1.
Bojagi
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A bojagi is a traditional Korean wrapping cloth. Bojagi are typically square and can be made from a variety of materials, embroidered bojagi are known as subo, while patchwork or scrap bojagi are known as chogak bo. Bojagi have many uses, including as gift wrapping, in weddings, more recently, they have been recognized as a traditional art form, often featured in museums and inspiring modern reinterpretations. Traditional Korean folk religions believed that keeping something wrapped protected good luck and it is believed that the earliest use of the wrappings dates to the Three Kingdoms Period, but no examples survive from this period. The earliest surviving examples, from the early Joseon Dynasty, were used in a Buddhist context, for a royal wedding, up to 1,650 bojagi might be created. Everyday use of bojagi declined in the 1950s, and they were not treated by Koreans as art objects until the late 1960s, in 1997, the Korean Beauty postage stamp series included four stamps featuring bojagi. Traditionally, the bojagi is a square, measuring from one pok in width, for small items, materials included silk, ramie, and hemp. Royal wrapping cloths were known as kung-bo, within the Joseon royal court the preferred fabric in bojagi construction was domestically produced pink-red to purple cloth. These fabrics were often painted with designs, such as dragons, unlike the used and re-used frugality of non-royal wrapping cloths, hundreds of new bojagi were commissioned on special occasions such as royal birthdays and New Year’s Day. Min-bo or chogak bo were patchwork bojagi made by commoners, both symmetrical regular and random-seeming irregular patterned cloths were sewn, with styles presumably selected by an individual womans aesthetic tastes. Chogak bo are closely associated with food coverings, table-sized bojagi often have straps attached to the corners, so they can be fastened to the table, to secure items in place, when the table is moved. Different bojagi were used for covering different foods and at different seasons, while lightweight cloths helped air to circulate during summer, to keep food warm in winter bojagi could be padded and lined as well. To prevent the bojagi from being dirtied from food, the underside is often lined with oiled paper, bojagi were used for transporting items, as well as covering, or keeping things together in storage. One such example is an arrangement, where the cloth is wrapped and tied so that items can be securely transported upon ones back. Embroidered bojagi, also called subo, was another form of decorated cloth, a common ornament was that of stylized trees, varying in style from naive, to detailed depictions of flowers, fruits, birds and symbols of good luck. The embroidery was done with thread, on a cotton or silk ground. The subo fabric was then lined, and possibly padded, the Museum of Korean Embroidery in Seoul has a collection of 1,500 pieces of bojagi, with a particular focus on chogak bo. Museum collections outside of Korea, including in Kyoto, London, San Francisco, the patchwork style of the chogak bo have inspired artists working in other media, such as clothing designer Lee Chunghie, as well as up to 200,000 Japanese embroiderers
2.
Needlework
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Needlework is a broad term for the handicrafts of decorative sewing and textile arts. Anything that uses a needle for construction can be called needlework, the definition may expand to include related textile crafts such as a crochet hook or tatting shuttles. Similar abilities often transfer well between different varieties of needlework, such as fine motor skill and a knowledge of textile fibres, some of the same tools may be used in several different varieties of needlework. For instance, a needle threader is useful in nearly all needlecrafts, needle lace Quilting Applique Embroidery Crochet Knitting Tatting Lucet Braiding and Tassel making Tapestry Needlepoint Bead Weaving, loom and off-loom Royal School of Needlework
3.
Textile
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
4.
Geometric shape
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A geometric shape is the geometric information which remains when location, scale, orientation and reflection are removed from the description of a geometric object. That is, the result of moving a shape around, enlarging it, rotating it, or reflecting it in a mirror is the shape as the original. Objects that have the shape as each other are said to be similar. If they also have the scale as each other, they are said to be congruent. Many two-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of points or vertices and lines connecting the points in a closed chain, such shapes are called polygons and include triangles, squares, and pentagons. Other shapes may be bounded by such as the circle or the ellipse. Such shapes are called polyhedrons and include cubes as well as such as tetrahedrons. Other three-dimensional shapes may be bounded by curved surfaces, such as the ellipsoid, a shape is said to be convex if all of the points on a line segment between any two of its points are also part of the shape
5.
Quilt
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In the twenty-first century, quilts are frequently displayed as non-utilitarian works of art but historically quilts were often used as bedcovers, and this use persists today. There are many traditions regarding the uses of quilts, Quilts may be made or given to mark important life events such as marriage, the birth of a child, a family member leaving home, or graduations. Modern quilts are not always intended for use as bedding, and may be used as wall hangings, table runners, quilting techniques are often incorporated into garment design as well. Quilt shows and competitions are held locally, regionally, and nationally, there are international competitions as well, particularly in the United States, Japan, and Europe. The following list summarizes most of the reasons a person decide to make a quilt, Bedding Decoration Armor Commemoration Education Campaigning Documenting events / social history. Imported fabric was expensive, and local homespun fabric was labor-intensive to create. It was essential for most families to use and preserve textiles efficiently, saving or salvaging small scraps of fabric was a part of life for all households. Small pieces of fabric were joined together to make larger pieces, in units called “blocks. ”Creativity could be expressed in the designs, or simple “utility quilts, ” with minimal decorative value. Crib quilts for infants were needed in the cold of winter, quilting was often a communal activity, involving all the women and girls in a family or in a larger community. The tops were prepared in advance, and a bee was arranged. Quilting bees were important social events in communities, and were typically held between periods of high demand for farm labor. Quilts were frequently made to commemorate major events, such as marriages. There are many traditions regarding the number of quilts a young woman was expected to have prior to her wedding. Given the demands on a new wife, and the curve in her new role. Specific wedding quilts continue to be made today, Wedding ring quilts, which have a patchwork design of interlocking rings, have been made since the 1930s. White wholecloth quilts with high-quality, elaborate quilting, and often trapunto decorations as well, are traditional for weddings. Interestingly, it was considered bad luck to incorporate heart motifs in a wedding quilt, Quilts were often made for other events as well, such as graduations, or when individuals left their homes for other communities. One example of this is the quilts made as gifts for pastors
6.
Jacket
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A jacket is a mid-stomach–length garment for the upper body. A jacket typically has sleeves, and fastens in the front or slightly on the side, a jacket is generally lighter, tighter-fitting, and less insulating than a coat, which is outerwear. Some jackets are fashionable, while others serve as protective clothing, the word jacket comes from the French word jaquette. The term comes from the Middle French noun jaquet, which refers to a small or lightweight tunic, in Modern French, jaquette is synonymous with jacket. Speakers of American English sometimes informally use the words jacket and coat interchangeably, blouson, a military-style waist length jacket. Bolero, a short jacket for women, originally worn by matadors Bomber jacket. Brunswick, a womans gown of the mid-eighteenth century. Caraco, a jacket of the 18th century. Chefs jacket Dinner jacket, part of the dress code of evening formal wear. Also known as a Dinner suit and a Tuxedo, the field jacket came about during World War II with the US Army introducing the M-1941 and the M-1943 field jacket and issued the jacket to their troops. The most well-known and the most popular type of military field jacket that is on the market today is the M-1965 or M-65 field jacket which came into US military service in 1965. Flak jacket Fleece jacket, a jacket made of synthetic wool such as Polar Fleece Flight jacket, also known as a bomber jacket Gilet
7.
Skirt
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A skirt is the lower part of a dress or gown, covering the person from the waist downwards, or a separate outer garment serving this purpose. Most skirts are self-standing garments, but some skirt-looking panels may be part of another garment such as leggings, shorts, some fashion designers, such as Jean Paul Gaultier, have shown mens skirts. Modern skirts are made of light to mid-weight fabrics, such as denim, jersey, worsted. Skirts of thin or clingy fabrics are often worn with slips to make the material of the skirt drape better, a straw-woven skirt dating to 3900 BC was discovered in Armenia at the Areni-1 cave complex. Skirts have been worn by men and women from many cultures, such as the lungi, lehnga, kanga and sarong worn in South Asia and Southeast Asia, and the kilt worn in Scotland and Ireland. The earliest known culture to have females wear clothing resembling miniskirts were the Duan Qun Miao and this was in reference to the short miniskirts that barely cover the buttocks worn by women of the tribe, and which were probably shocking to observers in medieval and early modern times. In the Middle Ages, some upper-class women wore skirts over three metres in diameter at the bottom, at the other extreme, the miniskirts of the 1960s were minimal garments that may have barely covered the underwear when seated. Costume historians typically use the word petticoat to describe skirt-like garments of the 18th century or earlier, during the 19th century, the cut of womens dresses in western culture varied more widely than in any other century. Waistlines started just below the bust and gradually sank to the natural waist, skirts started fairly narrow and increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s, then fullness was draped and drawn to the back by means of bustles. In the 1890s the rainy daisy skirt was introduced for walking or sportswear and it had a significantly shorter hemline measuring as much as six inches off the ground and would eventually influence the wider introduction of shorter hemlines in the early 20th century. Beginning around 1915, hemlines for daytime dresses left the floor for good, broomstick skirt, a light-weight ankle-length skirt with many crumpled pleats formed by compressing and twisting the garment while wet, such as around a broomstick. Bubble dress/skirt, a voluminous skirt whose hem is tucked back under to create a “bubble effect” at the bottom, Cargo skirt, a plain utilitarian skirt with belt loops and numerous large pockets, based on the military style of Cargo pants and popularised in the 1990s. Crinoline, a full skirt supported by hoops or multiple petticoats. Hobble skirt, a long and tight skirt with a hem narrow enough to impede the wearers stride Kilt-skirt. Though traditionally designed as womens wear, it is fashioned to mimic the appearance of a mans kilt. Leather skirt, a made of leather Lehenga, a long, pleated skirt, often embroidered, worn mostly as the bottom part of the Gagra choli in North India. Mini-crini, a version of the crinoline, designed by Vivienne Westwood in the mid 1980s. Poodle skirt, a circle or near-circle skirt with an appliqued poodle or other decoration Puffball skirt, popular in the mid-late 1980s when it was inspired by Westwoods mini-crini
8.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
9.
Embroidery
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Embroidery is the handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate materials such as, pearls, beads, quills. Today, embroidery is most often seen on caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim, stockings, Embroidery is available with a wide variety of thread or yarn color. The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted, It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery. There are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, on the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. The art of embroidery has been found world-wide and several examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period, depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a wide-spread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane, in 18th century England and its colonies, samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a marking a girls path into womanhood as well as conveying rank. Conversely, embroidery is also an art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger from Norway, Merezhka from Ukraine, Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland, Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal, many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing. Embroidery was an important art in the Medieval Islamic world, the 17th century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the craft of the two hands. Because embroidery was a sign of social status in Muslim societies. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread, Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items. Taste for fine material has become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description. The development of embroidery and its mass production came about in stages in the Industrial Revolution. The earliest machine embroidery used a combination of machine looms and teams of women embroidering the textiles by hand and this was done in France by the mid-1800s. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the half of the 19th century
10.
Sewing
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Sewing is the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with a needle and thread. Sewing is one of the oldest of the arts, arising in the Paleolithic era. For thousands of years, all sewing was done by hand, fine hand sewing is a characteristic of high-quality tailoring, haute couture fashion, and custom dressmaking, and is pursued by both textile artists and hobbyists as a means of creative expression. The first known use of the sewing was in the 14th century. Sewing has an ancient history estimated to begin during the Paleolithic Age, Sewing was used to stitch together animal hides for clothing and for shelter. The weaving of cloth from natural fibres originated in the Middle East around 4000 BCE, and perhaps earlier during the Neolithic Age, during the Middle Ages, Europeans who could afford it employed seamstresses and tailors. Sewing for the most part was an occupation, and most sewing before the 19th century was practical. Clothing was an investment for most people, and women had an important role in extending the longevity of items of clothing. Clothing that was faded would be turned inside-out so that it could continue to be worn, once clothing became worn or torn, it would be taken apart and the reusable cloth sewn together into new items of clothing, made into quilts, or otherwise put to practical use. The many steps involved in making clothing from scratch meant that women often bartered their expertise in a skill with one another. Decorative needlework such as embroidery was a skill, and young women with the time. From the Middle Ages to the 17th century, sewing tools such as needles, decorative embroidery was valued in many cultures worldwide. Some examples are the Cretan Open Filling stitch, Romanian Couching or Oriental Couching, the stitches associated with embroidery spread by way of the trade routes that were active during the Middle Ages. European imperial settlements also spread embroidery and sewing techniques worldwide, however, there are instances of sewing techniques indigenous to cultures in distant locations from one another, where cross-cultural communication would have been historically unlikely. For example, a method of reverse appliqué known to areas of South America is also known to Southeast Asia, the Industrial Revolution shifted the production of textiles from the household to the mills. In the early decades of the Industrial Revolution, the machinery produced whole cloth, the worlds first sewing machine was patented in 1790 by Thomas Saint. By the early 1840s, other early sewing machines began to appear, by the 1850s, Isaac Singer developed the first sewing machines that could operate quickly and accurately and surpass the productivity of a seamstress or tailor sewing by hand. While much clothing was produced at home by female members of the family
11.
Quilting
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Quilting is the process of sewing two or more layers of fabric together to make a thicker padded material, usually to create a quilt or quilted garment. Typically quilting is done with three layers, the top fabric or quilt top, batting or insulating material and backing material, the process of quilting uses a needle and thread to join two or more layers of material to make a quilt. The quilters hand or sewing machine passes the needle and thread through all layers, the process is repeated across the entire area where quilting is wanted. Rocking, straight or running stitches are used with these stitches being purely functional or decorative. Quilting is done to create bed spreads, art quilt wall hangings, clothing, Quilting can make a project thick, or with dense quilting, can raise one area so that another stands out. The whole process of creating a quilt or quilted garment also involves other steps such as designing, piecing, appliqué, a person who works at quilting is termed a quilter. Quilting can be done by hand, via a sewing machine, Quilt stores often sell fabric, thread, patterns and other goods that are used for quilting. They often have group sewing and quilting classes where one can learn how to sew or quilt, the word quilt comes from the Latin culcita meaning a stuffed sack but it came into the English language from the French word cuilte. The origins of quilting remain unknown but sewing techniques of piecing, appliqué, the earliest known quilted garment is depicted on the carved ivory figure of a Pharaoh dating from the ancient Egyptian First Dynasty. In 1924 archaeologists discovered a quilted floor covering in Mongolia and they estimated its date as between 100 BC to 200 AD. Chinese patchwork continues as an folk art, there are numerous references to quilts in literature and inventories of estates. Crusaders brought quilted objects from the Middle East to Europe in the late 11th century, quilted garments known as gambesons were popular in the European Middle Ages. Knights wore them under their armor for comfort and sometimes as a garment to protect the metal armor from the weather. The earliest known surviving European bed quilt is from late fourteenth century Sicily and it is made of linen and padded with wool. The blocks across the center are scenes from the legend of Tristan, the quilt is 122 by 106 and is in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Quilting has been part of the tradition in Europe from about the 5th century. Early objects contain Egyptian cotton, which may indicate that Egyptian and Mediterranean trade provided a conduit for the technique, quilted objects were relatively rare in Europe until approximately the twelfth century, when quilted bedding and other items appeared after the return of the Crusaders from the Middle East. The medieval quilted gambeson, aketon and arming doublet were garments worn under or instead of armor of maille or plate armor and these developed into the later quilted doublet worn as part of fashionable European male clothing from the fourteenth to seventeenth century
12.
Sewing machine
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A sewing machine is a machine used to stitch fabric and other materials together with thread. Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies, home sewing machines are designed for one person to sew individual items while using a single stitch type. Industrial sewing machines, by contrast to machines, are larger, faster, and more varied in their size, cost, appearance. Charles Fredrick Wiesenthal, a German-born engineer working in England was awarded the first British patent for a device to aid the art of sewing. His invention consisted of a pointed needle with an eye at one end. In 1790, the English inventor Thomas Saint invented the first sewing machine design and his machine was meant to be used on leather and canvas material. His sewing machine used the chain stitch method, in which the machine uses a thread to make simple stitches in the fabric. Saints machine was designed to aid the manufacture of leather goods, including saddles and bridles, but it was also capable of working with canvas. Although his machine was advanced for the era, the concept would need steady improvement over the coming decades before it could become a practical proposition. In 1804, a machine was built by the Englishmen Thomas Stone and James Henderson. An Austrian tailor, Josef Madersperger, began developing his first sewing machine in 1807 and he presented his first working machine in 1814. The first practical and widely used sewing machine was invented by Barthélemy Thimonnier, the patent for his machine was issued on 17 July 1830, and in the same year, he opened the first machine-based clothing manufacturing company in the world to create army uniforms for the French Army. However, the factory was burned down, reportedly by workers fearful of losing their following the issuing of the patent. A model of the machine is exhibited at the London Science Museum, the machine is made of wood and uses a barbed needle which passes downward through the cloth to grab the thread and pull it up to form a loop to be locked by the next loop. The first American lockstitch sewing machine was invented by Walter Hunt in 1832 and his machine used an eye-pointed needle carrying the upper thread and a falling shuttle carrying the lower thread. The curved needle moved through the fabric horizontally, leaving the loop as it withdrew, the shuttle passed through the loop, interlocking the thread. The feed let the machine down, requiring the machine to be stopped frequently, Hunt eventually lost interest in his machine and sold individual machines without bothering to patent his invention, and only patenting it at a late date of 1854. In 1842, John Greenough patented the first sewing machine in the United States, the British partners Newton and Archibold introduced the eye-pointed needle and the use of two pressing surfaces to keep the pieces of fabric in position, in 1841
13.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
14.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
15.
Cotton
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Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
17.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
18.
Art museum
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An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
19.
Collecting
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The hobby of collecting includes seeking, locating, acquiring, organizing, cataloging, displaying, storing, and maintaining whatever items are of interest to the individual collector. The scope of collecting is unlimited, which is expressed in the expression, If something exists. The most obvious way to categorise collections is by the type of objects collected, most collections are of manufactured commercial items, but natural objects such as birds eggs, butterflies, rocks, and seashells can also be the subject of a collection. Some collectors may not a specific type of object, but instead objects with specific properties, for example. Among collections of manufactured items, the objects may be antique, antiques are collectible items at least 100 years old, while collectibles can be arbitrarily recent. Collectors and dealers may use the vintage to describe older collectibles. Items which were once everyday objects but may now be collectible since almost all those once produced have been destroyed or discarded are called ephemera, philately, phillumeny, and deltiology are forms of collecting which can be undertaken at minimal expense. Some collectors are generalists with very broad criteria for inclusion, while others focus on a subtopic within their area of interest, the monetary value of objects is important to some collectors but irrelevant to others. Some collectors maintain objects in pristine condition, while others use the items they collect, collecting is for some people a childhood hobby, but for others a lifelong pursuit or one that begins in adulthood. Collectors who begin early in life often modify their aims when they get older, the emergence of the internet as a global forum for different collectors has resulted in many isolated enthusiasts finding each other. Collecting is a practice with an old cultural history. The Egyptian Ptolemaic dynasty collected books from all over the world at the Library of Alexandria. The collecting hobby is a descendant of the cabinet of curiosities which was common among scholars with the means. Planned collecting of ephemeral publications goes back at least to George Thomason in the reign of Charles I, collecting engravings and other prints by those whose means did not allow them to buy original works of art also goes back many centuries. The involvement of larger numbers of people in collecting activities comes with the prosperity and that is when collecting such items as antique china, furniture and decorative items from oriental countries becomes established. The retail price of a collectible is valid only at the moment it was purchased, once the collectible comes into the buyer’s possession, its value is linked to what is called the secondary market. There is no market for an item unless someone is willing to buy it. Depending on various factors, individuals, auctioneers, and secondary retailers may sell a collectible for more and these factors include, but are not limited to, condition, age, supply, and demand
20.
Museum
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Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
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History of quilting
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Quilting, the stitching together of layers of padding and fabric, may date back as far as ancient Egypt. One of the earliest existing decorative works is the Tristan quilt, made in Sicily, and as one of the earliest surviving quilts in the world, at least two sections survive at the V&A Museum and in Bargello palace. Another of the Tristan and Isolde story is held in a private collection, russia holds the oldest example in existence. It is a quilted linen carpet found in a Mongolian cave, Quilt making was common in the late 18th century and early years of the 19th. Most women were busy spinning, weaving and sewing in order to clothe their family, commercial blankets or woven coverlets were a more economical bedcovering for most people. Only the wealthy had the time for quilt making so Colonial quilting was done by only a few. Obviously quilts were not made of left over scraps or worn clothing as a humble bedcovering during this period, instead they were decorative items that displayed the fine needlework of the maker such as the Baltimore album quilts. Whole cloth quilts, broderie perse and medallion quilts were the styles of quilts made during the early 19th century, according to the Wall Street Journal there are an estimated twenty-one million quilters in the United States. Early quilts that feature the same fabric for the quilt top. Early wholecloth quilts have three layers, a top, a filling, and a backing. The three layers are held together via quilting stitches worked by hand, in an age before sewing machines were marketed, in wholecloth quilts, the quilting stitches themselves serve as the only decoration. The earliest whole cloth quilts found in America were brought from Europe, initially, quilts were owned by the wealthy in America who had the means to purchase imported quilts. The Canton Historical Society, Canton, Massachusetts, believes that a wholecloth quilt in their collection may be the oldest wholecloth quilt made in America. In 2005, quilt historian, Patricia L. Cummings, wrote a series of five articles that explore the art of wholecloth quilting published them on her website, Quilters Muse Publications. That particular series includes information about the wholecloth quiltmaking tradition of some European countries and features photos provided by contributors to the articles, a more complete survey is needed to compare all of the wholecloth quilts held in the many museum locations who have collected such textiles. Many early quilts did not survive the test of time or were discarded, or else, they survived, for a time, the trend in wholecloth quilting was a preference for all-cotton white quilts. Many of the beautiful surviving wholecloth quilts feature feather designs, outlines of flowers, some were made even more exquisite by the use of stuffed and corded quilting, a method sometimes called trapunto. Trapunto is an Italian word used to describe the technique of slipping extra stuffing into certain areas of a quilt to create areas of raised motifs that stand in relief, for example, stuffing placed inside the quilted outline of a feather or flower makes the design stands out
22.
Banjara
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The Banjara are a community usually described as nomadic people from the northwestern belt of the Indian subcontinent now spread out all over India. According to Burman the name Laman was popular long before the name Banjara, the Lamans, according to him, are originally from the independent province called Gor in Afghanistan. Banjaras were traditionally suppliers of bullock and salt merchants, the word Banjara is said to be derived from Sanskrit word vana chara. The word Lambani or Lamani is derived from Sanskrit word lavana which was the good they transported across the country. Banjaras speak Gor Boli, also called Lambadi, it belongs to the Indo-Aryan group of languages, most Banjaras today are bilingual or multilingual adopting the predominant language of their surroundings. Banjara art is rich and includes performance arts such as dance and music to folk and plastic arts such as rangoli, textile embroidery, the Banjara embroidery and tattooing are especially prized and also form a significant aspect of the Banjara identity. Lambani women specialize in lepo embroidery which involves stitching pieces of mirror, decorative beads, the Sandur Lambani Embroidery is a type of textile embroidery unique to the tribe in Sanduru, Bellary district, Karnataka. It has obtained a GI tag, Banjara people celebrate the festival of Teej during Shravana. In this festival young unmarried Banjara girls pray for a good groom and they sow seeds in bamboo bowls and water it three times a day for nine days and if the sprouts grow thick and high, it is considered as good omen. During Teej the seedling-baskets are kept in the middle and girls sing, Banjaras also celebrate the festival of Holi. Banjaras have a community of singers known as Dadhis or Gajugonia They are Muslim Banjaras who traditionally traveled from village to village singing songs to the accompaniment of sarangi. The Banjara people profess to be Hindus and they also worship gods like Balaji, Jagadamba Devi, Mahadev, Khandoba and Hanuman. They also hold Guru Nanak in great respect, sevalal or Sevabhaya is the most important saint of the Banjaras. According to Banjara accounts he was born on 15 February 1739 in Sirsi, Karnataka, to Bhima Naik and Dharmini Bai, the colonial British administrators also quote his stories but they place him in the 19th century and identify his original name as Siva Rathode. Banjaras can be all over India but their population is concentrated in the states of Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra. As of 2012 there are 1.1 million Banjaras in Karnataka, in India, Banjara people were transporters of goods from one place another and the goods they transported included salt, grains, firewood and cattle. During 18th Century, the British colonial authorities brought the community under the purview of Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, by enforcing this act the British Raj curbed the movement of Banjara people. The stigma attached to this continued until 1952 when the Act was abolished by the newly Independent India, in some states of India, they are listed as OBC while in other states they are categorised as Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
23.
Structure
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Structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy, a network featuring many-to-many links, buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams and salt domes are all examples of load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building structures, the effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional, the latter was the main option available to early structures such as Chichen Itza. Two-dimensional elements with a third dimension have little of either. The structure elements are combined in structural systems, the majority of everyday load-bearing structures are section-active structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one-dimensional structures. In biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging hierarchically from the atomic and molecular to the cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population, usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure. Structural biology is concerned with the structure of macromolecules, particularly proteins. The function of molecules is determined by their shape as well as their composition. Protein structure has a four-level hierarchy, the primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make it up. It has a backbone made up of a repeated sequence of a nitrogen. The secondary structure consists of repeated patterns determined by hydrogen bonding, the two basic types are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. The tertiary structure is a back and forth bending of the chain. Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure, the structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom, bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds, atoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition of a basic unit called a unit cell. The atoms can be modeled as points on a lattice, and one can explore the effect of symmetry operations that include rotations about a point, reflections about a symmetry planes, and translations
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Pattern
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A pattern, apart from the terms use to mean Template, is a discernible regularity in the world or in a manmade design. As such, the elements of a repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes, any of the senses may directly observe patterns. Conversely, abstract patterns in science, mathematics, or language may be only by analysis. Direct observation in practice means seeing visual patterns, which are widespread in nature, visual patterns in nature are often chaotic, never exactly repeating, and often involve fractals. Natural patterns include spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks, Patterns have an underlying mathematical structure, indeed, mathematics can be seen as the search for regularities, and the output of any function is a mathematical pattern. Similarly in the sciences, theories explain and predict regularities in the world, in art and architecture, decorations or visual motifs may be combined and repeated to form patterns designed to have a chosen effect on the viewer. In computer science, a design pattern is a known solution to a class of problems in programming. In fashion, the pattern is a used to create any number of similar garments. Nature provides examples of many kinds of pattern, including symmetries, trees and other structures with a dimension, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks. Symmetry is widespread in living things, animals that move usually have bilateral or mirror symmetry as this favours movement. Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as do many flowers, as well as animals which are largely static as adults, fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, including starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies. Among non-living things, snowflakes have striking sixfold symmetry, each flake is unique, crystals have a highly specific set of possible crystal symmetries, they can be cubic or octahedral, but cannot have fivefold symmetry. Many natural patterns are shaped by this apparent randomness, including vortex streets, waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by, wind waves are surface waves that create the chaotic patterns of the sea. As they pass over sand, such waves create patterns of ripples, similarly, as the passes over sand. Foams obey Plateaus laws, which films to be smooth and continuous. Foam and bubble patterns occur widely in nature, for example in radiolarians, sponge spicules, cracks form in materials to relieve stress, with 120 degree joints in elastic materials, but at 90 degrees in inelastic materials
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Motif (textile arts)
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In the textile arts, a motif is a smaller element in a much larger work. In knitting and crochet, motifs are made one at a time, an example of a motif is the granny square. Motifs may be varied or rotated for contrast and variety, or to new shapes, as with quilt blocks in quilts. Motifs can be any size, but usually all the motifs in any given work are the same size, motifs may commemorate events or convey information or political slogans. For example, the blocks of the AIDS Memorial Quilt, the possible Quilts of the Underground Railroad
26.
Crazy quilting
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The term crazy quilting is often used to refer to the textile art of crazy patchwork and is sometimes used interchangeably with that term. Crazy quilting does not actually refer to a kind of quilting. A crazy quilt rarely has the internal layer of batting that is part of what defines quilting as a textile technique, Crazy quilts differ from regular quilts in other ways as well. Because the careful design of a quilt block is much less important in crazy quilts. Crazy quilting as an art is extremely creative and free-flowing by nature. Crazy quilts are extremely labor intensive, a Harpers Bazaar article from 1884 estimated that a full-size crazy quilt could take 1,500 hours to complete. Crazy quilts became popular in the late 1800s, likely due to the English embroidery, American audiences were drawn to the satin stitches used in English embroidery, which created a painterly surface, which is reflected in many Crazy Quilts. The displays shown at the Japanese pavilion of silk-screened work and Japanese pottery with a cracked-glaze inspired the American audiences, similar aesthetics began to show up in Crazy Quilts, including unique patterns, and stitching that resembled spider webs and fans. Crazy Quilts, History, Techniques, Embroidery Motifs, Voyageur Press, Crazy Quilting, Heirloom Quilts, Traditional Motifs and Decorative Stitches, Rutledge Hill Press. Elegant Stitches, An Illustrated Stitch Guide and Source Book of Inspiration, C&T Publishing
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Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
28.
Velvet
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Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are evenly distributed, with a short dense pile, giving it a distinctive feel. By extension, the word velvety means smooth like velvet, Velvet can be made from either synthetic or natural fibers. Velvet is woven on a loom that weaves two thicknesses of the material at the same time. The two pieces are cut apart to create the pile effect, and the two lengths of fabric are wound on separate take-up rolls. This complicated process meant that velvet was expensive to make before industrial power looms became available, Velvet is difficult to clean because of its pile, but modern dry cleaning methods make cleaning more feasible. Velvet pile is created by warp or vertical yarns and velveteen pile is created by weft or fill yarns, Velvet can be made from several different kinds of fibers, traditionally, the most expensive of which is silk. Much of the velvet sold today as silk velvet is actually a mix of rayon, Velvet made entirely from silk is rare and usually has market prices of several hundred US dollars per yard. Cotton is also used to make velvet, though this results in a less luxurious fabric. Velvet can also be made from such as linen, mohair. A cloth made by the Kuba people of the Democratic Republic of Congo from raffia is often referred to as Kuba velvet. More recently, synthetic velvets have been developed, mostly from polyester, nylon, viscose, acetate, a small percentage of spandex is sometimes added to give the final material a certain amount of stretch. Because of its softness and appearance as well as its high cost of production. Velvet was introduced to Baghdad during the rule of Harun al-Rashid by Kashmiri merchants, in the Mamluk era, Cairo was the worlds largest producer of velvet. Much of it was exported to Venice, Al-Andalus and the Mali Empire, musa I of Mali, the ruler of the Mali Empire, visited Cairo on his pilgrimage to Mecca. Many Arab velvet makers accompanied him back to Timbuktu, later Ibn Battuta mentions how Suleyman, the ruler of Mali, wore a locally produced complete crimson velvet caftan on Eid. During the reign of Mehmed II, assistant cooks wore blue-coloured dresses, conical hats, king Richard II of England directed in his will that his body should be clothed in velveto in 1399. Chiffon velvet, Very lightweight velvet on a silk or rayon chiffon base. Ciselé, Velvet where the pile uses cut and uncut loops to create a pattern, crushed, This type of velvet can be produced by pressing the fabric down in different directions
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Silk
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Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han
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Brocade
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Brocade is a class of richly decorative shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in colored silks and with or without gold and silver threads. Brocade is typically woven on a draw loom and it is a supplementary weft technique, that is, the ornamental brocading is produced by a supplementary, non-structural, weft in addition to the standard weft that holds the warp threads together. The purpose of this is to give the appearance that the weave was actually embroidered on, in Guatemala, brocade is the most popular technique used to decorate fabric woven by Maya weavers on backstrap looms. Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized and wrought as additions to the fabric, sometimes stiffening it. When the weft is floating on the back, this is known as a continuous brocade, the yarns are cut away in cutwork and broché. Also, a discontinuous brocade is where the yarn is only woven in the patterned areas. Dating back to the Middle Ages, brocade fabric was one of the few luxury fabrics worn by nobility throughout China, India, Greece, Japan, Korea, Woven by the Byzantines, brocades were an especially desirable fabric. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, production of silk was seemingly non-existent, as linen, during this period, there was no public knowledge of silk fabric production except for that which was kept secret by the Chinese. Over the years, knowledge of production became known among other cultures. As silk production became known to western cultures, trade from the east began to decrease and it was discovered by Byzantine historians that in the 6th century a pair of monks brought the secret of sericulture – silk production – to the Byzantine emperor. As a result, western cultures were able to learn how to breed, raise, during the Early Middle Ages, brocade fabrics were only available to the wealthiest of people as the Byzantine Emperor charged extreme prices for the fabric. The designs woven into brocade fabrics were often Persian in origin and it was also common to see Christian subjects depicted in the complex weaves of the fabric. When these luxurious fabrics were made into clothing or wall hangings, they were at times adorned with precious and semiprecious stones, small medallions of enamel, embroidery and/or appliqués. The life of a noble during the Late Middle Ages was filled with entertainment, riding and hunting, music and dancing, all of these activities became a stage for the display of fashion. Wealthy noblemen and noblewomen dressed in silk brocades from Italy, during the 14th and 15th centuries, the Court of Burgundy was made known for their continuous fashionable tastes and luxurious dress. Brocades were also an important fabric during the Renaissance, and especially the Italian Renaissance, the complexity and high quality of luxurious silk fabrics caused Italy to become the most important and superior manufacturer of the finest silk fabrics for all of Europe. The almost sculptural lines of the fashions during the Renaissance were paired perfectly with the beauty and elegance of brocade, damask. The motifs remained Chinese, Indian and Persian in origin and were a reflection of the trading between the Far East and Italy and it is said that some Renaissance painters designed and sketched textile designs for fabrics production as well as incorporation into their paintings
31.
Checkerboard
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A checkerboard or chequerboard is a board of chequered pattern on which English draughts is played. It consists of 64 squares of alternating dark and light color, often black, other rectangular square-tiled boards are also often called checkerboards. In this sense it refers not to a board as such. However, when this pattern is used on vehicles, in certain countries. A red-and-white checkerboard is the coat of arms of Croatia. The checkerboard pattern is associated with the Ska music genre. A checkerboard marking painted on a hilltop was used as guidance on Hong Kongs old Kai Tak Airport. Many taxicabs also use a checkerboard pattern, martin Gardner featured puzzles based on checkerboards in his November 1962 Mathematical Games column in Scientific American
32.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
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Seminole
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The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida. The word Seminole is a corruption of cimarrón, a Spanish term for runaway or wild one, Seminole culture is largely derived from that of the Creek, the most important ceremony is the Green Corn Dance, other notable traditions include use of the black drink and ritual tobacco. As the Seminole adapted to Florida environs, they developed local traditions, such as the construction of open-air, historically the Seminole spoke Mikasuki and Creek, both Muskogean languages. The Seminole became increasingly independent of other Creek groups and established their own identity and they developed a thriving trade network during the British and second Spanish periods. The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was supplemented from the late 18th century by free blacks and escaped slaves who settled near. The latter became known as Black Seminoles, although they kept their own Gullah culture, after the United States achieved independence, its settlers increased pressure on Seminole lands, leading to the Seminole Wars. The Seminole were first confined to a large inland reservation by the Treaty of Moultrie Creek, by 1842, most Seminoles and Black Seminoles had been removed to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Today residents of the reservation are enrolled in the federally recognized Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, perhaps fewer than 200 Seminoles remained in Florida after the Third Seminole War, but they fostered a resurgence in traditional customs and a culture of staunch independence. In the late 19th century, the Florida Seminole re-established limited relations with the U. S. government, few Seminole moved to reservations until the 1940s, they reorganized their government and received federal recognition in 1957 as the Seminole Tribe of Florida. The more traditional people near the Tamiami Trail received federal recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe in 1962, old crafts and traditions were revived in the mid 20th century as Seminoles began seeking tourism dollars when Americans began to travel more on the countrys growing highway system. The word Seminole is derived from cimarrón, a Spanish term for runaway or wild one, the people who constituted the nucleus of this Florida group either chose to leave their tribe or were banished. At one time the terms renegade and outcast were used to describe this status and they never signed a peace treaty with the United States. Native American refugees from northern wars, such as the Yuchi and Yamasee after the Yamasee War in South Carolina and they spoke primarily Hitchiti, of which Mikasuki is a dialect, which is the primary traditional language spoken today by Miccosukee in Florida. In Cuba the Florida tribes suffered high mortality due to disease, in Florida, the Creeks had earlier intermingled with the Choctaw and other few remaining indigenous people. The Seminole were a tribe made up of mostly Lower Creeks from Georgia. At that time, numerous refugees of the Red Sticks migrated south and they were Creek-speaking Muscogee, and were the ancestors of most of the later Creek-speaking Seminole. In addition, a few hundred escaped African-American slaves had settled near the Seminole towns and, to an extent, Native Americans from other tribes. The unified Seminole spoke two languages, Creek and Mikasuki, two among the Muskogean languages family, Creek became the dominant language for political and social discourse, so Mikasuki speakers learned it if participating in high-level negotiations
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Hawaiian Islands
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Formerly the group was known to Europeans and Americans as the Sandwich Islands, a name chosen by James Cook in honor of the then First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. The contemporary name is derived from the name of the largest island, the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown in 1893 and the United States annexed the islands in 1898. The Hawaiian Islands are the peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The islands are about 1,860 miles from the nearest continent and this name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name Hawaii gradually began to take precedence. The Hawaiian Islands have a land area of 6,423.4 square miles. Except for Midway, which is a territory of the United States. The eight main islands of Hawaii are listed here and this number includes all minor islands and islets, or very small island, offshore of the main islands and individual islets in each atoll. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, the age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods.4 Ma. The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the island, Hawaiʻi. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images, almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt, and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained gabbro and diabase, nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. Hawaiʻi island is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, mauna Loa, taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than 2.5 miles, the Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes, generally caused by volcanic activity. Most of the earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo, by missionaries Titus Coan, Sarah J. Lyman. From 1833 to 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year, Hawaii accounted for 7. 3% of the United States reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this period, after Alaska. On October 15,2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, the initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock. Minor-to-moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island, several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu, Oahu, nearly 150 miles from the epicenter
35.
Stained glass
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The term stained glass can refer to coloured glass as a material or to works created from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches, mosques, although traditionally made in flat panels and used as windows, the creations of modern stained glass artists also include three-dimensional structures and sculpture. Modern vernacular usage has extended the term stained glass to include domestic leadlight. As a material stained glass is glass that has been coloured by adding metallic salts during its manufacture. The coloured glass is crafted into stained glass windows in which pieces of glass are arranged to form patterns or pictures, held together by strips of lead. Painted details and yellow stain are used to enhance the design. The term stained glass is applied to windows in which the colours have been painted onto the glass. Stained glass, as an art and a craft, requires the artistic skill to conceive an appropriate and workable design, and the engineering skills to assemble the piece. A window must fit snugly into the space for which it is made, must resist wind and rain, Many large windows have withstood the test of time and remained substantially intact since the late Middle Ages. In Western Europe they constitute the form of pictorial art to have survived. In this context, the purpose of a glass window is not to allow those within a building to see the world outside or even primarily to admit light. For this reason stained glass windows have been described as illuminated wall decorations, Stained glass is still popular today, but often referred to as art glass. It is prevalent in luxury homes, commercial buildings, and places of worship, artists and companies are contracted to create beautiful art glass ranging from domes, windows, backsplashes, etc. During the late Medieval period, glass factories were set up there was a ready supply of silica. Silica requires very high heat to become molten, something not all glass factories were able to achieve, such materials as potash, soda, and lead can be added to lower the melting temperature. Other substances, such as lime, are added to rebuild the weakened network, Glass is coloured by adding metallic oxide powders or finely divided metals while it is in a molten state. Copper oxides produce green or bluish green, cobalt makes deep blue, much modern red glass is produced using copper, which is less expensive than gold and gives a brighter, more vermilion shade of red. Glass coloured while in the pot in the furnace is known as pot metal glass
36.
Church (building)
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A church building, often simply called a church, is a building used for Christian religious activities, particularly worship services. The term in its sense is most often used by Christians to refer to their religious buildings. In traditional Christian architecture, the church is arranged in the shape of a Christian cross. When viewed from plan view the longest part of a cross is represented by the aisle, towers or domes are often added with the intention of directing the eye of the viewer towards the heavens and inspiring church visitors. The earliest identified Christian church was a church founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, a cathedral is a church, usually Roman Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop. In standard Greek usage, the word ecclesia was retained to signify both a specific edifice of Christian worship, and the overall community of the faithful. This usage was retained in Latin and the languages derived from Latin, as well as in the Celtic languages. In the Germanic and some Slavic languages, the word kyriak-ós/-ē/-ón was adopted instead, in Old English the sequence of derivation started as cirice, then churche, and eventually church in its current pronunciation. German Kirche, Scottish kirk, Russian церковь, etc. are all similarly derived, according to the New Testament, the earliest Christians did not build church buildings. Instead, they gathered in homes or in Jewish worship places like the Second Temple or synagogues, the earliest archeologically identified Christian church is a house church, the Dura-Europos church, founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, in addition to being a place of worship, the cathedral or parish church was used by the community in other ways. It could serve as a place for guilds or a hall for banquets. Mystery plays were performed in cathedrals, and cathedrals might also be used for fairs. The church could be used as a place to thresh and store grain, a common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross. These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the west end of the church or over the crossing. The Latin word basilica was used to describe a Roman public building
37.
Satin
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Satin is a weave that typically has a glossy surface and a dull back. The satin weave is characterized by four or more fill or weft yarns floating over a warp yarn or vice versa, four warp yarns floating over a single weft yarn. Floats are missed interfacings, where the yarn lies on top of the weft in a warp-faced satin. These floats explain the even sheen, as unlike in other weaves, the light reflecting is not scattered as much by the fibres, satin is usually a warp-faced weaving technique in which warp yarns are floated over weft yarns, although there are also weft-faced satins. If the yarns used are short-staple yarns such as cotton, the fabric formed is considered a sateen, a satin fabric tends to have a high luster due to the high number of floats on the fabric. Because of this it is used in making bed sheets, many variations can be made of the basic satin weave including a granite weave and a check weave. Satin weaves, twill weaves, and plain weaves are the three types of weaving by which the majority of woven products are formed. Satin is commonly used in apparel, satin baseball jackets, athletic shorts, womens lingerie, nightgowns, blouses, and evening gowns and it is also used in the production of pointe shoes for use in ballet. Other uses include interior furnishing fabrics, upholstery, and bed sheets, originally, during the Middle Ages, satin was made of silk, consequently it was very expensive, used only by the upper classes. Satin became famous in Europe during the twelfth century, the name derives its origin from the Chinese port city of Quanzhou, whose name in Arabic was Zayton. During the latter part of the Middle Ages, it was a shipping port of silk. In a satin weave, the fill yarn passes over multiple warp yarns before interlacing under one warp yarn, common satin weaves are, 4-harness satin weave, also called crowfoot satin, in which the fill yarn passes over three warp yarns and under one warp yarn. It is more pliable than a plain weave, 5-harness satin weave, the fill yarn passes over four warp yarns and then under one yarn. 8-harness satin weave, in which the fill yarn passes over 7 warp yarns and then 1 warp yarn, is the most pliable satin weave, antique satin is a type of satin-back shantung, woven with slubbed or unevenly spun weft yarns. Baronet or baronette has a back and a rayon or silk front. Charmeuse is a lightweight, draping satin-weave fabric with a dull reverse, double face satin is woven with a glossy surface on both sides. It is possible for both sides to have a different pattern, albeit using the same colors, duchess satin is a particularly luxurious, heavy, stiff satin. Farmers satin or Venetian cloth is made from mercerised cotton, gattar is satin made with a silk warp and a cotton weft
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Lead
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Lead is a chemical element with atomic number 82 and symbol Pb. When freshly cut, it is bluish-white, it tarnishes to a dull gray upon exposure to air and it is a soft, malleable, and heavy metal with a density exceeding that of most common materials. Lead has the second-highest atomic number of the stable elements. Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal and its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature and tendency to form covalent bonds. Compounds of lead are found in the +2 oxidation state. Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds, like the lighter members of the group, lead exhibits a tendency to bond to itself, it can form chains, rings, and polyhedral structures. Lead is easily extracted from its ores and was known to people in Western Asia. A principal ore of lead, galena, often bears silver, Lead production declined after the fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels again until the Industrial Revolution. Nowadays, global production of lead is about ten million tonnes annually, Lead has several properties that make it useful, high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness to oxidation. In the late 19th century, lead was recognized as poisonous, Lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones, damaging the nervous system and causing brain disorders and, in mammals, blood disorders. A lead atom has 82 electrons, arranged in a configuration of 4f145d106s26p2. The combined first and second ionization energies—the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin, leads upper neighbor in group 14. This is unusual since ionization energies generally fall going down a group as an elements outer electrons become more distant from the nucleus, the similarity is caused by the lanthanide contraction—the decrease in element radii from lanthanum to lutetium, and the relatively small radii of the elements after hafnium. The contraction is due to shielding of the nucleus by the lanthanide 4f electrons. The combined first four ionization energies of lead exceed those of tin, for this reason lead, unlike tin, mostly forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of +2, rather than +4. Relativistic effects, which become particularly prominent at the bottom of the periodic table, as a result, the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, a phenomenon called the inert pair effect. A related outcome is that the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead is unusually long, the lighter group 14 elements form stable or metastable allotropes having the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp3 orbitals
39.
Jeogori
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The jeogori is a basic upper garment of hanbok, Korean traditional garment, which has been worn by both men and women. It covers the arms and upper part of the wearers body, the jeogori has been worn since ancient times, and went by various names such as yu, boksam, uihae in the Three Kingdoms period. Although it is unknown when the term, jeogori began to be used to refer the garment, the first historical document to mention the jeogori is Cheongjeonui for Queen Wongyeong, which was a funeral ceremony for carrying the coffin out of the palace. The document written in 1420 during the reign of Sejong the Great records jeokgori and danjeokgori. However, there is no certainty whether the record is a transliteration of a Korean word or Mongolian influence. Before the Goryeo period, such an upper garment was referred to as uihae in Silla, as the uihae was a transliteration of the Silla language, dialects such as uti and uchi still remain to present. The basic form of a Jeogori consists of gil, git, dongjeong, goreum, gil is the large section of the garment in both front and back side and git is a band of fabric that trims the collar. Dongjeong is a white collar placed over the end of the git and is generally squared off. The goreum are coat strings attached to the breast part to tie the jeogori, womens jeogori may have kkeutdong, a different colored cuff placed on the end of the sleeves. The form of jeogri has been changed as time goes by, there are several types of jeogori according to fabric, sewing technique, and shape. Dopo Durumagi Hanbok Jeonbok Kimono Po Sagyusam Lee Ho-jeong, clothing with stories of fertility and faith
40.
Longarm quilting
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Longarm quilting is the process by which a longarm sewing machine is used to sew together a quilt top, quilt batting and quilt backing into a finished quilt. The longarm sewing machine frame typically ranges from 10 to 14 feet in length, Quilting using a longarm machine can take significantly less time than hand quilting or more traditional machine quilting. This time saving is a factor in the gain in popularity of longarm quilting. The advent of the machine led to an idea known as a “quilting machine. The first quilting frame and machine consisted only of two bars that allowed the user to move the quilt and the frame beneath the machine to quilt straight, parallel lines on the fabric. By roughly 1877, the design had been modified, and began to look similar to the design quilters now know as a longarm quilting machine, before electricity, the operator used a hand crank to move the machine along the rails and over the fabric. Almost 30 years later, the designs and patents for quilting machines had changed drastically, while the Depression era caused a decrease in the interest in sewing machines and an increase in hand sewing, the quilting machine still managed to take on new and exciting designs. During the past 20 years the longarm sewing machine has become a popular and familiar concept to quilters, the speed and ease with which a quilter can have a quilt top finished by a longarm quilter has caused an increase in recent years for quilting. These machines allow quilters to have their quilts finished without going through the time-consuming process associated with normal machine quilting or hand quilting, sewers can now take their finished quilt tops to professional longarm quilting businesses and pay a fee to have their quilting done by a longarm quilter. The availability of relatively quick and reasonably affordable quilting services has helped to cause a surge in the quilting business, the longarm quilting machine comes equipped with a sewing machine head, a worktable, several fabric rollers, and a metal frame. The overall dimensions of the frame can range from 10 to 14 feet in length by two-and-a-half to four feet in depth, the machine comes equipped with a table region. The table size ranges in lengths like the machine, larger table sizes can accommodate up to king sized quilts. Typically, the contains a flat region on which a layer of thin, clear plastic lies, on which patterns. The sewing machine head is large and made of industrial strength metal and it can be either hand-guided or computer guided, with controls at both the front and back ends to guide the head. For a full range of movement, the machine head is placed on wheels that run on metal tracks along the frame of the machine. The sewing machine head can also come with a laser pointer, pantographs are placed underneath the clear plastic region of the table. The hand-guided machine head contains handles by which the quilter can guide the machine along the fabric to sew the design of choice, a computer-guided machine head is hooked up to a computer system that allows the quilter to select the chosen design to be sewn onto the fabrics. With the push of a button on the keyboard, the longarm sewing machine will sew the design onto the quilt with minimal physical assistance
41.
Computer-aided design
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Computer-aided design is the use of computer systems to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The term CADD is also used and its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation, or EDA. In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design automation or computer-aided drafting, however, it involves more than just shapes. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in space, or curves, surfaces. CAD is also used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles, because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics, and discrete differential geometry. The design of models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric design. Eventually CAD provided the designer with the ability to perform engineering calculations, during this transition, calculations were still performed either by hand or by those individuals who could run computer programs. CAD was a change in the engineering industry, where draftsmen, designers. It did not eliminate departments, as much as it merged departments and empowered draftsman, CAD is just another example of the pervasive effect computers were beginning to have on industry. Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid, modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of mathematical modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CAD. CAD technology is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings and it can also be used to design objects. Furthermore, many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs, 4D BIM is a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule related information for project management. CAD has become an important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs. CAD enables designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out, computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question. Document management and revision control using Product Data Management, potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD
42.
Training
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Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. Training has specific goals of improving ones capability, capacity, productivity and it forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institutes of technology. People within many professions and occupations may refer to this sort of training as professional development, Physical training concentrates on mechanistic goals, training-programs in this area develop specific skills or muscles, often with a view of peaking at a particular time. Some physical training programs focus on raising overall physical fitness, in military use, training means gaining the physical ability to perform and survive in combat, and learning the many skills needed in a time of war. These include how to use a variety of weapons, outdoor survival skills, while some studies have indicated relaxation training is useful for some medical conditions, autogenic training has limited results or has been the result of few studies. Some commentators use a term for workplace learning to improve performance, training. There are also additional services available online for those who wish to receive training above, some examples of these services include career counseling, skill assessment, and supportive services. One can generally categorize such training as on-the-job or off-the-job, the on-the-job training method takes place in a normal working situation, using the actual tools, equipment, documents or materials that trainees will use when fully trained. On-the-job training has a reputation as most effective for vocational work. It involves employee training at the place of work while he or she is doing the actual job. Usually a professional trainer serves as the course instructor using hands-on training often supported by formal classroom training, sometimes training can occur by using web based technology or video conferencing tools. Simulation based training is another method which uses technology to assist in trainee development and this is particularly common in the training of skills requiring a very high degree of practice, and in those which include a significant responsibility for life and property. An advantage is that simulation training allows the trainer to find, study, off-the-job training method takes place away from normal work situations — implying that the employee does not count as a directly productive worker while such training takes place. Off-the-job training method also involves employee training at an away from the actual work environment. It often utilizes lectures, case studies, role playing and simulation, having the advantage of allowing people to get away from work and this type of training has proven more effective in inculcating concepts and ideas. Many personnel selection companies offer a service which would help to improve employee competences, the internal personnel training topics can vary from effective problem solving skills to leadership training. A more recent development in job training is the On the Job Training Plan, note for example the institutionalised spiritual training of Threefold Training in Buddhism, Meditation in Hinduism or discipleship in Christianity. These aspects of training can be short term or last a lifetime, depending on the context of the training, instructor Guide, is an important document available to an instructor. Specifically, it is used within a Lesson Plan, as the blueprint that ensures instruction is presented in proper sequence, objectives of a lesson plan, To ensure that instructors have considered all factors necessary to conduct a safe and effective lesson
43.
Ralli quilt
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Ralli quilts are traditional quilts made by women in the areas of Sindh, Pakistan, western India, and in surrounding areas. They are just now gaining recognition, even though women have been making these quilts for hundreds. Rallis are a symbol for the regions where they are made. The most common uses are for a single person sized bedcover or as small bag or eating cloth, traditionally rallis were made at home, from recycled and hand dyed cotton cloth, for use by the family. Now there is some production of rallis as colourful quilts, table runners and cushions. This production can be found in Sindh in Umerkot and Tharparkat as well as in the Indian States of Rajasthan, in the past decade, rallis have gained much popularity and notice. Articles about rallis have appeared in many popular American quilting magazines, many people escaped the floods with only their families and their rallis. Women in the camps used their time to make more rallis to use or to sell. In Pakistan, Quilting Ralli Applique work particularly for womens clothing The rallis come in three categories of design, patchwork, appliqué, and embroidery, patchwork is the most common and is found on most village beds. Many of the designs are very complex, the designs are not written down but are held in the womens memories and are passed down from mother to daughter. Applique designs are found throughout the ralli region. Small squares of fabric are cut out, edges are turned under, embroidery quilts are the speciality of a few nomadic groups especially the Saami. These quilts generally use a piece of whole or patched cloth. Many regions and communities have their own colors and patterns in their rallis. The traditional colors of rallis are called satrangi or seven colors Some communities will prefer other colors, for example the Hindus like pink and light green, rallis are made in a simple way with only fabric, thread, needles and scissors. The top of the quilt is usually the work of one woman, when the top portion is all pieced and sewn together, she will start to sew it together. A reed mat is placed on the ground, the cloth that is to be the back or bottom of the quilt is placed on the mat. On top of that is placed small scraps of fabric that will be the filling of the quilt and these are basted to the bottom with large stitches
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
45.
Baltimore album quilts
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Baltimore Album Quilts originated in Baltimore, Maryland in the 1840s. They have become one of the most popular styles of quilts and are made today. These quilts are made up of a number of squares called blocks, each block has been appliquéd with a different design. The designs are floral, but many other motifs are also used, such as eagles. They have a background of white and incorporate many primary colors such as reds, greens, in the beginning, these quilts of appliquéd blocks were often designed by the maker. In time, patterns by accomplished designers were used, Baltimore Album Quilts reflected the prosperous community of Baltimore, the second largest city in the United States until the civil war, as most were made not with scraps, but with new fabric. Improvements in fabric manufacture and dying provided new colors that were incorporated into the album designs, as the popularity of this quilt style grew, women far beyond Baltimore began making these album quilts. Most Baltimore Album quilts were signed, the discovery of an indelible ink made it possible to ink flowery poetry and sayings along with a signature on each block. It appears making these quilts were popular with young women. Many included blocks each made by a different person, the complexity of the designs of the blocks demonstrated the skill and taste of the maker. Many hours were devoted to the creation of each of these quilts, the largest collection of Baltimore Album quilts can be found at the Maryland Historical Society in Baltimores historic Mt. Vernon neighborhood. There, over 10,750 textiles including the quilts, are preserved with other samplers, Baltimore Museum of Art Textile Collection Baltimore Album Quilt History and Research Home of Marylou McDonalds Baltimore Quilts website. A tour of the quilts at the Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore Album Elegant Sampler Quilts The Elly Sienkiewicz Appliqué Academy Quilters Muse Publications Baltimore album quilts exhibition catalog 2003, Elly Sienkiewicz. The Best of Baltimore Beauties, More Patterns for Album Blocks ISBN 1-57120-149-11995, for Purpose and Pleasure, Quilting Together in Nineteenth-Century America ISBN 1-55853-337-0
46.
Corded quilting
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Corded quilting is a decorative quilting technique popular from the late 17th through the early 19th centuries. In corded quilting, a fabric, sometimes colored silk. Tiny quilting stitches in closely spaced rows fill the motifs and provide contrast to the corded outlines, corded quilting was popular for dresses, petticoats, and waistcoats as well as curtains and bedcoverings. The principal areas of production using this technique were southern France and Italy
47.
Hawaiian quilt
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A Hawaiian quilt is a distinctive quilting style of the Hawaiian Islands that uses large radially symmetric applique patterns. Motifs often work stylized botanical designs in bold colors on a white background, Hawaiian quilt applique is made from a single cut on folded fabric. Quilting stitches normally follow the contours of the applique design, Hawaiian quilting derives from the kapa moe, an indigenous bed cover textile. Kapa was constructed from the bark of local trees. Traditional kapa was beaten and felted, then dyed in geometric patterns, Quilting may have begun in the Hawaiian islands with the arrival of missionaries and Western fabrics in the 1820s. The climate of Hawaii is unsuitable for cultivation and kapa is unsuitable for quilting so all Hawaiian quilts are constructed from imported material. The earliest written reference comes from Isabella Bird who visited Hawaii in 1870, another Hawaiian quilt style is the Hawaiian flag quilt, also known as Ku’u Hae Aloha quilts. The typical flag quilt includes four Hawaiian flags surrounding a royal Hawaiian coat of arms or crown, flag quilts combine pieced work with appliqued motifs, unlike other traditional Hawaiian quilts, which do not use pieced work. Flag quilts may have originated as early as 1843, when Lord George Paulet claimed the Hawaiian Islands for the British, many of these flag quilts date back to the overthrow of the monarchy, when displaying the Hawaiian flag was considered treason. Quilts bearing symbols of the monarchy were a form of silent resistance, Hawaiian quilters also made other styles of quilts including embroidering quilts and crazy quilting. The most famous Hawaiian crazy quilt is the one made by Queen Liliuokalani during her internment after the overthrow of the monarchy. Antique flag quilts fetch higher prices than applique quilts, high quality flag quilts may be valued at $40,000 - $60,000 while applique quilts sell for $9000 – $15,000. Factors that affect price include the quality of the construction, preservation of the items color and physical integrity. Hawaiian art Serrao, Poakalani, The Hawaiian quilt, A spiritual experience, Reflection on its history, heritage, designing, quilting methods and patterns, Honolulu, finding Paradise, Island Art in Private Collections, University of Hawaii Press,2002, 237-254. The Queens Quilt Quilting History of Hawaii Bishop Museum Quilt Database A Stitch in Time Article about Hawaiian quilters by Cheryl Tsutsumi, maui No Ka Oi Magazine Vol.12 No.6
48.
Nakshi kantha
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Nakshi kantha, a type of embroidered quilt, is a centuries-old Bengali art tradition in Bangladesh. The basic material used is thread and old cloth, kanthas are made throughout Bangladesh, but the greater Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Faridpur and Jessore areas are most famous for this craft. The colourful patterns and designs that are embroidered resulted in the name Nakshi Kantha, which was derived from the Bengali word naksha, which refers to artistic patterns. The early kanthas had a white background accented with red, blue and black embroidery, later yellow, green, pink, the running stitch called kantha stitch is the main stitch used for the purpose. Traditionally, kantha was produced for the use of the family, today, after the revival of the nakshi kantha, they are produced commercially. The word kantha has no discernible etymological root, the exact time of origin of the word kantha is not accurately known but it probably had a precursor in kheta. According to Niaz Zaman, the word originated from the Sanskrit word kontha. Like any other art, kantha making is influenced by factors such as materials available, daily needs, climate, geography. Probably the earliest form of kantha was the patchwork kantha, the earliest mention of Bengal Kantha is found in the book Sri Sri Chaitanya Charitamrita by Krishnadas Kaviraj, which was written some five hundred years ago. The famous Bengali poet Jasimuddin also had a famous poem named Nakshi Kanthar Math Traditionally old sarees. Kantha making was not a full-time job, women in almost every household were expert in the art. Rural women worked at leisure time or during the days of the rainy season. At least five to seven sarees were needed to make a standard-size kantha, today the old materials are replaced by new cotton cloths. Traditionally the thread was collected from the old sarees, when a kantha is being made, first the sarees are joined together to attain the required size, and then layers are spread out on the ground. The cloths are then smoothed, and no folds or creases are left in between, during the process, the cloth is kept flat on the ground with weights on the edges. Then the four edges are stitched and two or three rows of running stitches are done to keep the kantha together. At this stage, the kantha can be folded and stitched at leisure time, originally, designs and motifs were not drawn on the cloth. The design was first outlined with needle and thread, followed by focal points, in a kantha with a predominant central motif the centre was done first, followed by corner designs and the other details
49.
Patchwork quilt
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A patchwork quilt is a quilt in which the top layer may consist of pieces of fabric sewn together to form a design. Originally, this was to make use of left-over scraps of fabric. Fabrics are now sold in quarter meters. Designs can be geometric and formal or imaginative, patchwork blocks were initially created individually, accumulated over time, by use of scrap and salvaged material. Geometric designs were the most efficient way to aggregate fabric into useful units, applique, where a piece of fabric is layered on top of the a base or ground fabric and then the cut edges are folded under and sewn down, is not limited to simple geometric designs. Early uses of applique in the United States included efforts to expand the effect of expensive, the dense printed patterns were cut out, spread apart on a background of plain fabric, allowing the effect of the rare fabric to spread further. Broderie perse is a technique, where selections of printed fabric are cut out. Reverse applique involves cutting the fabric, and placing another fabric beneath the opening. The raw, cut edges are folded under, and sewn onto the piece of fabric below. Additional design options are provided by quilting techniques that alter the texture of the quilt and these include, trapunto, cording, and stipple quilting. Another, more casual option is to tie the quilt, heavy thread or yarn is used to tie all three layers together at points across the surface of the quilt. The quilt is formed of three layers, the patchwork, a layer of insulation wadding and a layer of backing material and these three layers are stitched together, either by hand or machine. Outline quilting is when the pieces of the pattern are outlined by the quilting stitches, quilting was a very popular early American pastime, particularly in the Midwest, where quilting circles were a common social pastime for women. Quilting bees were when many women gathered around a quilting frame, annual town fairs generally included a quilting prize to award excellence in quilting. Handmade quilts were a common wedding gift for young couples. The Amish people are famous for their geometric patchwork designs made with solid color fabrics, with independent patterns and quilting, typical motifs include floral designs, the Amish and Mennonite women of the Pennsylvania Dutch country have been creating exquisite quilted masterpieces since the mid-19th century. Amish quilts are an expression of frugality and they not only serve a practical, functional purpose, but serve as a form of entertainment as well. In 1987 in San Francisco, the Names Project commenced as a memorial to the lives of people who died from AIDS, also known as the AIDS Quilt, it grew to comprise many thousands of panels, and spawned similar projects in countries around the globe
