1.
Thomas Viaduct
–
The Thomas Viaduct spans the Patapsco River and Patapsco Valley between Relay and Elkridge, Maryland, USA. It was commissioned by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, built between July 4,1833, and July 4,1835, and named for Philip E. Thomas, the companys first president. At its completion, the Thomas Viaduct was the largest bridge in the United States and it remains the worlds oldest multiple arched stone railroad bridge. In 1964, it was designated as a National Historic Landmark, the viaduct is now owned and operated by CSX Transportation and still in use today, making it one of the oldest railroad bridges still in service. This Roman-arch stone bridge is divided into eight spans and it was designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, II, then B&Os assistant engineer and later its chief engineer. The main design problem to overcome was that of constructing such a bridge on a curve. The design called for several variations in span and pier widths between the sides of the structure. This problem was solved by having the lateral pier faces laid out on radial lines, the viaduct was built by John McCartney of Ohio, who received the contract after completing the Patterson Viaduct. Caspar Wever, the chief of construction, supervised the work. The span of the viaduct is 612 feet long, the arches are roughly 58 feet in span. The width at the top of the spandrel wall copings is 26 feet 4 inches, the bridge is constructed using a rough-dressed Maryland granite ashlar from Patapsco River quarries, known as Woodstock granite. A wooden-floored walkway built for pedestrian and railway use is four feet wide and supported by cast iron brackets. The viaduct contains 24,476 cubic yards of masonry and cost $142,236.51, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was one of the oldest railroads in the United States. Construction began on July 4,1828, with the route following the Patapsco River to Ellicotts Mills In 1835 the Washington Branch was constructed. This new line branched at Relay, the site of a former post road hotel, the 1830s Relay House served as a hotel until it was replaced by the $50,078.41 Viaduct Hotel in 1872. The Gothic combination railroad station and hotel operated until 1938 and was torn down in 1950, on one side the monument reads, The Thomas Viaduct, Commenced July 4,1833 Finished, July 4,1835. He also celebrated the work by having his men kneel on the deck of the viaduct while mock baptizing them with a pint of whiskey. Until after the American Civil War, the B&O was the railroad into Washington
Thomas Viaduct
–
Thomas Viaduct
Thomas Viaduct
–
The Thomas Viaduct Obelisk located in
Relay, Maryland
Thomas Viaduct
–
Thomas Viaduct, c. 1858
Thomas Viaduct
–
The
Royal Blue on the Thomas Viaduct,
Relay, Maryland, in 1937
2.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
3.
Maryland
–
The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
Maryland
–
Western Maryland: known for its heavily forested mountains. A panoramic view of
Deep Creek Lake and the surrounding
Appalachian Mountains in
Garrett County.
Maryland
–
Flag
Maryland
–
Dramatic example of Maryland's
fall line, a change in rock type and elevation that creates waterfalls in many areas along the Southwest to Northeast geological boundary that crosses the state.
Great Falls, cliffs and rapids.
Maryland
–
Typical freshwater river above the tidal zone. The
Patapsco River includes the famous
Thomas Viaduct and is part of the
Patapsco Valley State Park. Later, the river forms the
Inner Harbor as it empties into the
Chesapeake Bay.
4.
Anne Arundel County, Maryland
–
Anne Arundel County /ˌænəˈrʌndəl/ is a county located in the U. S. state of Maryland. As of the 2010 census, its population was 537,656 and its county seat is Annapolis, which is also the capital of the state. The County was named for Lady Ann Arundell, the daughter of Thomas Arundell, 1st Baron Arundell of Wardour, members of the ancient family of Arundells in Cornwall, England. She married Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, and the first Lord Proprietor of the colony, Province of Maryland, in an arranged marriage contract in 1627 or 1628. Anne Arundel County was originally part of St. Marys County in the portion of the Province of Maryland which had first been settled by the arriving settlers in 1634. In 1650, the year after Lady Ann Arundells death, the County separated from St. Marys and erected into its own jurisdiction, between 1654 and 1658, the County was known as Providence by many of its early settlers. The Commonwealth forces under William Fuller were victorious, prior to the move, Annapolis was known as Providence. During the American Revolutionary War, citizens of Anne Arundel County supported the Continental Army by providing troops for three regiments, the 3rd Maryland Regiment, the 4th Maryland Regiment, and the 6th Maryland Regiment were recruited in the county. During the War of 1812, the one of the six heavy frigates of the recently reestablished United States Navy. Constitution sailed from Annapolis prior to its victorious engagement with the H. M. S, guerriere of the British Royal Navy. This was the first regular passenger service in the United States. In 1831, land west of the railroad was considered the Howard District of Anne Arundel County, in 1851, The Howard District was broken off to form Howard County, now the 21st county in Maryland. The County has a number of properties on the National Register of Historic Places, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 588 square miles, of which 415 square miles is land and 173 square miles is water. Anne Arundel County is located to the south of the city of Baltimore, most of the Countys borders are defined by water. The largest of these include, the Magothy River, Severn River, South River. Further south, the upper Patuxent River forms the border of Anne Arundel with Prince Georges County to the west, deep Run forms part of the northwestern border with Howard County, and Lyons Creek forms part of the southern border with Calvert County. Anne Arundel County originally included all of the land between the Patuxent River and the Patapsco River upstream to their headwaters on Parrs Ridge. The northwestern section of this long tract later became Howard County, as a result, Anne Arundel County lies almost entirely within the Atlantic Coastal Plain while Howard County is almost entirely within the Piedmont province
Anne Arundel County, Maryland
–
The Anne Arundel County Courthouse in July 2009
Anne Arundel County, Maryland
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Crofton Parkway in
Crofton in early March
Anne Arundel County, Maryland
–
Anne Arundel County Courthouse, June 2005
Anne Arundel County, Maryland
–
The Annapolis Police Department covers eastern Anne Arundel County
5.
Baltimore County, Maryland
–
Baltimore County is a county in the U. S. state of Maryland. Since 1854, the county seat has been in Towson, Baltimore County is part of the Baltimore metropolitan area and Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area. The county is part of the Northeast Megalopolis stretching from Boston to Washington. As of 2009, the countys workforce totalled 410,100, with 25% employed in the fields of education, health, and human services, 10% in retailing, and less than 1% in agriculture. The county is home to the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Towson University, Goucher College, in 1674, a proclamation of the Proprietor, established the then extensive boundary lines for old Baltimore County. In 1674, a portion of northeastern Baltimore County, as well as a portion of northwestern Kent County, was split off to create Cecil County. In 1748, a portion of western Baltimore County, as well as a portion of Prince Georges County to the south, were split off to create Frederick County, in 1773, Harford County to the east was split off from Baltimore County. In 1837, another part of western Baltimore County was combined with a part of eastern Frederick County to create Carroll County, the Baltimore County court sessions had been held in private residences before 1674, with a small amount of documentary evidence. Since 1712, the seat had been located in old Joppa, later by 1724, the Assembly authorized Thomas Tolley, Capt. John Taylor, Daniel Scott, Lancelot Todd and John Stokes to purchase 20 acres from a tract named Taylors Choice after John Taylor who also held other parcels in the area. The Ordinance directed that the land be divided into 40 lots with streets and alleys to accompany the courthouse and jail which had already been previously erected. By 1750 there were some 50 houses, a church, courthouse,3 stone warehouses, inns, taverns, stores and these events have been commemorated ever since by Defenders Day on September 12th. A second city-county courthouse constructed in 1805–1809 was moved to the side of the Square at North Calvert. The first county seat of Baltimore County was known today as Old Baltimore and it was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County. In 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house, the site of the court house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House. The court house on the Bush River referenced in the 1683 Act was in all likelihood the one created by the 1674 Act, Old Baltimore was in existence as early as 1674, but we dont know what if anything happened on the site prior to that year. The exact location of Old Baltimore was lost for years and it was certain that the location was somewhere on the site of the present-day Aberdeen Proving Grounds, a U. S. Army weapons testing facility
Baltimore County, Maryland
–
The Baltimore County Courthouse
6.
Carroll County, Maryland
–
Carroll County is a county located in the U. S. state of Maryland. As of the 2010 census, the population was 167,134, Carroll County is included in the Baltimore-Columbia-Towson, MD Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Washington-Baltimore-Arlington, DC-MD-VA-WV-PA Combined Statistical Area. While predominantly rural, the county has become increasingly suburban in recent years, Carroll County was created in 1837 from parts of Baltimore and Frederick Counties, see Hundred. It was named for Charles Carroll of Carrollton, signer of the American Declaration of Independence, during the American Civil War, the population of Carroll County was sharply divided between supporters of the Union and the Confederacy. In 1863, there were significant troop movements through the county as part of the Gettysburg campaign. E. B, in 2013 the Carroll County Board of Commissioners voted to make English the official language of the county. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 453 square miles. Topographically, Carroll County is located within the Piedmont Plateau region, with characteristic upland terrain of rolling hills, the most prominent relief is Parrs Ridge, which bisects the county from southwest to northeast. The highest point is in the part of the county on Dug Hill along Deep Run Road. Carroll County is bordered on the north by the Mason–Dixon line with Pennsylvania, Carroll County is bordered on the west by Frederick County, across the Monocacy River and Sams Creek. Other major streams in the county include Big Pipe Creek, Little Pipe Creek, and Double Pipe Creek, Bear Branch, the Piney Run Reservoir is in the southern part of the county. Three railroad lines cross Carroll County, the old Baltimore and Ohio Old Main Line crosses the southern part of the county from east to west, with former stations in Sykesville and Mount Airy. The original Western Maryland Railway main line runs southeast to northwest through Carrollton, Westminster, New Windsor. The old Baltimore and Hanover Railroad runs further to the east through Hampstead, Millers, two of these railroad lines are now operated by CSX Transportation, the former WM main line is now operated by Maryland Midland Railway. York County, Pennsylvania Baltimore County Howard County Frederick County Adams County, the population density was 336 people per square mile. There were 54,260 housing units at a density of 121 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 95. 69% White,2. 28% Black or African American,0. 22% Native American,0. 75% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 31% from other races, and 0. 73% from two or more races. 0. 99% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,30. 5% were of German,14. 0% Irish,11. 1% United States or American,10. 7% English and 7. 3% Italian ancestry. 17. 50% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.18
Carroll County, Maryland
–
Farm in Carroll County, Maryland
Carroll County, Maryland
Carroll County, Maryland
–
Principal Cities
7.
Howard County, Maryland
–
Howard County is a county located in the central part of the U. S. state of Maryland. As of the 2010 census, the population was 287,085 and its county seat is Ellicott City. Howard County is included in the Baltimore-Columbia-Towson, MD Metropolitan Statistical Area, however, recent development in the south of the county has led to some realignment towards the Washington, D. C. media and employment markets. The county is home to Columbia, a planned community of approximately 100,000 founded by developer James Rouse in 1967. Howard County is frequently cited for its affluence, quality of life, with an estimated median household income of $108,844 in 2012, Howard County had the third-highest median household income of any U. S. county in 2013. The main population center of Columbia/Ellicott City was named second among Money magazines 2010 survey of Americas Best Places to Live, Howard Countys schools frequently rank first in Maryland as measured by standardized test scores and graduation rates. In 2010, the center of population of Maryland was located in the Howard County town of Jessup and he was the fifth governor of Maryland from 1788 to 1791. The lands of prehistoric Howard County were populated by Native Americans, the Maryland Historical Trust has documented sites along the Patapsco, Patuxent, Middle and Little Patuxent River valleys. In 1652, the Susquehannock tribes signed a treaty with Maryland. In 1800, the center of U. S. population as calculated by the US Census Bureau was found in what is now Howard County. In 1838, Dr. William Watkins of Richland Manor proposed the Howard District of Anne Arundel County, after several adjournments, the area of western Anne Arundel County was designated the Howard District in 1839. The district had the status as a county except that it was not separately represented in the Maryland General Assembly. In 1841, the county built its first courthouse in Ellicott City, at the January 1851 constitutional convention, Thomas Beale Dorsey submitted a petition led by James Sykes. A committee was formed with Dorsey, Bowie, Smith, Harbine, after several postponements, the district was erected officially as Howard County on March 7,1851. The plantations of modern Howard County used slave labor as early as 1690, at the time of the Underground Railroad, some Howard County residents assisted slaves who were escaping to freedom. This was particularly risky, as many prominent plantation families were Confederate sympathizers during the Civil War, Maryland was exempt from the Emancipation Proclamation, later abolishing slavery in the update of the Maryland Constitution in November 1864. On May 1,1883 Howard County joined Anne Arundel and Hardford County in liquor prohibition, by 1899, Howard County contained 400 miles of dirt and 48 miles of stone roads, including three paid turnpikes maintained by 118 men. Most traffic consisted of loads delivered to rail crossings, in 1909, County Commissioners Hess, Werner and ONeil were charged with malfeasance regarding contract bids
Howard County, Maryland
–
The Howard County Courthouse in May 2008
Howard County, Maryland
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George Howard Building in 2014
Howard County, Maryland
–
Howard County Health Department relocated to this office purchased from Ascend One in 2011
Howard County, Maryland
–
Principal Cities
8.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
9.
Maryland Department of Natural Resources
–
The Departments principal functions are, Managing over 461,000 acres of public lands Protecting over 17,000 miles of waterways Lead agency for restoration of the Chesapeake Bay and coastal bays. DNR does not issue or enforce environmental permits under the federal Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and those functions are the responsibility of the Maryland Department of the Environment. DNR was established in 1969 as part of a reorganization of the Maryland executive branch initiated by Governor Marvin Mandel, DNR assumed the responsibilities formerly held by the Maryland Board of Natural Resources, and consolidated the agencys authority under a single department secretary. The first DNR secretary was former Maryland Governor J. Millard Tawes, other notable DNR secretaries have included James Coulter and Torrey C. Brown. The department is headquartered in the Tawes State Office building at 580 Taylor Avenue in Annapolis, Natural Resources Secretary Mark J. Belton was appointed in 2015. The Deputy Secretary is Joanne Throwe, Land Resources includes the Park Service, Forest Service, Wildlife and Heritage Service, Land Acquisition and Planning, Engineering and Construction, and the Maryland Environmental Trust. The mission of the Maryland Park Service is to manage the natural, cultural, historical, the Service manages 66 state parks. Services include camping, biking, boating and fishing, hiking, outdoor programs, the Service consists of both civilian and law enforcement rangers. DNR closely regulates wildlife, tracking diseases and populations, during the previous hunting season there was a lone reported case of a hunter legally taking a deer only to find out later that the deer tagged was infected with Chronic Wasting Disease, CWD. CWD is a disease that effect deer elk and moose, where the infected have symptoms such as loss of body condition, behavioral abnormalities. People are warned to avoid contact with the brain, spinal cord, to help control this problem each year the MD-DNR takes samples from the deer harvested to test for any signs of CWD. The main focus is in the western Maryland counties due to the reports of CWD in West Virginia and Virginia, the DNR is also responsible for regulating the 3 million acres of wooded land in Maryland. There are over 160 species of trees that create these millions of acres of forest. This abundant acreage makes the forest industry one of the biggest businesses in the state, in the two westernmost counties, Garrett and Allegany, forestry is the largest employer. Over the years there have been contributing factors that have diminished some of the wooded areas around the state. Since the early 1980s, almost half a million acres have been infested with gypsy moths that destroyed forests, there are also the Southern Pine bark beetles that have caused excessive damage to the pine trees on the Eastern Shore. Another reason for damage to the forestry is the fires that occur every year. The spring and the fall are the times for fires because of the climate changes
Maryland Department of Natural Resources
–
Executive
10.
Patapsco River
–
The Patapsco River is a 39-mile-long river in central Maryland which flows into the Chesapeake Bay. The rivers tidal portion forms the harbor for the city of Baltimore, with its South Branch, the Patapsco forms the northern border of Howard County, Maryland. The name Patapsco is derived from the Algonquian pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth, the Patapsco proper begins at the confluence of the North and South Branches, near Marriottsville, approximately 15 miles west of downtown Baltimore. The 19. 4-mile-long South Branch rises further west at Parrs Spring, where Howard County, Carroll, Frederick, the North Branch flows 20.9 miles southward from its origins in Carroll County. Through most of its length, the Patapsco is a minor river, the last 10 miles, however, form a large tidal estuary inlet of Chesapeake Bay. The inner part of this provides the harbor of Baltimore, composed of the Northwest Harbor. The Patapsco estuary is south of the Back River and north of the Magothy River, the Patapsco has a watershed area of 680 square miles, or 632 square miles of land. Thus, its watershed area is 7% water. Patapsco Valley State Park is adjacent to 32 miles of the Patapsco and its branches, the river cuts a gorge 100–200 feet deep within the park, which features rocky cliffs and tributary waterfalls. Liberty Dam and its reservoir, located on the North Branch, is a component of the Baltimore city water system. Besides Baltimore, the river flows through Ellicott City and Elkridge. John Smith was the first European to explore the river noting it on his 1612 map as the Bolus River, the Red river, was named after the clay color, and is considered the old Bolus, as other branches were also labelled Bolus on maps. As the river was not navigable beyond Elkridge, it was not a path of commerce with only one ship listed as serving the northern branch. The Patapsco valley was used as the route of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroads original main line west constructed from 1829 onwards, many old railroad bridges were constructed in the valley, most notably the Thomas Viaduct and the Patterson Viaduct, of which ruins remain. Flour mills and a dam were formerly powered by the river. The valley is prone to flooding, though at long intervals, in 1972 as a result of rainfall from the remnants of Hurricane Agnes, in which Ellicott City and the Old Main Line sustained serious damage. In July 2016 a historic flood ravaged Main Street - leaving two dead, the mouth of the Patapsco River forms Baltimore harbor, the site of the Battle of Baltimore during the War of 1812. This is where Francis Scott Key, while aboard a British ship, wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, today, a red, white, and blue buoy marks the spot where the HMS Tonnant was anchored
Patapsco River
–
Patapsco Valley State Park at
Catonsville
Patapsco River
–
The
Inner Harbor from the
Baltimore Aquarium. The Patapsco River forms the harbor as it empties into the
Chesapeake Bay.
Patapsco River
–
Volunteers at a community cleanup of Herbert Run, a tributary of the Patapsco River running through
Arbutus, Maryland
11.
Baltimore, Maryland
–
Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
Baltimore, Maryland
–
Sixth Regiment fighting railroad strikers, July 20, 1877
Baltimore, Maryland
–
Downtown Baltimore,
Emerson Bromo-Seltzer Tower,
Pennsylvania Station,
M&T Bank Stadium, (
Baltimore Ravens Stadium),
Inner Harbor and the
National Aquarium in Baltimore,
Baltimore City Hall,
Washington Monument
Baltimore, Maryland
–
The
Battle Monument commemorates the
Battle of Baltimore.
Baltimore, Maryland
–
The
Great Baltimore Fire of 1904, looking west from
Pratt and
Gay streets
12.
State park
–
State parks are parks or other protected areas managed at the sub-national level within those nations which use state as a political subdivision. State parks are established by a state to preserve a location on account of its natural beauty, historic interest. There are state parks under the administration of the government of each U. S. state, some of the Mexican states, the term is also used in the Australian state of Victoria. The equivalent term used in Canada, Argentina, South Africa, similar systems of local government maintained parks exist in other countries, but the terminology varies. State parks are thus similar to parks, but under state rather than federal administration. Similarly, local government entities below state level may maintain parks, in general, state parks are smaller than national parks, with a few exceptions such as the Adirondack Park in New York and Anza-Borrego Desert State Park in California. As of 2014, there were 10,234 state park units in the United States, there are some 739 million annual visits to the countrys state parks. The NASPD further counts over 43,000 miles of trail,217,367 campsites, many states include designations beyond state park in their state parks systems. Other designations might be state recreation areas, state beaches, some state park systems include long-distance trails and historic sites. The title of oldest state park in the United States is claimed by Niagara Falls State Park in New York, however several public parks previously or currently maintained at the state level pre-date it. Indian Springs State Park has been operated continuously by the state of Georgia as a park since 1825. In 1864 Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded by the government to California until Yosemite National Park was proclaimed in 1890. In 1878 Wisconsin set aside a vast swath of its forests as The State Park but, needing money. The first state park with the designation of state park was Mackinac Island State Park in 1895, list of U. S. state parks National Association of State Park Directors Wilderness preservation systems in the United States Ahlgren, Carol. The Civilian Conservation Corps and Wisconsin State Park Development, the State Park Movement in America, A Critical Review excerpt and text search Larson, Zeb. Silver Falls State Park and the Early Environmental Movement, oregon Historical Quarterly 112#1 pp, 34-57 in JSTOR Newton, Norman T. When Forests Trumped Parks, The Maryland Experience, 1906-1950, Maryland Historical Magazine 101#2 pp, 203-224
State park
–
Niagara Falls State Park,
New York, USA
State park
–
American bison in
Custer State Park,
South Dakota, USA
State park
–
Bodie State Historical Park,
California, USA
State park
–
Babcock State Park,
West Virginia, USA
13.
Russell Sage Foundation
–
The Russell Sage Foundation is an American philanthropic foundation that primarily funds research relating to income inequality. Located in New York City, it is a research center, the foundation also publishes, under its own imprint, the books that derive from the work of its grantees and visiting scholars. The foundation focuses on labor markets, immigration and ethnicity, and social inequality in the United States and her will added a $5 million bequest in 1917. The Foundation was also responsible for reforms in health care, city planning, consumer credit, labor law, the training of nurses. In 1907, the foundation funded the Pittsburgh Survey, the first systematic effort to survey working class conditions in a large U. S. city, considered a major Progressive Era achievement, the findings inspired labor reforms and helped end twelve-hour days and seven-day weeks for steel workers. Between 1909 and 1922, the Foundation spent nearly a sixth of its capital to build Forest Hills Gardens, the aim was to demonstrate the economic and social viability of an intelligently planned suburban community. The first lots sold for $800, and a new suburb began thriving by 1917, in 1922, the Foundation helped launch the Regional Plan Association to research, write and publish a plan to guide the future development of the New York metropolitan region. In its first 40 years, the Foundation spent more than $1 million on the Regional Survey, researchers completed 12 massive volumes as part of the effort, with the first being published in 1928-29. The Foundation also provided support for social feminists such as Mary van Kleeck, since World War II, the Foundation has devoted its efforts to strengthening the social sciences as a means of achieving more informed and rational social policy. It launched a variety of programs to draw the social sciences closer to decision-makers in other professions and this initiative included funds for research on social indicators, a collection of data that measure the quality of life. In the 1950s, the Foundation supported research on the practice and it established the Foundation Center, a non-profit that maintains data on organized philanthropy. It was also the first to publish The Foundation Directory, a listing of the nation’s several thousand largest foundations. During this decade, the foundation also received money from the Ford Foundation for the utilization of the behavioral sciences. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Foundation turned to ethics, including patients rights, extreme measures to sustain life. Foundation-supported books from this period include Bernard Barber’s Drugs and Society, the Foundation was an early force in the development of behavioral economics, launching the Behavioral Economics program in 1986 with the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Books on behavioral economics published by Russell Sage include Quasi Rational Economics, three charter members of the Roundtable subsequently received the Noble Prize in economics, George Akerlof, Daniel Kahneman, and Thomas Schelling. The Foundation launched new programs to study immigration, the rise of economic inequality, between 1992 and 2000, the Foundation worked with the Ford Foundation to conduct a Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. In 2000, the Foundation partnered with the Population Reference Bureau to produce The American People, Census 2000, edited by Reynolds Farley of the University of Michigan and John Haaga of PRB
Russell Sage Foundation
–
Russell Sage Foundation
Russell Sage Foundation
–
In 1907
Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage started the Russell Sage Foundation...
Russell Sage Foundation
–
2008 conference booth
Russell Sage Foundation
–
The former headquarters of the Russell Sage Foundation on
Lexington Avenue in
Manhattan,
New York City
14.
Hilton (Catonsville, Maryland)
–
Hilton is a historic home located at The Community College of Baltimore County in Catonsville, Baltimore County, Maryland. It is an early-20th-century Georgian Revival–style mansion created from a farmhouse built about 1825. The reconstruction was designed by Baltimore architect Edward L. Palmer, the main house is five bays in length, two and a half stories above a high ground floor, with a gambrel roof. The house has a 2 1⁄2-story wing, five bays in length, with a roof, extending from the east end. The roof is covered with Vermont slate, the house features a small enclosed porch of the Tuscan order that was probably originally considered a porte cochere. Hilton is situated on the 5000 acre Taylors Forest surveyed in 1678, the first construction at the 511 acre site was a stone farmhouse built between 1818-1825 for James W. McCulloh. After defending several charges of conspiracy, the property was sold to John Lewis Buchanan in 1825, in 1827 Dr. Lennox Birckhead, son of McCollohs business partner Soloman Birkhead purchased the property. Birkhead named his home Hilton for its high elevation, William Carson Glenn purchased the property in 1837 selling to his politician brother John Glenn in 1842. Guests during this period included Robert E. Lee, in 1852, Glenn added several stone outbuildings. The property passed to Marrietta Glen and was managed by newspaper publisher William Wilkens Glenn, William Glen managed the farm with 26 slaves, sympathizing with the south during the civil war. Hilton was used as a location for Southerners fleeing Union troops for home. Hilton died in 1876 with the falling into disuse. In 1905 the estate was subdivided into 25 lots, in 190743 acres were donated by Russell Sage Foundation director John Mark Glenn to create the first section of Patapsco Valley State Park. Hilton was purchased in 1917 by National Enameling and Stamping Company owner George Worth Knapp as a summer home, in 1962 Baltimore County Public Schools purchased the property to establish a Community College of Baltimore County branch. In the 1970s Lecture halls occupied the mansion, in 2011, a grant was awarded to renovate the building as the Center for Global Education. In addition to the Hilton Mansion, several other outbuildings are on the property. Two Tudor style stone houses built in 1852, which one is in ruins, a 1852 stone bowling alley in ruins and a stone gardeners building. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980, Hilton, Baltimore County, including photo from 1997, at Maryland Historical Trust
Hilton (Catonsville, Maryland)
–
Hilton
15.
Civilian Conservation Corps
–
The Civilian Conservation Corps was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men from relief families as part of the New Deal. Originally for young men ages 18–25, it was expanded to young men ages 17–28. Robert Fechner was the head of the agency, the CCC was designed to provide jobs for young men, and to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States. At the same time, it implemented a general natural resource conservation program in every state, maximum enrollment at any one time was 300,000. Over the course of its nine years in operation,3 million young men participated in the CCC, which provided them shelter, clothing. The American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs, principal benefits of an individuals enrollment in the CCC included improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability. The CCC operated separate programs for veterans and Native Americans, approximately 15,000 Native Americans participated in the program, helping them weather the Great Depression. Despite its popular support, the CCC was never a permanent agency and it depended on emergency and temporary Congressional legislation and funding to operate. By 1942, with World War II and the draft in operation, the need for work relief declined, as governor of New York, Roosevelt had run a similar program on a much smaller scale. He promised this law would provide 250,000 young men with meals, housing, uniforms, the Emergency Conservation Work Act was introduced to Congress the same day and enacted by voice vote on March 31. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6101 on April 5,1933 which established the CCC organization and appointed a director, Robert Fechner, the organization and administration of the CCC was a new experiment in operations for a federal government agency. A CCC Advisory Council was composed of a representative each of the supervising departments. In addition, the Office of Education and Veterans Administration participated in the program, to end the opposition from labor unions Roosevelt chose Robert Fechner, vice president of the American Machinists Union, as director of the corps. William Green, head of the American Federation of Labor, was taken to the first camp to demonstrate that there would be no job training involved beyond simple manual labor. Reserve officers from the U. S. Army were in charge of the camps, General Douglas MacArthur was placed in charge of the program but said that the number of Army officers and soldiers assigned to the camps was affecting the readiness of the Regular Army. But the Army also found benefits in the program. When the draft began in 1940, the policy was to make CCC alumni corporals, CCC also provided command experience to Organized Reserve Corps officers. Through the CCC, the Regular Army could assess the performance of both Regular and Reserve Officers
Civilian Conservation Corps
–
Poster by Albert M. Bender,
Illinois WPA Art Project Chicago (1935)
Civilian Conservation Corps
–
CCC workers constructing a road, 1933.
Civilian Conservation Corps
–
CCC camps in
Michigan; the tents were soon replaced by barracks built by Army contractors for the enrollees.
Civilian Conservation Corps
–
A CCC map of the planned route of a parkway in Texas, drafted in 1934. The Corps worked in numerous parks throughout the state during the early 1930s, constructing everything from benches to highways.
16.
Vegetated
–
Vegetation is assemblages of plant species and the ground cover they provide. It is a term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent. It is broader than the flora which refers to species composition. Perhaps the closest synonym is plant community, but vegetation can, primeval redwood forests, coastal mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed patches, wheat fields, cultivated gardens and lawns, all are encompassed by the term vegetation. The vegetation type is defined by characteristic dominant species, or an aspect of the assemblage. The contemporary use of vegetation approximates that of ecologist Frederic Clements term earth cover, Natural vegetation refers to plant life undisturbed by humans in its growth and which is controlled by the climatic conditions of that region. The distinction between vegetation and flora was first made by Jules Thurmann, prior to this, the two terms were used indiscriminately, and still are in some contexts. Augustin de Candolle also made a distinction, but he used the terms station and habitation. Later, the concept of vegetation would influence the usage of the term biome, other concepts similar to vegetation are physiognomy of vegetation and formation. Departing from Linnean taxonomy, Humboldt established a new science, dividing plant geography between taxonomists who studied plants as taxa and geographers who studied plants as vegetation. The physiognomic approach in the study of vegetation is common among biogeographers working on vegetation on a world scale, the concept vegetation type is more ambiguous. For some authors, it includes, besides physiognomy, floristic, furthermore, the phytosociological approach in the study of vegetation relies upon a fundamental unit, the plant association, which is defined upon flora. An influential, clear and simple scheme for types of vegetation was produced by Wagner & von Sydow. Like all the systems, plant communities are temporally and spatially dynamic. Dynamism in vegetation is defined primarily as changes in species composition and/or vegetation structure, temporally, a large number of processes or events can cause change, but for sake of simplicity they can be categorized roughly as either abrupt or gradual. Abrupt changes are referred to as disturbances, these include things like wildfires, high winds, landslides, floods, avalanches. Their causes are external to the community—they are natural processes occurring independently of the natural processes of the community. Such events can change vegetation structure and composition very quickly and for time periods
Vegetated
–
For the medical term, see
Vegetation (pathology).
17.
Erosion
–
In earth science, erosion is the action of surface processes that remove soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earths crust, then transport it away to another location. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, the rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material that is carried by, for example. Processes of erosion that produce sediment or solutes from a place contrast with those of deposition, while erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. At well-known agriculture sites such as the Appalachian Mountains, intensive farming practices have caused erosion up to 100x the speed of the rate of erosion in the region. Excessive erosion causes both on-site and off-site problems, on-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads. Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion, however, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils. Rainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four types of soil erosion, splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion. Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the erosion process. In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a crater in the soil. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m vertically and 1.5 m horizontally on level ground. If the soil is saturated, or if the rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil particles down the slope, sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow. Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes, generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically of the order of a few centimetres or less and this means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers. Gully erosion occurs when water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow
Erosion
–
An actively eroding
rill on an
intensively-farmed field in
eastern Germany
Erosion
–
A
natural arch produced by the wind erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz,
Jordan.
Erosion
–
A wave-like sea cliff produced by
coastal erosion, in Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark,
Dalian,
Liaoning Province,
China.
Erosion
–
Soil and water being
splashed by the impact of a single
raindrop.
18.
Silt
–
Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or as sediment mixed in suspension with water in a body of such as a river. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water body, Silt has a moderate specific area with a typically non-sticky, plastic feel. Silt usually has a floury feel when dry, and a slippery feel when wet, Silt can be visually observed with a hand lens. Silt is created by a variety of physical processes capable of splitting the generally sand-sized quartz crystals of primary rocks by exploiting deficiencies in their lattice and these involve chemical weathering of rock and regolith, and a number of physical weathering processes such as frost shattering and haloclasty. The main process is abrasion through transport, including fluvial comminution, aeolian attrition and it is in semi-arid environments that substantial quantities of silt are produced. Silt is sometimes known as rock flour or stone dust, especially produced by glacial action. Mineralogically, silt is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar, sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt is known as siltstone. Liquefaction created by an earthquake is silt suspended in water that is hydrodynamically forced up from below ground level. In the Udden–Wentworth scale, silt particles range between 0.0039 and 0.0625 mm, larger than clay but smaller than sand particles, ISO14688 grades silts between 0.002 mm and 0.063 mm. In actuality, silt is chemically distinct from clay, and unlike clay, grains of silt are approximately the size in all dimensions, furthermore. Clays are formed from thin plate-shaped particles held together by electrostatic forces, according to the U. S. Department of Agriculture Soil Texture Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.05 mm particle size. The USDA system has been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization, in the Unified Soil Classification System and the AASHTO Soil Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.075 mm particle size. Silts and clays are distinguished mechanically by their plasticity, Silt is easily transported in water or other liquid and is fine enough to be carried long distances by air in the form of dust. Thick deposits of silty material resulting from deposition by aeolian processes are called loess. Silt and clay contribute to turbidity in water, Silt is transported by streams or by water currents in the ocean. When silt appears as a pollutant in water the phenomenon is known as siltation, Silt, deposited by annual floods along the Nile River, created the rich, fertile soil that sustained the Ancient Egyptian civilization. In south east Bangladesh, in the Noakhali district, cross dams were built in the 1960s whereby silt gradually started forming new land called chars, the district of Noakhali has gained more than 28 square miles of land in the past 50 years
Silt
–
A silted lake located in
Eichhorst,
Germany
19.
Turbine
–
A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating power when combined with a generator or producing thrust. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels, gas, steam, and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery. Benoit Fourneyron, a student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine. A working fluid contains potential energy and kinetic energy, the fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by turbines to collect this energy, the resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades, as in the case of a steam or gas turbine. Before reaching the turbine, the pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively, Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blades on the rotor. Newtons second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines, Impulse turbines are most efficient for use in cases where the flow is low and the inlet pressure is high. Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluids pressure or mass, the pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the stage or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow. The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newtons third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines, reaction turbines are better suited to higher flow velocities or applications where the fluid head is low. In practice, modern designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees whenever possible
Turbine
–
A
steam turbine with the case opened.
Turbine
–
Turbine inlet guide vanes of a turbojet
20.
Civilian Public Service
–
The Civilian Public Service was a program of the United States government that provided conscientious objectors with an alternative to military service during World War II. Others helped provide social services and mental health services, the CPS men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government. The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations, CPS men served longer than regular draftees and were not released until well after the end of the war. Initially skeptical of the program, government agencies learned to appreciate the mens service, CPS made significant contributions to forest fire prevention, erosion and flood control, medical science and reform of the mental health system. Conscientious objectors refuse to participate in service because of belief or religious training. During wartime, this conflicts with conscription efforts. Those willing to accept non-combatant roles, such as personnel, are accommodated. There are few options for draftees who cannot cooperate with the military in any way. The conscription law of World War I provided for noncombatant service for members of an organization whose members were forbidden from participating in war of any form. This exemption effectively limited conscientious objector status to members of the peace churches, Mennonites, Religious Society of Friends. The law gave the President authority to assign such draftees to any noncombatant military role, Conscientious objectors who refused noncombatant service during World War I were imprisoned in military facilities such as Fort Lewis, Alcatraz Island and Fort Leavenworth. The government assumed that COs could be converted into soldiers once they were exposed to life in their military camps. Simultaneously the Justice Department was preparing to indict 181 Mennonite leaders for violating the act because of a statement they adopted against performing military service. The draftees refusal to put on a uniform or cooperate in any way caused difficulties for both the government and the COs. The treatment received by nearly 2000 of these absolute COs included short rations, solitary confinement, on June 20,1940, the Burke-Wadsworth Bill came before Congress. The arrangements for conscientious objectors were almost identical to the World War I provisions, the Friends representatives continued attempting to make the bill more favorable to the historic peace churches. The Burke-Wadsworth Bill passed on September 14,1940, becoming the Selective Training, the influence of the churches was evident in section 5, which says in part, Any such person claiming such exemption from combatant training and service. In lieu of such induction, be assigned to work of importance under civilian direction
Civilian Public Service
–
Civilian Public Service firefighting crew at Snowline Camp near Camino, California, 1945.
Civilian Public Service
–
John T. Neufeld was a conscientious objector sentenced to 15 years hard labor in the
Disciplinary Barracks at Leavenworth Kansas. Neufeld was paroled to do dairy work and released after serving five months of his sentence.
Civilian Public Service
–
Camp Wickiup, CPS #60,
La Pine, Oregon was a former
Civilian Conservation Corps facility erected in 1938.
Civilian Public Service
–
In large CPS dormitories, each man had a cot, simple desk with chair and a narrow set of shelves for personal possessions.
21.
Conscientious objector
–
A conscientious objector is an individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, or religion. In general, conscientious objector status is considered only in the context of military conscription and is not applicable to military forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors are assigned to a civilian service as a substitute for conscription or military service. Some conscientious objectors consider themselves pacifist, non-interventionist, non-resistant, non-aggressionist and this was re-affirmed in 1998, when resolution 1998/77 recognized that persons performing military service may develop conscientious objections. A number of organizations around the world celebrate the principle on May 15 as International Conscientious Objectors Day, the term has also been extended to objecting to working for the military–industrial complex due to a crisis of conscience. Historically, many conscientious objectors have been executed, imprisoned, or otherwise penalized when their beliefs led to conflicting with their societys legal system or government. The legal definition and status of conscientious objection has varied over the years, Religious beliefs were a starting point in many nations for legally granting conscientious objector status. An early recognition of conscientious objection was granted by William the Silent to the Dutch Mennonites in 1575 and they could refuse military service in exchange for a monetary payment. Formal legislation to exempt objectors from fighting was first granted in mid-18th century Great Britain following problems with attempting to force Quakers into military service. In the United States, conscientious objection was permitted from the countrys founding, in 1948, the issue of the right to conscience was dealt with by the United Nations General Assembly in Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The proclamation was ratified during the General Assembly on 10 December 1948 by a vote of 48 in favour,0 against and it is The Right to Refuse to Kill. In 1976, the United Nations treaty the International Covenant on Civil and it was based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and was originally created in 1966. Nations that have signed this treaty are bound by it and its Article 18 begins, Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Some states argue that such limitations would permit them to make conscientious objection during time of war a threat to public safety, even that it is a moral duty to serve the state in its military. In 2006, the Committee has found for the first time a right to conscientious objection under article 18, in 1998, the Human Rights Commission reiterated previous statements and added states should. Refrain from subjecting conscientious objectors. to repeated punishment for failure to perform military service, the Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees states,171. Not every conviction, genuine though it may be, will constitute a sufficient reason for claiming refugee status after desertion or draft-evasion and it is not enough for a person to be in disagreement with his government regarding the political justification for a particular military action. Air Commodore Lionel Charlton, of the British Royal Air Force, in 1923 he selectively refused to serve in the RAF Iraq Command
Conscientious objector
–
"I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong... They never called me
nigger." –
Muhammad Ali, 1966
Conscientious objector
–
Conscientious Objector memorial in
Tavistock Square Gardens, London — dedicated on
15 May 1994
Conscientious objector
–
John T. Neufeld was a Mennonite
World War I conscientious objector sentenced to 15 years hard labor in the
military prison at Leavenworth. He was paroled to do dairy work and released after serving five months of his sentence. His diary of army and prison life is published in a collection with three other WWI Mennonite conscientious objectors.
Conscientious objector
–
Civilian Public Service firefighting crew at Snowline Camp near Camino, California, 1945.
22.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
23.
Catonsville, Maryland
–
Catonsville is a census-designated place in Baltimore County, Maryland, United States. The population was 41,567 at the 2010 census, the community lies to the west of Baltimore along the citys border. Catonsville contains the majority of University of Maryland, Baltimore County, europeans were the second group to settle the area now known as Catonsville. It is generally believed by historians that native tribes, known as the Piscataway and this tribe occupied the land between the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay and up the Patapsco River. Catonsville was located along the Piscataway Trail, the colonists and the tribes got along until the mid-17th century, when the English government ended the practices of Catholic missionaries in the area. It is believed that the tribes were driven from their villages, as happened in many areas of early colonial America, diseases unknown to the tribes were spread by the colonists. Eventually, the tribes moved north under the protection of the Iroquois, with most of the natives scattered, the colonists expanded across Maryland. Present-day Catonsville was settled in the 18th century, Catonsville as we know it today was settled along this route by Richard Caton, under the authority of his father-in-law Charles Carroll, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Travelers along the turnpike rested and conducted business in the area, the large Victorian and Colonial homes located in Catonsville were built by wealthy Baltimoreans. Originally, these communities were used as residences to escape the heat in Baltimore. Eventually, as in communities with the introduction of the automobile and electric trolley. Baltimore attempted over the years to annex Catonsville, the last attempt in 1918, the community remains an unincorporated town in Baltimore County. It is home to Spring Grove Hospital Center, the second oldest continuously operating psychiatric hospital. Catonsville was briefly made quite famous during the 1968 protest by the Catonsville Nine, in 2007 Money magazine ranked Catonsville the 49th best place to live in the USA, third best in Maryland and Virginia. Catonsville is located at 39°16′26″N 76°44′17″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 14.0 square miles, all of it land. It is centered along Frederick Road, formerly the main road from Baltimore leading to points west, johnnycake Road and Academy Road form the northern and northeastern borders of Catonsville. Catonsville is bordered by Woodlawn to the north, Baltimore to the east, by Arbutus to the southeast, by Ilchester to the southwest, the main north-south roads in the area are Rolling Road, Ingleside Avenue and Bloomsbury Avenue. Catonsville is a terminus of the Trolley Line Number 9 Trail, Academy Heights, a residential community surrounding Mount de Sales Academy
Catonsville, Maryland
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Frederick Road in Downtown Catonsville.
Catonsville, Maryland
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President
Bush plays with children in a jungle gym at the Emily Harris Head Start Center in Catonsville.
24.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
Suspension bridge
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The
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in
Japan, world's longest mainspan.
Suspension bridge
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The double-decked
George Washington Bridge, connecting
New York City to
Bergen County,
New Jersey, USA, is the world's busiest suspension bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles annually.
Suspension bridge
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The
Manhattan Bridge, connecting
Manhattan and
Brooklyn in New York City, opened in 1909 and is considered to be the forerunner of modern suspension bridges; its design served as the model for many of the long-span suspension bridges around the world.
Suspension bridge
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The diagram of the chain bridge over the
Menai constructed near
Bangor, Wales in 1820
25.
Storey
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A storey is any level part of a building that could be used by people. The plurals are storeys and stories respectively, the terms floor, level, or deck can also be used in this sense, except that one may use ground floor and ground level for the floor closer to what is considered the ground or street level. The words storey and floor also generally exclude levels of the building that have no roof, houses commonly have only one or two floors. Buildings are often classified as low-rise, mid-rise and high-rise according to how many levels they contain, the tallest skyscraper in the world, Burj Khalifa, has 163 floors. As of 2013, the tallest planned skyscraper, Sky City, is planned to have 202 floors, the height of each storey is based on the ceiling height of the rooms plus the thickness of the floors between each pane. Generally this is around 10 feet total, however, it varies widely from just under this figure to well over it, storeys within a building need not be all the same height — often the lobby is more spacious, for example. Additionally, higher levels may be smaller in volume than the ones beneath them, in English, the principal floor or main floor of a house is the floor that contains the chief apartments, it is usually the ground floor, or the floor above. In Italy the main floor of a home is usually above the ground level, the attic or loft is a storey just below the buildings roof, its ceiling is often pitched and/or at a different height than that of other floors. A penthouse is an apartment on the topmost storey of a building. A basement is a storey below the main or ground floor, split-level homes have floors that offset from each other by less than the height of a full storey. A mezzanine, in particular, is typically a floor halfway between the floor and the next higher floor. Homes with a split-level entry have the main floor raised half a storey height above the street entrance level. In Macys Herald Square, there is a one and a floor between the first and second, this can be considered a split level floor. There are also car parks, also known as parking garages. Floor numbering is the scheme used for a buildings floors. There are two major schemes in use across the world, in one system, used in the majority of European countries, the ground floor is the floor literally on the ground and often has no number or is assigned the number 0. Therefore, the floor up is assigned the number 1 and is the first floor. The other system, used primarily in the United States and Canada, counts the bottom floor as the first floor, the existence of two incompatible conventions is a common source of confusion in international communication, sometimes even between communities who speak the same language
Storey
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Unusual floor numbering that reads B (basement floor), LG (lower ground floor), G, (ground floor), UG (upper ground floor), 1 (first floor), L2 (lower 2nd floor) and 2 (second floor).
Storey
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A storey plan
Storey
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A large elevator panel in a North American high-rise omits several floors as well as designating three separate levels as penthouse floors.
Storey
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An elevator control panel in an apartment building in
Shanghai. Floors 4, 13 and 14 are missing.
26.
Railroad
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
Railroad
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Four
BNSF GE C44-9W diesel locomotives hauling a mixed freight train along the banks of the
Columbia River, between
Kennewick and
Wishram,
Washington State, United States
Railroad
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Horsecar in
Brno, Czech Republic
Railroad
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A British steam locomotive-hauled train
Railroad
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Tren a las Nubes (Train to the Clouds), located in
Salta,
Argentina
27.
Abutment
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In engineering, abutment refers to the substructure at the ends of a bridge span or dam whereon the structures superstructure rests or contacts. Multi-span bridges require piers to support ends of spans unsupported by abutments, Dam abutments are generally either side of a valley or gorge but may be artificial in order to support arch dams such as Kurobe Dam in Japan. The term may refer to the structure supporting one side of an arch. Also the impost or abacus of a column in classical architecture may serve as an abutment to an arch, the word derives from the verb abut, meaning to touch by means of a mutual border. An abutment may be used for the following, To transfer loads from a superstructure to its foundation elements, to resist and/or transfer self weight, lateral loads and wind loads. To support one end of an approach. Every time I drive down the road I wanna’ jerk the wheel into a Goddamn bridge abutment, in the film The Big Lebowski The Dudes car was stolen and later located by the police. The officer who found it told The Dude It was discovered last night in Van Nuys lodged against an abutment, to which The Dude responded Oh man, lodged where. Ohio Department of Transportation Fixed Bridge Abutments
Abutment
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Cream-colored concrete abutment gives vertical support to the small
red rail bridge, and to the earthen fill of the bridge approach embankment
Abutment
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Kurobe Dam rests on artificial concrete abutments
Abutment
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Abutment for a large steel arch bridge
28.
Ellicott City, Maryland
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Ellicott City is an unincorporated community and census-designated place, along with being the county seat of local government in Howard County, Maryland, United States. It is part of the Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area, the population was 65,834 at the U. S. Decennial Census of 2010. It is the county seat of Howard County, founded in 1772, the town contains the B. & O. Railroad Museums branch at the Ellicott City Station, built in 1830, and the first terminus of the initial line. The downtown historic district is located in the valley of the Tiber River, as of the 2000 U. S. Census, Ellicott City surpassed Towson, Maryland for the first time, as the largest unincorporated county seat in the country. The town is prone to flooding from the Patapsco River and Tiber Creek and these floods have had a major impact on the history of the town, often destroying important businesses and killing many. Ellicott City has had devastating floods in 1817,1837,1868,1901,1917,1923,1938,1942,1952,1956,1972,1975,1989,2011 and 2016. The 1868 flood washed away 14 houses, killing 39 to 43 in and it wiped out the Granite Manufacturing Cotton Mill, Charles A. Gambrills Patapsco Mill, John Lee Carrolls mill buildings, and dozens of homes. One mill was rebuilt by Charles Gambill, which remained in operation until a fire in 1916, a 1923 flood topped bridges, in 1952 an eight-foot wall of water swept the shops of Ellicott City, and a 1956 flood inflicted heavy damage at the Bartigis Brothers plant. A severe flood occurred in 1972 as a result of rainfall from the remnants of Hurricane Agnes, in which Ellicott City, on 27 Sept 1975, flooded 9.0 feet from Hurricane Eloise. And floods occurred Sept 22,1989 from Hurricane Hugo, and also on Sept 7,2011, on July 30,2016, a storm dropped six inches of rain in two hours on the city. The resulting flash flood caused damage in historic Ellicott City. Many homes, roads, businesses, sidewalks, and more were destroyed by the flooding, including the landmark clock. A state of emergency was declared, and two died as a result of the flooding. In 1766 James Hood used the Maryland Mill Act of 1669 to condemn 20 acres for a site adjacent to his river-side 157 acres property. His grist mill was built on the banks of the Patapsco River where the Frederick road crossed and his son Benjamin rebuilt the corn grinding mill after one of the frequent Patapsco floods in 1768. Benjamin Hood then sold the mill to Joseph Ellicott in 1774 for 1,700 pounds, in later years the B&O railroad ran through the property, with track laid over the graves of the Hood family. In 1775 they expanded their holdings with 30.5 acres from Bartholomew Balderson, John, Andrew, and Joseph Ellicott founded Ellicotts Mills, which became one of the largest milling and manufacturing towns in the East. Nathaniel sold his partnership in 1777, Joseph sold all but his Hoods Mill ownership the next year, the town retained the name Ellicotts Mills when the U. S. Postal stop opened on October 7,1797
Ellicott City, Maryland
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Main Street at Church Lane in Historic Ellicott City
Ellicott City, Maryland
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Thomas Isaac log cabin. Named after a 19th-century owner, the cabin was believed to have been built circa 1780 by an early Ellicott's Mills settler.
Ellicott City, Maryland
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Historic flood stages marked on the B&O viaduct.
Hurricane Agnes flood stage (14.5 feet (4.4 m)) is in the middle of the photograph.
Ellicott City, Maryland
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Ellicott City Station, 1970.
Geographic data related to Patapsco Valley State Park at OpenStreetMap
Geographic data related to 
