the city was the largest in Sindh with a population of 400,000. Immediately following the independence of Pakistan, the population increased dramatically with the arrival of hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees from India. The city experienced economic growth following independence, attracting migrants from throughout Pakistan. Karachi is now Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre, the city has a formal economy estimated to be worth $113 billion as of 2014. Karachi collects over a third of Pakistans tax revenue, and generates approximately 20% of Pakistans GDP, approximately 30% of Pakistani industrial output is from Karachi, while Karachis ports handle approximately 95% of Pakistans foreign trade. Approximately 90% of the corporations operating in Pakistan are headquartered in Karachi. Up to 70% of Karachis workforce is employed in the informal economy, Karachi is one of Pakistans most secular and socially liberal cities. It is also the most linguistically, ethnically, and religiously diverse city in Pakistan, Karachi is considered to be one of the worlds fastest growing cities, and has communities representing almost every ethnic group in Pakistan. Karachi is also home to over 2 million Bangladeshi migrants,1 million Afghans, the citys murder rate in 2015 had decreased by 75% compared to 2013, and kidnappings decreased by 90%, with the improved security environment triggering sharp increases in real-estate prices. Karachi was reputedly founded in 1729 as the settlement of Kolachi, the new settlement is said to have been named in honour of Mai Kolachi, whose son is said to have slayed a man-eating crocodile in the village after his elder brothers had already been killed by it. The citys inhabitants are referred to by the demonym Karachiite in English, the earliest inhabitants of the Karachi region are believed to have been hunter-gatherers, with ancient flint tools discovered at several sites. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the ancient Greeks. The region may be the site of Krokola, where Alexander the Great once camped to prepare a fleet for Babylonia, in 711 C. E. Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the Arabs as Debal. Under Mirza Ghazi Beg the Mughal administrator of Sindh, development of coastal Sindh, under his rule, fortifications in the region acted as a bulwark against Portuguese incursions into Sindh
9.
Pashto
–
Pashto, known in Persian literature as Afghānistani and in Urdu and Hindi literature as Paṭhānī, is the South-Central Asian language of the Pashtuns. Its speakers are called Pashtuns or Pukhtuns and sometimes Afghans or Pathans and it is an Eastern Iranian language, belonging to the Indo-European family. Pashto is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, and it is the second-largest regional language of Pakistan, mainly spoken in the west and northwest of the country. Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas are almost 100% Pashto-speaking, while it is the majority language of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pashto is the main language among the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is estimated to be 45–60 million people worldwide, Pashto belongs to the Northeastern Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian branch, but Ethnologue lists it as Southeastern Iranian. Pashto has two main groups, “soft” and “hard”, the latter known as Pakhto. As a national language of Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, the exact numbers of speakers are unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60% of the total population of Afghanistan. In Pakistan Pashto is spoken as a first language by about 15. 42% of Pakistans 170 million people and it is the main language of the Pashtun-majority regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and northern Balochistan. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province and in Islamabad, modern Pashto-speaking communities are found in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh. Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in Tajikistan, and further in the Pashtun diaspora, there are also communities of Pashtun descent in the southwestern part of Jammu and Kashmir. Pashto is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari. Since the early 18th century, all the kings of Afghanistan were ethnic Pashtuns except for Habibullah Kalakani, Persian as the literary language of the royal court was more widely used in government institutions while Pashto was spoken by the Pashtun tribes as their native tongue. Although officially strengthening the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a “sophisticated language, king Zahir Shah thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933, that both Persian and Pashto were to be studied and utilized by officials. Thus Pashto became a language, a symbol for Afghan nationalism. The status of language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari. The lyrics of the anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto. In Pakistan, Urdu and English are the two official languages, Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the language of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas
10.
Urdu
–
Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
11.
Social movement
–
Social movements are a type of group action. They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on political or social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist, or undo a social change, modern Western social movements became possible through education and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies. However, others point out many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya. Either way, social movements have been and continued to be connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often utilize technology and the internet to people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U. S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement, the systematic literature review of Buettner & Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements, there is no single consensus definition of a social movement. For Tilly, social movements are a vehicle for ordinary peoples participation in public politics. Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as collective challenges by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and he specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups. The first mass social movement catalyzed around the political figure. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, as a result of this episode, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes - people began chanting, Wilkes and Liberty in the streets. After a later period of exile, brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the Kings Bench Prison on 10 May 1768 and this was the first ever sustained social movement, -it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. The force and influence of social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movements demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional, the Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon
12.
Pashtuns
–
The Pashtuns /ˈpʌʃˌtʊnz/ or /ˈpæʃˌtuːnz/, historically known by the exonyms Afghans, and Pathan, are an ethnic group native to Afghanistan and North-Western Pakistan. They are generally classified as Eastern Iranian ethno-linguistically, who use Pashto language and follow Pashtunwali, the origin of Pashtuns is unclear but historians have come across references to various ancient peoples called Pakthas between the 2nd and the 1st millennium BC, who may be their early ancestors. Their history is mostly spread amongst various countries of South and Central Asia, as the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, Pashtuns have been the dominant ethno-linguistic group for over 300 years. The Barakzai dynasty played a role during the Great Game from the 19th century to the 20th century as they were caught between the imperialist designs of the British and Russian empires. There have been many notable Pashtun people throughout history, Ahmad Shah Durrani is regarded as the founder of the modern state of Afghanistan. Under Amanullah Khan, Afghanistan was able to pursue an independent foreign policy, some others include Malala Yousafzai, Shah Rukh Khan, Hamid Karzai, and Imran Khan. They are an important community in Pakistan, which has the largest Pashtun population, Pashtuns attained presidency there and high rankings in sports. They are the worlds largest segmentary lineage ethnic group, according to Ethnologue, the total population of the group is estimated to be around 50 million but an accurate count remains elusive due to the lack of an official census in Afghanistan since 1979. Estimates of the number of Pashtun tribes and clans range from about 350 to over 400, additional Pashtun communities are located in western and northern Afghanistan, the Gilgit–Baltistan and Kashmir regions and northwestern Punjab province of Pakistan. There are also sizeable Muslim communities in India, which are of largely Pashtun ancestry, throughout the Indian subcontinent, they are often referred to as Pathans. Smaller Pashtun communities are found in the countries of the Middle East, such as in the Khorasan Province of Iran, the Arabian Peninsula, Europe, important metropolitan centres of Pashtun culture include Peshawar, Quetta, Kandahar, Jalalabad, Kunduz, and Lashkar Gah. The cities of Kabul and Ghazni in Afghanistan are home to around 25% Pashtun population while Herat, with as high as 7 million by some estimates, the city of Karachi in Sindh, Pakistan has the largest concentration of urban Pashtuns in the world. In addition, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, and Lahore also have sizeable Pashtun populations, about 15% of Pakistans nearly 200 million population is Pashtun. In Afghanistan, they are the largest ethnic group and make up between 42-60% of the 32.5 million population. The exact figure remains uncertain in Afghanistan, which is affected by the 1.5 million or more Afghan refugees that remain in Pakistan. Another one million or more Afghans live in Iran, a cumulative population assessment suggests a total of around 49 million individuals all across the world. A prominent institution of the Pashtun people is the system of tribes. Despite this, many people identify themselves with various clans
13.
Human rights
–
Human rights are moral principles or norms, which describe certain standards of human behaviour, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They are applicable everywhere and at time in the sense of being universal. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on circumstances, for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture. The doctrine of human rights has been influential within international law. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide, the idea of human rights suggests that if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights. The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature, ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the family is the foundation of freedom. All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties, conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, one theory is that human rights were developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, for example, McIntyre argues there is no word for right in any language before 1400. One of the oldest records of rights is the statute of Kalisz, giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship. The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating from natural law, in particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of extending rights to indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions, additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the term had been used by at least one author as early as 1742, in the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery
14.
Land mine
–
A land mine is an explosive device concealed under or on the ground and designed to destroy or disable enemy targets, ranging from combatants to vehicles and tanks, as they pass over or near it. Such a device is typically detonated automatically by way of pressure when a target steps on it or drives over it, a land mine may cause damage by direct blast effect, by fragments that are thrown by the blast, or by both. The name originates from the ancient practice of mining, where tunnels were dug under enemy fortifications or troop formations. These killing tunnels were at first collapsed to destroy targets located above, nowadays, in common parlance, land mine generally refers to devices specifically manufactured as anti-personnel or anti-vehicle weapons. The use of mines is controversial because of their potential as indiscriminate weapons. They can remain dangerous many years after a conflict has ended, harming the economy, to date,162 nations have signed the treaty. To act as passive area-denial weapons, land mines are currently used in large quantities mostly for this first purpose, thus their widespread use in the demilitarized zones of likely flashpoints such as Cyprus, Afghanistan and Korea. As of 2013, the governments that still laid land mines were Myanmar in its internal conflict. Land mines continue to kill or injure at least 4,300 people every year, even decades after the ends of the conflicts for which they were placed. This claim is dubious, as gunpowder warfare did not develop in China until the advent of the flamethrower in the 10th century, while the land mine was not seen in China until the late 13th century. Explosive land mines were being used in 1277 by the Chinese during the Song dynasty against an assault of the Mongols, the invention of this detonated enormous bomb was credited to one Lou Qianxia of the 13th century. The wad of the mine was made of wood, carrying three different fuses in case of defective connection to the touch hole. Pieces of bamboo are sawn into sections nine feet in length, all septa in the bamboo being removed, save only the last, boiling oil is next poured into and left there for some time before being removed. The fuse starts from the bottom, and is compressed into it to form an explosive mine, the gunpowder fills up eight-tenths of the tube, while lead or iron pellets take up the rest of the space, then the open end is sealed with wax. A trench five feet in depth is dug, the fuse is connected to a firing device which ignites them when disturbed. Further description of how this flint device operated was not made until a Chinese text of 1606 AD revealed that a drive had been used to work the steel wheel. Besides the use of steel wheels providing sparks for the fuses, there were other methods used as well, when the weapons were removed from the mound, this movement disturbed the bowl beneath them where the butt ends of the staffs were, which in turn ignited the fuses. According to the Wubei Huolongjing volume of the 17th century, the formula for this slow-burning incandescent material allowed it to burn continuously for 20 to 30 days without going out
15.
Waziristan
–
Waziristan covers some 15,000 square kilometres. The area is populated by ethnic Pashtuns. It is named after the Wazir tribe, the language spoken in the valley is Pashto, predominantly the Wazir dialect. Most of the forms the southern part of Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Waziristan comprises the area west and southwest of Peshawar between the Tochi River to the north and the Gomal River to the south. Bannu, Tank and FR DI Khan lie immediately to the east, Kurram Valley lies to the northeast, while Paktia, Khost and Paktika lie to the west, the region was an independent tribal territory until 1893, remaining outside the British Empire. Tribal raiding into British-ruled territory was a constant problem for the British, the region became part of Pakistan in 1947. For administrative purposes, Waziristan was divided into two agencies, North Waziristan and South Waziristan, with an estimated populations in 1998 of 361,246 and 429,841 respectively, the two parts have quite distinct characteristics, though both are inhabited by the Wazir tribe. They have a reputation as formidable warriors, the Wazir tribes are divided into clans governed by male village elders who meet in a tribal jirga. Socially and religiously, Waziristan is a conservative area. Women are carefully guarded, and every household must be headed by a male figure, Tribal cohesiveness is also kept strong by means of the so-called Collective Responsibility Acts in the Frontier Crimes Regulations. Taliban presence in the area has been an issue of concern in the War on Terrorism particularly since the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. North Waziristans District capital is Miranshah, also known as Miramshah, the South Waziristans Agency has its district headquarters at Wana. South Waziristan, comprising about 6,500 square kilometres, is the most volatile agency of Pakistan, in south Waziristan Agency, there are three tribes, Wazir, Maseed and Burki. The Waziristan Revolt of 1919–1920 was sparked by the Afghan invasion of British India in 1919, though the British made peace with the Afghans, the Waziri and Mahsud tribesmen gave the imperial forces a very difficult fight. One aspect of conflict was the effective use of air power against the Waziris. This is similar to Royal Air Force tactics in suppressing the Arab Revolt in Iraq in 1920 and 1921, in 1936, trouble again flared up in Waziristan in the form of a political and religious agitator known as the Fakir of Ipi. Trouble flared up again in 1938–39, although to a lesser extent
16.
War in North-West Pakistan
–
The armed conflict began in 2004, when tensions, rooted in the Pakistan Armys search for al-Qaeda fighters in Pakistans mountainous Waziristan area, escalated into armed resistance. Pakistans actions were presented as its contribution to the international War on Terror, clashes further erupted between unified Pakistan Armed Forces and the Central Asian militant groups, allied with the Arab fighters, in 2008–10. The foreign militants were joined by Pakistani non-military veterans of the Afghan War to the west, the TNSM established in 1992 allied with the TTP and LeI. The war depleted the countrys resources, and the outcomes outlined a deep effect on its national economy. A year later in 2015, Forbes cited Pakistans progress on the security front, various names have been applied to the conflict by the authors and historians. War in North-West Pakistan is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Waziristan War, and the War in Waziristan. On the other hand, political scientist, Farrukh Saleem, termed the war as the Fourth Generation War or the 4G War. In 2016, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif stated that the aim was to establish the writ of the Pakistani Government on every square kilometer of Pakistan. Violence is down by three-quarters the last two years due to Karachi operation and Zarb-e-Azb launched by the Army, prompting analysts to say Pakistan is winning the war on terror. In the aftermath of Battle of Tora Bora, formal troop deployment was begun by the Pakistan Army, at the behest of the Pakistan Government, the conservative parties, most notably the Pakistan Muslim League, were very critical of such troop deployments in the region. The XI Corps, under its commander Lieutenant-General Jan Aurkzai, entered the Tirah Valley in the Khyber Agency for the first time since Pakistans independence in 1947, the army troops later moved into the Shawal Valley of North Waziristan, eventually entering South Waziristan. A monitoring reconnaissance base was established by the Special Service Group in 2003, criticism of Musharraf and the United States grew in Peshawar by a massive communist party in 2003, demanding an end to the operations. In 2003, the troubles mounted as the Tribes began to see militarys deployment, in 2003–04 public speeches, Musharraf repeatedly called for the eviction of the foreign fighters from the South Waziristan and justified the army deployments in the region despite the concerns. In December 2003, at least two assassination attempts against President Pervez Musharraf were traced to South Waziristan, the government responded by intensifying military pressure on the area. However, the fighting was costly, government forces sustained heavy casualties throughout 2004 and into early 2005, on 16 March 2004, a bloody mountainous battle between the Pakistan Army troops and the foreign fighters of al-Qaeda was fought in the White Mountains of South Waziristan. The Pakistani media speculated that Pakistan Army had surrounded a high value target in the mountainous region, according to the military intelligence in 2004, all militants were Chechens, Uzbeks, and Tajiks who were trying to flee Black Caves. After a week of the battle, the area was captured. In spite of its success, the failed to capture Zawahiri
17.
South Waziristan
–
وزیرستان گلونہ South Waziristan is the southern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, that covers some 11,585 km². Waziristan comprises the area west and southwest of Peshawar between the Tochi River to the north and the Gomal River to the south, forming part of Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas, the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa lies immediately to the east. The region was an independent tribal territory from 1893, remaining outside of British-ruled empire, Tribal raiding into British-ruled territory was a constant problem for the British, requiring frequent punitive expeditions between 1860 and 1945. Troops of the British Raj coined a name for this region Hells Door Knocker in recognition of the reputation of the local fighters. The region became part of Pakistan in 1947, Waziristan is divided into two agencies, North Waziristan and South Waziristan, with estimated populations in 1998 of 361,246 and 429,841 respectively. The two parts have quite distinct characteristics, though both tribes are subgroups of the Waziri tribe, after whom the region is named, and they have a reputation as warriors and are known for their frequent blood feuds. Traditionally, feuding local Waziri religious leaders have enlisted outsiders in the Pakistani government, the tribes are divided into sub-tribes governed by male village elders who meet in a tribal jirga. Socially and religiously, Waziristan is a conservative area. Women are carefully guarded, and every household must be headed by a male figure, Tribal cohesiveness is strong through so-called Collective Responsibility Acts in the Frontier Crimes Regulation. In terms of area South Waziristan is the largest agency in FATA and it has two headquarters, Tank is the winter headquarters of the Agency while Wana is its summer headquarters. It has been functioning since 1895, the Agency is mostly a mass of rugged and complex hills and ridges. There are no regular mountain alignments, the land rises gradually from south and east to north and west. The dominating range is the Preghal in the west along the border with Afghanistan and it is the highest peak which is 3,515 metres high. Zarmelan, Wana, Shakki, Zalai, Spin and Tiarza are the plains of the Agency. Direction of water courses, in general, is from west to south i. e. from the watersheds of Sulaiman Mountains to the Indus, there are two principal rivers in the Agency, Gomal of Luni and Tank Zam. Some important rivulets are Khaisora, Shaktu, Siplatoi, Toi khuala, Shuza, Shinkai, the rest are mountain streams which can become dangerous and impassable during heavy rains which frequently occur during the months of July and August. The Gomal River rises in two branches in the slopes of the western Sulaiman range in the Birmal District of Afghanistan not far from the source of the Tochi River. The Tank Zam is formed by the junction of the Tauda China, there is hardly significant mining to be mentioned
18.
Bannu
–
Bannu, is the principal city of the Bannu District in southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Bannu was once a British military base used for action against Afghan border tribes, inhabitants of Bannu are known as Banuchi, and speak a specific dialect of Pashto. The town was founded in 1848 by Herbert Benjamin Edwardes, a Lieutenant in the 1st Bengal European Fusiliers Regiment of the East India Companys private army and he ordered the construction of the fort – named Dhulipgarh in honour of the Maharajah of Lahore – at the same time. At the time of its founding the town was named Dhulipnagar and its name was later changed to Edwardesabad in 1869. In 1903, it received its current name, Bannu, Bannu formed the base of operations for all punitive expeditions undertaken by troops of the British empire to the Tochi Valley and the Waziristan frontier. A military road led from the town of Bannu toward Dera Ismail Khan and this road was built by military engineers under the supervision of a Bannu engineer, Ram N. Mullick. Mullick, graduated from Banaras Engineering College had served in Iraq, the Imperial British Gazetteer described Bannu as,14,291, including cantonment and civil lines. It was founded in 1848 by Lieutenant Edwardes, who selected the site for political reasons, the fort, erected at the same time, bore the name of Dhulipgarh, in honour of the Maharaja of Lahore, and the bazar was also known as Dhulipnagar. A town gradually grew up around the bazar, and many Hindko speaking Hindu traders moved there from Bazar Ahmad Khan, the Church Missionary Society supports a small church and a high school founded in 1865. The cantonment centers in the fort of Dhulipgarh and its garrison consists of a mountain battery, a regiment of native cavalry, and two regiments of infantry. The municipality was constituted in 1867, the municipal receipts and expenditure during the ten years ending 1903–1904 averaged Rs.46,000. In 1903–1904 the income was Rs.47,000 chiefly derived from octroi, the receipts and expenditure of cantonment funds during the ten years ending 1902–3 averaged Rs.4,200 and Rs.3,700. The profuse irrigation and insufficient drainage of the surrounding fields render Bannu an unhealthy station, the town has a considerable trade, including fish guts and butts. Also, embracing the whole traffic in local produce of the Bannu valley, the nearest railway station is at Kohat on the Khushalgarh-Thal branch of the North-Western Railway,79 miles distant by road. A weekly fair collects a number of 8,000 buyers and sellers. The chief articles of trade are cloth, live-stock, wool, cotton, tobacco, Bannu possesses a dispensary and two high schools, a public library and a town hall known as the Nicholson Memorial
19.
Kohat
–
Kohat, is a city in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is the capital of the Kohat District, the town centers on a British-era fort, various bazaars and a military cantonment. A British-built narrow gauge line runs through the town. Kohat city is located at an altitude of 489 metres, Kohat Pass lies to the north. It is situated on the bank of the Toi river at a point where after running nearly due east for 50 miles. The total area of the district is 2,545 square kilometres Tanda Wildlife Park is located near Kohat city, the total area of the park is 2800 acres, consisting of Tanda reservoir and its catchments in Kohat. This is the largest wildlife park of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and its wonderfully rich and varied landscape supports a range of mammals and birds, both migratory and indigenous, as well as a few reptiles. The park is bounded by three different villages, Bar, Kaghazi, and Tanda Banda, the park is approachable by Hangu-kaghazi metallic road, shahpur-Bar road which is 18 km from Kohat. The local people do not have any right of grazing, lopping or firewood collection as the ownership lies with the provincial government, the park area falls in the natural habitat of urial and chinkara, and also provides suitable habitat to hog deer. The urial is associated with scrub forest of Olea species and Accassia species, urial were once abundant in the area but due to continuous habitat destruction these were disappeared from the area in the near past. The natural habitat of urial and chinkara lies in proximity of human habitation. About 20-30 visitors including students and general public visit the pheasantry for education and recreation purposes per day, there are four species of pheasants in the pheasantry including ring necked pheasant, silver pheasant, peacock pheasant and white pheasant. Construction of the station and railway line was started in 1897. Kohat is the railway station of Kohat-Jand railway line and has daily train service to Rawalpindi. It was also the station of a narrow gauge railway line which connected it with Thall. This railway line was closed in 1991, Kohat Airbase is an Pakistan Air Force base. A small runway built by the British is in military use, PIA once used the airport using de Havilland Twin Otter, a small two engine plane. The 1.9 kilometres Kohat Tunnel was completed in 2004, constructed with Japanese assistance, it is also known as the Pak-Japan Friendship Tunnel
20.
Peshawar
–
Peshawar is the capital of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It also serves as the centre and economic hub for the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Situated in a valley near the eastern end of the historic Khyber Pass, close to the border with Afghanistan. Making it the oldest city in Pakistan and one of the oldest in South Asia, Peshawar is the largest city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. According to the last census, it is also the ninth-largest city of Pakistan, the earliest settlement established in the area of Peshawar was called Puruṣapura, from which the current name Peshawar is derived. The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid 10th century, after the Ghaznavid invasion, the citys name was again noted to be Parashāwar by Al-Biruni. The city became to be known as as Peshāwar by the era of Emperor Akbar, a name which is traditionally said to have been given by Akbar himself. The new name is said to have been based upon the Persian for frontier town, or more literally, forward city, though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may also account for the citys new name. Akbars bibliographer, Abul-Fazl ibn Mubarak, lists the name by both its former name Parashāwar, transcribed in Persian as پَرَشاوَر, and Peshāwar. Peshawar was founded as the ancient city of Puruṣapura, on the Gandhara Plains in the broad Valley of Peshawar, the city likely first existed as a small village in the 5th century BCE, within the cultural sphere of eastern ancient Persia. Puruṣapura was founded near the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati, in the winter of 327-26 BCE, Alexander the Great subdued the Valley of Peshawar during his invasion of ancient India, as well as the nearby Swat and Buner valleys. Following Alexanders conquest, the Valley of Peshawar came under suzerainty of Seleucus I Nicator, a locally-made vase fragment that was found in Peshawar depicts a scene from Sophocles play Antigone. Following the Seleucid–Mauryan war, the region was ceded to the Mauryan Empire in 303 BCE, as Mauryan power declined, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom based in modern Afghanistan declared its independence from the Seleucid Empire, and quickly seized Puruṣapura around 190 BCE. The city was ruled by several Iranic Parthian kingdoms. Puruṣapura was then captured by Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, Gondophares established the nearby Takht-i-Bahi monastery in 46 CE. In the first century of the Common era, came under control of Kujula Kadphises, the city was made the empires winter capital. The Kushans summer capital at Kapisi was seen as the capital of the empire. Ancient Peshawars population was estimated to be 120,000, which would make it the seventh-most populous city in the world at the time, around 128 CE, Puruṣapura was made sole capital of the Kushan Empire under the rule of Kanishka
21.
Mardan
–
Mardan is a city and the headquarters of Mardan District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. The name Mardan was given to an area after the name of Pir Mardan Shah. Gradually, a surrounding area came to be known as Mardan. The area constituting Mardan district is a part of the Peshawar valley, until 1937, Mardan district was a part of Peshawar district. In 1937, Mardan was set up as an independent district after the name of its headquarters town, Mardan is the 19th largest city of Pakistan. It is the de facto headquarters of the Yousafzai tribe, although a significant number of Momands have settled there over the past years. It is the second most populous city in the province, located in the south west of the district at 34°120N 72°160E, the villages are divided into Kandis. Each kandi is further divided into sub-sections, the divisions of Kandis are on the pattern of agricultural lands. Their houses generally consist of two or three rooms and a court-yard known locally as ghollai and varandah, the cattle and poultry are also accommodated beside the shelter for family. Each Kandi of the village has its own mosque and its own Maulvi, in most cases it is the property of elders of the Kandi, who are expected to feed and give shelter to visitors/travelers. Nowadays, the people in service abroad have accumulated sufficient wealth which brought a change in the life of the villagers who construct pacca houses of cement, bricks. A Tandoor is also found for baking bread in many houses and sometimes women of three or four houses use one tandoor for baking bread turn by turn, the houses have huge compound walls along with gates. Chairs and tables are used in the houses of well-to-do people whereas others use the ordinary cot, the city of Mardan is featured in the novel The Far Pavilions by M. M. Kaye. Baghdada Sawal Dher Bakhshali mardan. com website
22.
North Waziristan
–
North Waziristan, abbreviated as NWA, is the northern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering 11,585 square kilometres. Waziristan comprises the area west and south-west of Peshawar between the Kurram River to the north and the Gomal River to the south, forming part of Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Miranshah is capital of North Waziristan. Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa lies immediately to the east, the region became an independent tribal territory in 1893, remaining outside of the British empire and Afghanistan. Tribal raiding into British territory was a constant problem for the British, the region became part of Pakistan upon its independence in 1947. Waziristan is divided into two agencies, North Waziristan and South Waziristan, with estimated populations of 361,246 and 429,841 respectively. The two parts have quite distinct characteristics, though both tribes are subgroups of the Waziri tribe, after which the region is named, and they have a famed reputation as formidable warriors and are known for their frequent blood feuds. The tribes are divided into sub-tribes governed by village elders who meet in a tribal jirga. Socially and religiously, Waziristan is a conservative area. Women are carefully guarded, and every household must be headed by a male figure, Tribal cohesiveness is strong because of Collective Responsibility Acts in the Frontier Crimes Regulation. In 1910, North Waziristan Agency was constituted as an agency with its headquarters at Miranshah. It is inhabited by the Pashtun Wazir and Dawari tribes, the agency lies from 32.35 degrees to 33.22 degrees north latitude and 69.22 degrees to 70.38 degrees east longitude. The total area of the agency is 4,707 square kilometres, geographically, the whole of Waziristan is a single unit. However, for administrative convenience it has split into two agencies – North and South Waziristan. The area has been described as a land of high and difficult hills with deep, the mountains of North Waziristan are geographically separate from the larger mountain systems of Koh-e-Sufaid in the north and Sulaiman in the south. The Waziristan hills were subject to igneous activity during the late Cretaceous period, the highly mineralised zone of Razmak is connected with it. The mountains and hills form a rampart between Pakistan and Afghanistan, the average height of the Waziristan hills is 1, 500–2,500 metres above sea level. The important ranges in the Waziristan hills are Derwesta, Laran, Vezda, Ingame, Shoidar, Shawal, Eblunkai, Alexandra, Muzdak and Zakha. The Tochi River flowing through the agency has formed the Tochi Pass, through which armies, people and cultures have moved in, the Tochi Pass connects Ghazni, Afghanistan with Bannu, Pakistan
23.
Quetta
–
Quetta is the provincial capital of Balochistan, Pakistan and the ninth-largest city of the country. The city is known as the garden of Pakistan, due to the numerous fruit orchards in and around it. The city was known as Little London in the past because of its beauty. The immediate area has long been one of pastures and mountains, with varied plants, Quetta is at an average elevation of 1,680 meters above sea level, making it Pakistans only high-altitude major city. The population of the city is estimated to be approximately 1,140,000, located in north western Balochistan near the Pakistan-Afghanistan border, Quetta is a trade and communication centre between the two countries. The city lies on the Bolan Pass route which was once the gateway from Central Asia to South Asia. Quetta played an important role militarily for the Pakistani Armed Forces in the intermittent Afghanistan conflict, Quetta is also spelled Kuwatah, which is a variation of Kot, a Pashto word meaning fortress. It is believed that it relates to the four imposing hills that surround the city, in 1876 Quetta was incorporated into British controlled territories of the subcontinent. British Troops constructed the infrastructure for their establishment as it was a strategic location, by the time of the earthquake on 31 May 1935 Quetta had developed into a bustling city with a number of multistory buildings and was known as Little Paris because of that. The epicenter of the earthquake was close to the city and destroyed most of the city’s infrastructure, during the independence movement of the Indian subcontinent, the predominantly Muslim population of the region supported the Muslim League and the Pakistan Movement. Quetta has an area of 2,653 km2 and consists of series of river valleys which act as a natural fort surrounded on all sides by hills. The closest city is Kandahar in Afghanistan, north-west at the end of the N25 road, three main roads gradually fan out to the south, the central route, the N25 leads via the city of Khuzdar to the coastal metropolis of Karachi. Quetta has a high semi-arid climate with a significant variation between summer and winter temperatures, summer starts about late May and goes on until early September with average temperatures ranging from 24–26 °C. The highest temperature in Quetta is 42 °C which was recorded on 10 July 1998, autumn starts in late September and continues until mid-November with average temperatures in the 12–18 °C range. Winter starts in late November and ends in late March, with temperatures near 4–5 °C. The lowest temperature in Quetta is −18.3 °C which was recorded on 8 January 1970, spring starts in early April and ends in late May, with average temperatures close to 15 °C. Unlike more easterly parts of Pakistan, Quetta does not have a season of heavy rainfall. In the winter, snowfall has become quite erratic, the city saw a severe drought from 1999 to 2001, during which the city did not receive snowfall and below normal rains
24.
Kabal Tehsil
–
Kabal is a town in Swat District, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan located 10 kilometres from Mingora city. District Swat has 7 Tehsils, Tehsil Kabal, Tehsil Babuzai, Tehsil Matta, Tehsil Khwaza Khela, Tehsil Barikot, Tehsil Charbagh, each Tehsil comprises certain numbers of Union council. There are 65 Union council in district Swat,56 rural and 09 urban, according to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Local Government Act 2013. There is an 18-hole golf ground, surrounded by calm, lush greenery, there is one degree college, high schools for boys and girls. The rural side areas of Kabal like Deolai, Taal Dardial, nearby settlements include the villages of Kotlai and Akhun Kalai
25.
Swat District
–
Swat, is a river valley and an administrative district in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. It is the valley of the Swat River, which rises in the Hindu Kush range. The capital of Swat is Saidu Sharif, but the town in the Swat valley is Mingora. The valley is populated mostly by ethnic Pashtuns and Gujjar and Kohistani communities, the languages spoken in the valley are Pashto, Gojri, Torwali and Kohistani. With high mountains, green meadows, and clear lakes, it is a place of natural beauty and is popular with tourists. Queen Elizabeth II during her visit to the The Yusafzai State of Swat called it the Switzerland of the east, Swat is surrounded by Chitral, Upper Dir and Lower Dir in the West, Gilgit-Baltistan in North Kohistan, Buner and Shangla in the East and south East. The southern tehsil of Buner was granted the status of a district in 1991. The name Swat is derived from Suvastu which stood for river Swat in the ancient times, the river Suvastu is mentioned in the Rigveda. This is probably the precursor to the river Swat, Swat has been inhabited for over two thousand years. The first inhabitants were settled in well-planned towns, in 327 BC, Alexander the Great fought his way to Odigram and Barikot and stormed their battlements. In Greek accounts these towns have been identified as Ora and Bazira, around the 2nd century BC, the area was occupied by Buddhists, who were attracted by the peace and serenity of the land. There are many remains that testify to their skills as sculptors, later some Dilazak entered the area along with Sultans from Kunar and their tribe was styled as Swatis. The originator of the present family of Swat was the Muslim saint Abdul Ghafoor, a Pashtun and Akhund of Swat and he was a pious man and the people respected him so greatly that they called him Akhund Sahib. During the mid-19th century, Muslim tribes were fighting against each other for the possession of Swat Valley. On the intervention of the honourable Akhund Sahib, the killing was stopped, Akhund Sahib administrated the valley according to Muslim laws. Peace and tranquility prevailed, and agriculture and trade flourished in the territory, Akhund Sahib had two sons by his wife, who belonged to Naik pi Khel. After the death of Akhund Sahib, the tribal chiefs again started fighting and killing, eventually the tribal chiefs agreed to give the control of the valley into the hands of the honourable Gul Shahzada Abdul Wadood, the son of Mian Gul Abdul Khaliq, son of Akhund Sahib. The wife of Mian Abdul Wadood was the daughter of Afzal-ul-Mulk, the British by trick put Chitral under the suzerainty of Kashmir
26.
Missing person
–
A missing person is a person who has disappeared and whose status as alive or dead cannot be confirmed as his or her location and fate are not known. The situation, uncertainties, and lack of closure or a funeral resulting when a person goes missing may be extremely painful with long-lasting effects on family and friends. A person may go missing due to accident, crime, death in a location where they cannot be found, or many other reasons, in some countries, missing persons photographs are posted on bulletin boards, milk cartons, postcards, and websites, to publicize their description. A child may go missing for several different reasons, when trying to understand how to find and protect missing children, it is important to analyse the causes and effects of a childs disappearance. While criminal abductions are often the most commonly publicised cases of missing children, many categories of missing children end up in the hands of traffickers forced into sexual or commercial exploitation and abuse. Some individuals choose to disappear alone, reasons for non-identification may include, To escape domestic abuse by a parent/guardian/sibling/spouse. Leaving home to live somewhere else under a new identity, Abduction by a non-custodial parent or other relative. Seizure by government officials without due process of law, suicide in a remote location or under an assumed name. Death by natural causes or accident far from home without identification, disappearance to take advantage of better employment or living conditions elsewhere. Sold into slavery, serfdom, sexual servitude, or other unfree labour, to avoid discovery of a crime or apprehension by law-enforcement authorities. Joining a cult or other organization that requires no contact to the outside world. To avoid war or persecution during a genocide, to escape famine or natural disaster. Death by floods, flash floods, debris flows, hurricanes, death in the water, with no body recovered. Runaways, Minors who run away from home, from the institution where they have been placed, Abduction by a third person, Abduction of minors by anyone other than the parents or the persons with parental authority. In most common law jurisdictions a person can be declared dead in absentia after seven years. This time frame may be reduced in cases, such as deaths in major battles or mass disasters such as the September 11,2001 attacks. The Wall Street Journal reported in 2012 that, It is estimated that some 8 million children go missing around the world each year. The BBC News reported that of the children who go missing worldwide, while usually the child is found quickly the ordeal can sometimes last months, royal Canadian Mounted Police missing child statistics for a ten-year period show a total of 60,582 missing children in 2007
27.
Pakistan Army
–
Pakistan Army is the land-based service branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. It came into existence after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies it had an active force of approximately 620,000 active personnel as of 2017. In Pakistan, there is 16–23 years of age for military service. Pakistan Army has started inducting women as commissioned officers, Pakistani Air Force and Pakistani Navy have inducted their first female pilots and sailors in 2012 see details at Women in the Pakistan Armed Forces. Since its establishment in 1947, the Army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring India, since 1947, it has also maintained a strong presence along with its inter-services in the Arab states during the past Arab-Israeli Wars, and aided the coalition in the first Gulf War. Recently, major joint-operations undertaken by the Army include Operation Zarb-e-Azb, Operation Toar-e-Tander, the Army has also been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions, including playing a major role in rescuing trapped US soldiers in Operation Gothic Serpent in 1993. Under Article 243 of the Constitution of Pakistan, the President is appointed the civilian Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Army Staff, by statute a four-star general, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Minister. The Pakistan Army is currently commanded by General Qamar Javed Bajwa, the Pakistan Army was created on the 30th of June of the year 1947 from the division of the British Indian Army. Fearing that India would take over the state of Kashmir, irregulars, scouts, in response to this, the Maharaja acceded to India. The Indian Armed Forces were then deployed to Kashmir and this led to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. A ceasefire followed on UN intervention with Pakistan occupying the northwestern part of Kashmir and this aid greatly expanded the Pakistan Army from its modest beginnings. The Pakistan Army took over from politicians for the first time when General Ayub Khan came to power through a coup in 1958. He formed Convention Muslim League which included Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who would later become Pakistans first democratically elected Prime Minister, tensions with India flared in the 1960s and a brief border skirmish was fought near the Rann of Kutch area during April 1965. The War began after the failure of Operation Gibraltar on 5 August 1965, on the night of 6 September 1965, the Indian Army opened the war front to the Province of Punjab of Pakistan, the Indian Army almost reached the Pakistani city of Lahore. The Indian Army conquered around 360 square kilometres square kilometres of Pakistani territory on the outskirts of Lahore. Indian forces halted their assault on Lahore once they had reached the village of Burki, the rationale for this was that a ceasefire was to be signed soon, and had India captured Lahore it would likely have been returned in ceasefire negotiations. The War eventually ended with a United Nations backed ceasefire and was followed by the Tashkent Declaration, losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft,200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistans army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses, at the time of ceasefire declaration, India reported casualties of about 3,000 killed
28.
Darra Adam Khel
–
Darra Adam Khel is a town in Frontier Region Kohat within the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan. It has gained fame and notoriety for its packed with gunsmiths. The town consists of one main street lined with shops, with some alleys and it is mostly inhabited by Pashtuns of the Afridi clan, the Adamkhel. Located in between Kohat and Peshawar, a variety of firearms are produced in the town, from anti-aircraft guns to pen-guns. Weapons are handmade by craftsmen using traditional manufacturing techniques, usually handed down father-to-son. Guns are regularly tested by test-firing into the air, Darra is controlled by the local tribesmen. Darra Adam Khel is a village of two storey wood and adobe buildings in the sand stone hills near the Kohat Frontier region. It is the gun factory of the Tribal Areas, located around 40 kilometres south of Peshawar on the road to Kohat, the drive takes around forty minutes. Darra is inside Pakistan but has special laws as compared to rest of Pakistan. Most of the people seem to make or sell just one thing, i. e. guns. In the arcades off the road are workshops. Hundreds of closet-sized rooms where men and boys make working copies of the entire worlds guns with nothing more than hand tools, the copies are so painstakingly reproduced that even the serial number of the original is carried over. A Darra gunsmith, given a rifle he hasnt seen before, once the first copy is made, each additional copy takes two or three days due to the templates created. Handguns, being more complex, take a little longer, in Darra, almost three-fourths of the people are in the gun trade. Pen pistols and walking stick guns are popular here, around 400-700 guns are made in Darra each day and the number is rising with the adoption of more tools. These guns are more than enough for the Pashtuns themselves, many guns find their way to and from Afghanistan. In the 1980s, heroin was shut down in the markets after consultation with the tribal elders due to foreign pressure, manufacturing of heavy ammunition, however, has been closed down. Travel by foreigners to Darra is forbidden due to security reasons, travelers can drive by bus or car through Darra without a permit but it is not advisable because tribal police visits the market to check for any locale rules and law violation
29.
Sit-in
–
A sit-in or sit-down is a form of direct action that involves one or more people occupying an area for a protest, often to promote political, social, or economic change. The Fellowship of Reconciliation and the Congress of Racial Equality conducted sit-ins as early as the 1940s, ernest Calloway refers to Bernice Fisher as Godmother of the restaurant sit-in technique. In August 1939, African-American attorney Samuel Wilbert Tucker organized a sit-in at the then-segregated Alexandria, Virginia, Congress of Industrial Organizations labor delegates had a brief, spontaneous lunch counter sit-in during their 1947 Columbus, Ohio, convention. Other patrons were unable to find seats, each seating area in the diner was taken by groups that included at least one black person. The peaceful patrons, several from the campus of the nearby University of Chicago, then tried to order, the police were called, but when they arrived they told the management that no laws were being broken, so no arrests were made. The diner closed for the night but thereafter, according to periodic checks made by CORE activists, with the encouragement of Melvin B. Tolson and Farmer, students from Wiley and Bishop Colleges organized the first sit-in in Texas in the rotunda of the Harrison County Courthouse in Marshall. One of the earliest lunch counter sit-ins of the Civil Rights Movement was started by a group of Morgan State College students and their goal was to desegregate Reads drug stores. The peaceful impromptu sit-in lasted less than one half an hour and they left voluntarily and no one was arrested. As a result,37 Baltimore-area lunch counters became desegregated. At another early sit-in, the Royal Seven, a group of three women and four men from Durham, North Carolina, sat in at the Royal Ice Cream Parlor on June 23,1957, the activists were arrested and charged with trespassing. Their efforts are now recognized via historical markers in Durham and they went to court three times, each case ended in their being found guilty. This sit-in for the purpose of integrating segregated establishments began on July 19,1958, in Wichita, Kansas, at Dockum Drugs, in early August, the drugstore became integrated. A few weeks later on August 19,1958, in Oklahoma City, the group quickly desegregated the Katz Drug Store lunch counters. It took several years, but she and the students, using the tactic. Today, in downtown Wichita, Kansas, a statue depicting a waitress at a counter serving people honors this pioneering sit-in, following the Oklahoma City sit-ins, the tactic of non-violent student sit-ins spread. Within weeks, sit-in campaigns had begun in nearly a dozen cities, primarily targeting Woolworths and S. H. Kress, the largest and best-organized of these campaigns were the Nashville sit-ins, whose groundwork was already underway. They involved hundreds of participants, and led to the desegregation of Nashville lunch counters
30.
Jirga
–
A jirga is a traditional assembly of leaders that make decisions by consensus and according to the teachings of Pashtunwali. It predates modern-day written or fixed-laws and is conducted to settle disputes among the Pashtun people and its primary purpose has been to prevent tribal war. Most jirgas are conducted in Afghanistan but also among the Pashtun tribes in neighboring Pakistan, especially in Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The community council meaning is found in circumstances involving a dispute between two individuals, a jirga may be part of the dispute resolution mechanism in such cases. The disputants would usually begin by finding a mediator, choosing someone such as a religious leader. The mediator hears from the two sides and then forms a jirga of community elders, taking care to include supporters of both sides. The jirga then considers the case and, after discussing the matter, comes to a decision about how to handle it, the jirga holds the prestige of a court in the tribal areas of Pakistan. Although a political agent appointed by the government maintains law and order through the Frontier Crimes Regulation. The political agent maintains law and order in his tribal region with the help of jirgas, the jirga can award capital punishment, such as stoning to death in case of adultery, or expulsion from the community. The Sindh High Court imposed a ban on the holding of jirgas in April 2004 because of the sometimes inhumane sentences awarded to people, the ban, however, has been ignored. The tradition of jirga has also adopted by Muslims in the Kashmir valley of Indian-administered Kashmir. An all-female jirga Khwaindo jirga was held in Pakistan, and had 25 members and it was headed by Tabbassum Adnan which helped 11 women get justice as of 2013
