1.
Human bonding
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Human bonding is the process of development of a close, interpersonal relationship. It most commonly takes place between family members or friends, but can also develop among groups, such as sporting teams, Bonding is a mutual, interactive process, and is different from simple liking. Bonding typically refers to the process of attachment that develops between romantic partners, close friends, or parents and children and this bond is characterized by emotions such as affection and trust. Any two people who spend time together may form a bond, male bonding refers to the establishment of relationships between men through shared activities that often exclude females. The term female bonding refers to the formation of personal relationships between women. In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Plato argued that love directs the bonds of human society, in his Symposium, Eryximachus, one of the narrators in the dialog, states that love goes far beyond simple attraction to human beauty. He states that it occurs throughout the animal and plant kingdoms, Love directs everything that occurs, in the realm of the gods as well as that of humans. Eryximachus reasons that when various opposing elements such as wet and dry are animated by the species of Love. But when the sort of Love that is crude and impulsive controls the seasons, he brings death, Plato concludes that the highest form of love is the greatest. That is, according to Spinoza, when a man is prey to his emotions, he is not his own master, humans in passionate relationships, according to Goethe, are analogous to reactive substances in a chemical equation. The term pair bond originated in 1940 in reference to mated pairs of birds, whilst some form of monogamy may characterize around 90% of bird species, in mammals long-term pairing is rare, at around 3%. The incidence of monogamy in primate species is low in contrast with polygyny. Similarly, whilst the naturalness of monogamy in humans is debated, limerent–Nonlimerent bond, define relationships in which one partner is limerent. Limerent–Limerent bond, define relationships in both partners are limerent. The constitution of these bonds may vary over the course of the relationship, in 1958, British developmental psychologist John Bowlby published the paper the Nature of the Childs Tie to his Mother, in which the precursory concepts of attachment theory were developed. Attachment theory has some of its origins in the observation of and experiments with animals, much of the early research on attachment in humans was done by John Bowlby and his associates. Bowlby proposed that babies have an inbuilt need from birth to make emotional attachments, i. e. bonds, Bowlby did not describe mutuality in attachment. He stated that attachment by mother was an inversion and described only behaviors of the infant
2.
Father
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A father is the male parent of a child. An adoptive father is a male who has become the parent through the legal process of adoption. A biological father is the male genetic contributor to the creation of the baby, a biological father may have legal obligations to a child not raised by him, such as an obligation of monetary support. A putative father is a man whose relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. The adjective paternal refers to a father and comparatively to maternal for a mother, the verb to father means to procreate or to sire a child from which also derives the noun fathering. Biological fathers determine the sex of their child through a cell which either contains an X chromosome. Related terms of endearment are dad, papa, pappa, papasita, a male role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a father-figure. The paternity rights of a father with regard to his children differ widely from country to country often reflecting the level of involvement, paternity leave Parental leave is when a father takes time off to support his newly born or adopted baby. Paid paternity leave first began in Sweden in 1976, and is paid in more than half of European Union countries, in the case of male same-sex couples the law often makes no provision for either one or both fathers to take paternity leave. Child custody Fathers rights movements such as Fathers 4 Justice argue that family courts are biased against fathers, Child support Child support is an ongoing periodic payment made by one parent to the other, it is normally paid by the parent who does not have custody. Paternity fraud An estimated 2% of British fathers experiences paternity fraud during a non-paternity event, in almost all cultures fathers are regarded as secondary caregivers. This perception is changing with more and more fathers becoming primary caregivers, while mothers go to work or in single parenting situations. Fatherhood in the Western World In the West, the image of the father as the primary wage-earner is changing. The social context of fatherhood plays an important part in the well-being of men, in the United States 16% of single parents were men as of 2013. Importance of father or father-figure Involved fathers offer developmentally specific provisions to their children and are impacted themselves by doing so, active father figures may play a role in reducing behavior and psychological problems in young adults. An increased amount of father–child involvement may help increase a childs social stability, educational achievement and their children may also be more curious about the world around them and develop greater problem solving skills. Children who were raised with fathers perceive themselves to be cognitively and physically competent than their peers without a father. Mothers raising children together with a father reported less severe disputes with their child, the father-figure is not always a childs biological father and some children will have a biological father as well as a step- or nurturing father
3.
Child
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Biologically, a child is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty. The legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a younger than the age of majority. There are many issues that affect children, such as childhood education, bullying, child poverty, dysfunctional families, child labor, hunger. Children can be raised by parents, by fosterers, guardians or partially raised in a day care center. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines child as a human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child and this is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. Biologically, a child is generally anyone between birth and puberty, some English definitions of the word child include the fetus. In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a rite of passage, recognition of childhood as a state different from adulthood began to emerge in the 16th and 17th centuries. Society began to relate to the not as a miniature adult but as a person of a lower level of maturity needing adult protection, love. This change can be traced in paintings, In the Middle Ages, in the 16th century, images of children began to acquire a distinct childlike appearance. From the late 17th century onwards, children were playing with toys. Every child goes through stages of social development. An infant or very young child will play alone happily, if another child wanders onto the scene, he or she may be physically attacked or pushed out of the way. Next, the child can play with another child, gradually learning to share, eventually, the group grows larger, to three or four children. By the time a child enters kindergarten, he or she can join in. Children with ADHD and learning disabilities may need help to develop social skills. The impulsive characteristics of an ADHD child may lead to poor peer relationships, children with poor attention spans may not tune into social cues in their environment, making it difficult for them to learn social skills through experience. The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions has changed over time. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, in the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime
4.
Attachment theory
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Attachment theory is a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans. However, attachment theory is not formulated as a theory of relationships. It addresses only a specific facet, how human beings respond within relationships when hurt, separated from loved ones, essentially all infants become attached if provided any caregiver, but there are individual differences in the quality of the relationships. Fathers or any other individuals, are likely to become principal attachment figures if they provide most of the child care. In the presence of a sensitive and responsive caregiver, the infant will use the caregiver as a base from which to explore. It should be recognized that even sensitive caregivers get it right only about 50 percent of the time and their communications are either out of synch, or mismatched. There are times when parents feel tired or distracted, the telephone rings or there is breakfast to prepare. In other words, attuned interactions rupture quite frequently, but the hallmark of a sensitive caregiver is that the ruptures are managed and repaired. Attachments between infants and caregivers form even if this caregiver is not sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, infants cannot exit unpredictable or insensitive caregiving relationships. Instead they must manage themselves as best they can within such relationships, early patterns of attachment, in turn, shape — but do not determine — the individuals expectations in later relationships. Four different attachment classifications have been identified in children, secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, anxious-avoidant attachment, and disorganized attachment. Attachment theory has become the dominant theory used today in the study of infant and toddler behavior and in the fields of infant mental health, treatment of children, and related fields. Secure attachment is when children feel they can rely on their caregivers to attend to their needs of proximity, emotional support and it is considered to be the best attachment style. Anxious-ambivalent attachment is when the infant feels separation anxiety when separated from the caregiver, anxious-avoidant attachment is when the infant avoids their parents. Disorganized attachment is when there is a lack of attachment behavior, in the 1980s, the theory was extended to attachment in adults. Attachment applies to adults when adults feel close attachment to their parents, within attachment theory, attachment means a biological instinct in which proximity to an attachment figure is sought when the child senses or perceives threat or discomfort. Attachment behaviour anticipates a response by the attachment figure which will remove threat or discomfort. Such bonds may be reciprocal between two adults, but between a child and a caregiver these bonds are based on the childs need for safety, security and protection, paramount in infancy, in the most complex organisms, instinctive behaviors may be goal-corrected with continual on-course adjustments
5.
Testosterone
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Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. In addition, testosterone is essential for health and well-being, insufficient levels of testosterone in men may lead to abnormalities including frailty and bone loss. Testosterone is also used as a medication to treat male hypogonadism, since testosterone levels gradually decrease as men age, synthetic testosterone is sometimes prescribed to older men to counteract this deficiency. Testosterone is a steroid from the class containing a keto. It is biosynthesized in several steps from cholesterol and is converted in the liver to inactive metabolites and it exerts its action through binding to and activation of the androgen receptor. In humans and most other vertebrates, testosterone is secreted primarily by the testicles of males and, to a lesser extent, small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands. On average, in males, levels of testosterone are about 7–8 times as great as in adult females. As the metabolic consumption of testosterone in males is greater, the production is about 20 times greater in men. Females are also sensitive to the hormone. In general, androgens such as testosterone promote protein synthesis and thus growth of tissues with androgen receptors, Testosterone can be described as having virilising and anabolic effects. Anabolic effects include growth of mass and strength, increased bone density and strength. Many of these fall into the category of secondary sex characteristics. Testosterone effects can also be classified by the age of usual occurrence, for postnatal effects in both males and females, these are mostly dependent on the levels and duration of circulating free testosterone. Effects before birth are divided into two categories, classified in relation to the stages of development, the first period occurs between 4 and 6 weeks of the gestation. There is also development of the gland and seminal vesicles. During the second trimester, androgen level is associated with gender formation and this period affects the femininization or masculinization of the fetus and can be a better predictor of feminine or masculine behaviours such as sex typed behaviour than an adults own levels. Early infancy androgen effects are the least understood, in the first weeks of life for male infants, testosterone levels rise. The levels remain in a range for a few months
6.
Infant formula
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Infant formula is a manufactured food designed and marketed for feeding to babies and infants under 12 months of age, usually prepared for bottle-feeding or cup-feeding from powder or liquid. Although E. sakazakii can cause illness in all age groups, between 1958 and 2006, there have been several dozen reported cases of E. sakazakii infection worldwide. The WHO believes that such infections are under-reported, the use and marketing of infant formula has come under scrutiny. Despite the recommendation that babies be exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months, some studies have shown that use of formula can vary according to the parents socio-economic status, ethnicity or other characteristics. For example, according to a research conducted in Vancouver, Canada,82, the use of hydrolysed cow milk baby formula versus standard milk baby formula does not appear to change the risk of allergies or autoimmune diseases. In some cases, breastfeeding is medically contraindicated and these include, Mothers health, The mother is infected with HIV or has active tuberculosis. She is extremely ill or has had certain kinds of breast surgery, Breastfeeding by an HIV-infected mother poses a 5–20% chance of transmitting HIV to the baby. However, if a mother has HIV, she is likely to transmit it to her child during the pregnancy or birth than during breastfeeding. A2012 study conducted by researchers from the University of North Carolina School of Medicine showed reduced HIV-1 transmission in humanized mice, cytomegalovirus infection poses potentially dangerous consequences for pre-term babies. Baby is unable to breastfeed, The child has a defect or inborn error of metabolism such as galactosemia that makes breastfeeding difficult or impossible. Risks can often be mitigated with improved diet and education of mothers and caregivers, including availability of macro and micronutrients. For example, in Canada, marketed infant formulas are fortified with vitamin D, personal preferences, beliefs, and experiences, The mother may dislike breast-feeding or think it is inconvenient. In addition, breastfeeding can be difficult for victims of rape or sexual abuse, for example, many families bottle feed to increase the fathers role in parenting his child. Absence of the mother, The child is adopted, orphaned, abandoned, the mother is separated from her child by being in prison or a mental hospital. The mother has left the child in the care of another person for a period of time. Food allergies, The mother eats foods that may provoke a reaction in the infant. Financial pressures, Maternity leave is unpaid, insufficient, or lacking, the mothers employment interferes with breastfeeding. However, formula is expensive and breastfeeding is effectively free, social pressures, Family members, such as mothers husband or boyfriend, or friends or other members of society may encourage the use of infant formula
7.
Baby food
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Baby food is any soft, easily consumed food, other than breastmilk or infant formula, that is made specifically for babies, roughly between the ages of four to six months and two years. Baby food can be given when the child is ready to eat. Signs of readiness include the ability to sit without help, loss of tongue thrust, most six-month-old infants are physiologically and developmentally ready for new foods, textures and modes of feeding. Experts advising the World Health Assembly have provided evidence that introducing solids earlier than six months increases babies chances of illness, one of the health concerns associated with the introduction of solid foods before six months is iron deficiency. The early introduction of foods may satisfy the hunger of the infant, resulting in less frequent breastfeeding. This way, if the child is unable to tolerate a certain food, newborns need a diet of breastmilk or infant formula. About 40% of the energy in these milks comes from carbohydrates. Toddlers and preschoolers generally ate too little dietary fiber, and preschoolers generally ate too much saturated fat, micronutrient levels were typically within the recommended levels. A small group of infants in the American study needed more iron and zinc. A substantial proportion of toddlers and preschoolers exceeded the recommended level of synthetic folate, preformed vitamin A, zinc. Baby foods are either a soft, liquid paste or an easily chewed food since babies lack developed muscles, Babies typically move to consuming baby food once nursing or formula is not sufficient for the childs appetite. Babies do not need to have teeth to transition to eating solid foods, teeth, however, normally do begin to show up at this age. Care should be taken with foods that pose a choking hazard, such as undercooked vegetables, grapes. Babies begin eating liquid style baby food consisting of pureed vegetables and fruits, sometimes mixed with rice cereal and formula, then, as the baby is better able to chew, small, soft pieces or lumps may be included. Around 6 months of age, babies may begin to feed themselves with help from parents, homemade baby food is less expensive than commercial baby foods. Homemade food is only when the family has a sufficient and varied diet, as well as access to refrigeration. Homemade food requires more time than opening a jar or box of ready-to-eat commercial baby food. Food may need to be minced or pureed for young babies, or cooked separately without the salt, intense spices, or sugar that the family chooses to eat
8.
Babywearing
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Babywearing is the practice of wearing or carrying a baby in a sling or in another form of carrier. Babywearing has been practiced for centuries around the world, in the industrialized world, babywearing has gained popularity in recent decades. Part of the reason for this shift is due to the influence of advocates of attachment parenting, Babywearing is a form of baby transport which can be enjoyed for as long as mutually desired, often until toddlerhood and beyond. Dr. William Sears, a pediatrician, coined the phrase attachment parenting, one of Sears principles of attachment parenting is babywearing and he attributes many benefits to babywearing and the in-arms style of parenting. Infants who are carried are generally calmer because all of their needs are met. Parental rhythms can have balancing and soothing effects on infants, infants are humanized earlier by developing socially. Babies are closer to people and can study facial expressions, learn languages faster, attachment between child and caregiver is more secure. Decreases risk of positional plagiocephaly caused by extended time spent in a car seat, cranial distortion resulting from non-vehicular time in car seats has shown to be more severe than in children who develop plagiocephaly from back-lying on a mattress. Concern over plagiocephaly has also led the American Academy of Pediatrics to recommend that infants “should spend minimal time in car seats or other seating that maintains supine positioning, none of the babywearing positions require infants to lie supine while being carried. Infants can even be worn while they sleep, also decreasing sleeping time spent in a supine position, Babywearing allows the wearer to have two free hands to accomplish tasks such as laundry while caring for the babys need to be held or be breastfed. Babywearing offers an alternative to placing a car seat on top of a shopping cart. It also allows children to be involved in interactions and to see their surroundings as an adult would. It follows that many sling and soft carrier users have found that carrying their infant is much easier on the back, the weight of the child is spread more evenly across the upper body and they dont have to struggle with a bulky, hard and awkward car seat. Wraps, slings, mei tais, and soft structured carriers with buckles make up the vast majority of carriers, in the western world, carriers can also be seen as a fashion statement and be worn as part of an outfit. Breastfeeding and babywearing often go hand in hand, many baby slings and other carriers offer mothers privacy and for many mothers, the option of nursing hands-free while tending to other activities or household chores. Not all mothers can nurse hands-free in a baby carrier, large-breasted mothers and mothers of small or hypotonic infants may need to support the breast or help maintain proper positioning of the babys head or body. Even so, a properly adjusted baby carrier can help reduce arm strain and allow a mother more freedom of movement while nursing, Babywearing can help premature babies and babies who are slow weight gainers to gain weight at a faster rate. Since the baby is held up close to the mother, the baby will be able to be nursed more often and often for longer intervals, kangaroo care is well-studied and has shown clear benefits to premature and ill infants
9.
Baby transport
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Various methods of transporting children have been used in different cultures and times. These methods include prams, infant car seats, portable bassinets, strollers, slings, backpacks, baskets, the large, heavy prams, which had become popular during the Victorian era, were replaced by lighter designs during the latter half of the 1900s. William Kent developed an early stroller in 1733, in 1733, the Duke of Devonshire asked Kent to build a means of transport that would carry his children. Kent obliged by constructing a shell shaped basket on wheels that the children could sit in and this was richly decorated and meant to be pulled by a goat or small pony. These included adding a brake to carriages, a model which folded, designs for parasols, by 1840, the baby carriage became extremely popular. Queen Victoria bought three carriages from Hitchings Baby Store, the carriages of those days were built of wood or wicker and held together by expensive brass joints. These sometimes became heavily ornamented works of art, models were also named after royalty, Princess and Duchess being popular names, as well as Balmoral and Windsor. In June 1889, William H. Richardson patented his idea of the first reversible stroller, the bassinet was designed so it could face out or in towards the parent. He also made changes to the carriage. Until then the axis did not allow each wheel to move separately, Richardson’s design allowed this, as the 1920s began, prams were now available to all families and were becoming safer, with larger wheels, brakes, deeper prams, and lower, sturdier frames. In 1965, Owen Maclaren, an engineer, worked on complaints his daughter made about travelling from England to America with her heavy pram. Using his knowledge of aeroplanes, Maclaren designed a stroller with an aluminium frame and he then went on to found Maclaren, which manufactured and sold his new design. The design took off and soon “strollers” were easier to transport, in the 1970s, however, the trend was more towards a more basic version, not fully sprung, and with a detachable body known as a carrycot. Now, prams are very used, being large and expensive when compared with buggies. One of the longer lived and better known brands in the UK is Silver Cross, first manufactured in Hunslet, Leeds, in 1877 and they continue to sell the traditional Silver Cross coach prams which are manufactured at a factory in Bingley in Yorkshire. Since the 1980s, the industry has developed with new features, safer construction. Larger and heavier prams, or perambulators had been used since their introduction in the Victorian era, prams were also used for infants, the term carrycot became more common in the UK after the introduction of lighter units with detachable baby carriers in the 1970s. As they developed through the suspension was added, making the ride smoother for both the baby and the person pushing it
10.
Adoption
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Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. Adoption for the well-born While the modern form of adoption emerged in the United States, the Code of Hammurabi, for example, details the rights of adopters and the responsibilities of adopted individuals at length. The practice of adoption in ancient Rome is well documented in the Codex Justinianus, the use of adoption by the aristocracy is well documented, many of Romes emperors were adopted sons. Infant adoption during Antiquity appears rare, abandoned children were often picked up for slavery and composed a significant percentage of the Empires slave supply. Roman legal records indicate that foundlings were occasionally taken in by families, although not normally adopted under Roman Law, the children, called alumni, were reared in an arrangement similar to guardianship, being considered the property of the father who abandoned them. Other ancient civilizations, notably India and China, used some form of adoption as well, evidence suggests the goal of this practice was to ensure the continuity of cultural and religious practices, in contrast to the Western idea of extending family lines. China had a idea of adoption with males adopted solely to perform the duties of ancestor worship. The practice of adopting the children of members and close friends was common among the cultures of Polynesia including Hawaii where the custom was referred to as hānai. Adoption and commoners The nobility of the Germanic, Celtic, in medieval society, bloodlines were paramount, a ruling dynasty lacking a natural-born heir apparent was replaced, a stark contrast to Roman traditions. The evolution of European law reflects this aversion to adoption, english Common Law, for instance, did not permit adoption since it contradicted the customary rules of inheritance. Some adoptions continued to occur, however, but became informal, for example, in the year 737, in a charter from the town of Lucca, three adoptees were made heirs to an estate. Europes cultural makeover marked a period of significant innovation for adoption, without support from the nobility, the practice gradually shifted toward abandoned children. Abandonment levels rose with the fall of the empire and many of the foundlings were left on the doorstep of the Church, initially, the clergy reacted by drafting rules to govern the exposing, selling, and rearing of abandoned children. The Churchs innovation, however, was the practice of oblation, whereby children were dedicated to lay life within monastic institutions and this created the first system in European history in which abandoned children did not have legal, social, or moral disadvantages. As a result, many of Europes abandoned and orphaned children became alumni of the Church, oblation marks the beginning of a shift toward institutionalization, eventually bringing about the establishment of the foundling hospital and orphanage. This system of apprenticeship and informal adoption extended into the 19th century, despite its intent, though, in practice, the system operated much the same as earlier incarnations. The experience of the Boston Female Asylum is a good example, adopting to create a family The next stage of adoptions evolution fell to the emerging nation of the United States. Rapid immigration and the American Civil War resulted in unprecedented overcrowding of orphanages, Charles Loring Brace, a Protestant minister became appalled by the legions of homeless waifs roaming the streets of New York City
11.
Intimate relationship
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An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical and/or emotional intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by friendship, platonic love, romantic love, while the term intimate relationship commonly implies the inclusion of a sexual relationship, the term is also used as a euphemism for a relationship that is strictly sexual. Intimate relationships play a role in the overall human experience. Humans have a desire to belong and to love, which is usually satisfied within an intimate relationship. These relationships involve feelings of liking or loving one or more people, romance, physical or sexual attraction, sexual relationships, Intimate relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments. Intimacy generally refers to the feeling of being in a personal association. It is a familiar and very close connection with another as a result of a bond that is formed through knowledge. Genuine intimacy in human relationships requires dialogue, transparency, vulnerability, the verb intimate means to state or make known. The activity of intimating underpins the meanings of intimate when used as a noun, the noun intimate means a person with whom one has a particularly close relationship. The adjective intimate indicates detailed knowledge of a thing or person, in human relationships, the meaning and level of intimacy varies within and between relationships. Intimate conversations become the basis for confidences that bind people together, to sustain intimacy for any length of time requires well-developed emotional and interpersonal awareness. Intimacy requires an ability to be separate and together participants in an intimate relationship. It results in a connection in which there is an emotional range involving both robust conflict and intense loyalty, lacking the ability to differentiate oneself from the other is a form of symbiosis, a state that is different from intimacy, even if feelings of closeness are similar. From a center of self-knowledge and self differentiation, intimate behavior joins family members and it evolves through reciprocal self-disclosure and candor. Psychological consequences of intimacy problems are found in adults who have difficulty in forming and maintaining intimate relationships, individuals often experience the human limitations of their partners, and develop a fear of adverse consequences of disrupted intimate relationships. Studies show that fear of intimacy is negatively related to comfort with emotional closeness and with relationship satisfaction, scholars distinguish between four different forms of intimacy, physical, emotional, cognitive, and experiential. Physical intimacy is sensual proximity or touching, examples include being inside someones personal space, holding hands, emotional intimacy, particularly in sexual relationships, typically develops after a certain level of trust has been reached and personal bonds have been established. Cognitive or intellectual intimacy takes place when two people exchange thoughts, share ideas and enjoy similarities and differences between their opinions, if they can do this in an open and comfortable way, they can become quite intimate in an intellectual area
12.
Maternal bond
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A maternal bond is the relationship between a mother and her child. While typically associated with pregnancy and childbirth, a bond may also develop in cases where the child is unrelated. Both physical and emotional influence the mother-child bonding process. In separation anxiety disorder a child becomes fearful and nervous when away from a loved one, new mothers do not always experience instant love toward their child. Instead, the bond can strengthen over time, bonds can take hours, days, weeks, or months to develop. The maternal bond between a female and her biological child usually begins to develop during pregnancy. The pregnant female adapts her lifestyle to suit the needs of the developing infant, at around 18 to 25 weeks, the mother begins to feel the fetus moving. Similar to seeing her child for the first time in an ultrasound scan, the developing fetus has some awareness of the mothers heartbeat and voice and has the ability to respond to touch or movement. By the seventh month of pregnancy, two-thirds of women report a strong bond with their unborn child. Mothers who did not want the pregnancy typically do not have a relationship with the child. They are more likely to suffer from depression or other mental health problems. Childbirth is an experience that can strengthen the mother and child bond, factors such as a traumatic birth, the mothers childhood, medical stress, lack of support and the influence of a spouse or partner can weaken the bond. Emotional bonding theory first appeared in the mid-1970s, and by the 1980s had become an accepted phenomenon, soon, the process became analyzed and scrutinized to the point of creating another term – poor bonding. Production of oxytocin during childbirth and lactation increases parasympathetic activity, maternal oxytocin circulation can predispose women to bond and show bonding behavior. Breastfeeding is also believed to foster the bond, via touch, response. A2014 study claimed that oxytocin promotes dishonesty when the outcome favors the closely bonded groups to which an individual belongs, a real-world example of this effect can be seen when parents lie about their address to gain admission to better schools for their children. These capacities bring with them separation anxiety as the infant becomes more vulnerable away from mother, most parents welcome these explorations and this increased independence. However, in the context of depression, trauma or disturbed bonding in her own early life
13.
Parental leave
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Parental leave or family leave is an employee benefit available in almost all countries. The term parental leave generally includes maternity, paternity, and adoption leave, in some countries and jurisdictions, family leave also includes leave provided to care for ill family members. Often, the benefits and eligibility requirements are stipulated by law. Unpaid parental or family leave is provided when an employer is required to hold a job while that employee is taking leave. Paid parental or family leave provides paid time off work to care for or make arrangements for the welfare of a child or dependent family member. The three most common models of funding are social insurance/social security, employer liability, and mixed policies that both social security and employer liability. Parental leave has been available as a legal right and/or governmental program for many years, a different study showed that of 186 countries examined, 96% offered some pay to mothers during leave, but only 81 of those countries offered the same for fathers. The United States and Suriname, while they do mandate unpaid parental leave, are the other countries that do not require employers to provide paid time off for new parents. Private employers sometimes provide either or both unpaid and paid parental leave outside of or in addition to any legal mandate, nussbaum proposed 10 central capabilities as the minimum requirement for a decent society. In Nussbaums model, states should provide the resources and freedoms to ensure people have the opportunity to achieve a threshold of each central capability. Whether parental leave contributes to gender equality depends upon whether laws consider a child to be the responsibility of parents and whether the leave is equal as to the sexes. Similarly, a 2015 study by Rønsen & Kitterød found that part of the effect of Norwegian parental leave policy contributed to, a more equal division of paid and unpaid work among parents. The advancement of equality has also been on the political agenda of Nordic countries for decades. Although, all Nordic countries have extended the total leave period, Iceland, Norway and Sweden have established equal 3 months quotas for the father. The only Nordic country that does not provide fathers with a quota is Denmark, however, the dual earner/dual care model seems to be the direction of all the Nordic countries are moving in the construction of their parental leave systems. Paid parental leave incentivizes labor market attachment for women both before and after birth, affecting GDP and national productivity, as the workforce is larger, parental leave increases income at the household level, as well, by supporting dual-earner families. Paid parental leave incentivizes childbirth, which affects the future workforce, the neoclassical model of labor markets predicts that if the cost of hiring women of child-bearing years is anticipated to increase, then the demand for women in the labor market will decrease. While gender discrimination is illegal, without some kind of remedy, women may seek out employment sectors that are family-friendly, resulting in occupational sex segregation
14.
Parenting
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Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, financial, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship, governments and society may have a role in child-rearing as well. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent blood relations, others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent, the English pediatrician and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott described the concept of good-enough parenting in which a minimum of prerequisites for healthy child development are met. Views on the characteristics that one a good or good-enough parent vary from culture to culture. Social class, wealth, culture and income have a strong impact on what methods of child rearing are used by parents. Cultural values play a role in how a parent raises their child. A familys social class plays a role in the opportunities and resources that will be made available to a child. Working-class children often grow up at a disadvantage with the schooling, communities, a parenting style is the overall emotional climate in the home. Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting styles in early development, authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. These parenting styles were later expanded to four, including an uninvolved style and these four styles of parenting involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness on the one hand and demand and control on the other. Recent research has found that style is significantly related to childrens subsequent mental health. In particular, authoritative parenting is positively related to health and satisfaction with life. Authoritative parenting Described by Baumrind as the just right style, in combines a medium level demands on the child, authoritative parents rely on positive reinforcement and infrequent use of punishment. Parents are more aware of a childs feelings and capabilities and support the development of an autonomy within reasonable limits. There is a give-and-take atmosphere involved in communication and both control and support are balanced. Research shows that this style is more beneficial than the too-hard authoritarian style or the too-soft permissive style, an example of authoritative parenting would be the parents talking to their child about their emotions. Authoritarian parenting styles Authoritarian parents are very rigid and strict and they place high demands on the child, but are not responsive to the child
15.
Complex family
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An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, consisting of parents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, all living nearby or in the same household. An example is a couple that lives with either the husband or the wifes parents. The family changes from immediate household to extended household, in some circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in place of a member of the immediate family. These families include, in one household, near relatives in addition to an immediate family, an example would be an elderly parent who moves in with his or her children due to old age. However, it may refer to a family unit in which several generations live together within a single household. In some cultures, the term is used synonymously with consanguineous family, in these cases, the child who cares for the parents usually receives the house in addition to his or her own share of land and moveable property. In an extended family, parents and their childrens families may often live under a single roof and this type of joint family often includes multiple generations in the family. From culture to culture, the variance of the term may have different meanings, for instance, in India, the family is a patriarchal society, with the sons families often staying in the same house. In the joint family set-up, the workload is shared among the members, the roles of women are often restricted to housewives and this usually involves cooking, cleaning, and organizing for the entire family. The patriarch of the family lays down the rules and arbitrates disputes, other senior members of the household babysit infants in case their mother is working. They are also responsible in teaching the children their mother tongue, manners. Grandparents often take the roles because they have the most experience with parenting and maintaining a household. The second most popular is a grandparent moving in with a childs family, usually for care-giving reasons. She noted that 2.5 million grandparents say they are responsible for the needs of the grandchild living with them. The house often has a reception area and a common kitchen. Each family has their own bedroom, the members of the household also look after each other when a member is ill. Particularly in working-class communities, grown children tend to establish their own households within the general area as their parents, aunts, uncles. These extended family members tend to gather often for events and to feel responsible for helping and supporting one another
16.
Foster care
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Foster care is a system in which a minor has been placed into a ward, group home, or private home of a state-certified caregiver, referred to as a foster parent. The placement of the child is normally arranged through the government or a service agency. The institution, group home or foster parent is compensated for expenses, the vast majority of children who would otherwise need foster care are in kinship care, that is, in the care of grandparents or other relatives. Most kinship care is done informally, without the involvement of a court or public organization, however, in the U. S. formal kinship care is increasingly common. In 2012, a quarter of all children in foster care were placed with relatives. In Australia foster care was known as boarding-out, Foster care had its early stages in South Australia in 1866 and stretched to the second half of the 19th century. It is said that the system was run by women until the early 20th century. Then the control was centered in many state childrens departments, although boarding-out was also implemented by nongovernment child rescue organizations, many large institutions remained. These institutions assumed an importance from the late 1920s when the system went into decline. The system was re-energized in the era, and in the 1970s. The system is still the structure for out-of-home care. The system took care of local and foreign children. New baby adoption dropped dramatically from the mid-1970s, with the tolerance of. Foster care in Cambodia is relatively new as a practice within the government. However, despite a later start, the practice is currently making strides within the country. Most notably, the found that the percentage of children within orphanages that had parents approached 80%. At the same time, local NGOs like Children In Families began offering limited foster care services within the country and these actions lead to an increase in the number of NGOs providing foster care placements, and helped to set the course for care reform around the country. Foster children in Canada are known as permanent wards, a ward is someone, in this case a child, placed under protection of a legal guardian and are the legal responsibility of the government
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Nuclear family
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A nuclear family, elementary family or conjugal family is a family group consisting of two parents and their children. It is in contrast to a single-parent family, to the extended family. Nuclear families typically center on a couple, the nuclear family may have any number of children. Family structures of a couple and their children were present in Western Europe and New England in the 17th century, influenced by church. With the emergence of proto-industrialization and early capitalism, the family became a financially viable social unit. The term nuclear family first appeared in the twentieth century. Little is known about how parental behavior and identification processes work, historians have found that nuclear families have been a primary arrangement in England since the 13th century. In England multi-generational households were uncommon because young adults would save money to move out. Sociologist Brigitte Berger argued, the nuclear family had to be flexible and mobile as it searched for opportunity and property. Forced to rely on their own ingenuity, its members also needed to plan for the future and develop bourgeois habits of work, berge also mentions that this could be one of the reasons why the Industrial Revolution begun in England, and other Northwest European countries. As a fertility factor, single family households generally have a higher number of children than co-operative living arrangements according to studies from both the Western world and India. There have been studies done that shows a difference in the number of children wanted per household according to where they live, families that live in rural areas wanted to have more kids than families in urban areas. A study done in Japan between October 2011 and February 2012 further researched the affect of are of residence on mean desired number of children. Researchers of the came to the conclusion that the women living in rural areas with larger families were more likely to want more children. Merriam-Webster dates the term back to 1947, while the Oxford English Dictionary has a reference to the term from 1925, in its most common usage, the term nuclear family refers to a household consisting of a father, a mother and their children all in one household dwelling. George Murdock, an observer of families, offered a description, The family is a social group characterized by common residence. It contains adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults. Many individuals are part of two families in their lives, the family of origin in which they are offspring
18.
Orphan
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An orphan is a child whose parents are dead or have permanently abandoned the child. In common usage, only a child who has lost both parents due to death is called an orphan, when referring to animals, only the mothers condition is usually relevant. If she has gone, the offspring is an orphan, regardless of the fathers condition, various groups use different definitions to identify orphans. One legal definition used in the United States is a minor bereft through death or disappearance of, abandonment or desertion by, or separation or loss from, in the common use, an orphan does not have any surviving parent to care for him or her. However, the United Nations Childrens Fund, Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS, in this approach, a maternal orphan is a child whose mother has died, a paternal orphan is a child whose father has died, and a double orphan has lost both parents. This contrasts with the use of half-orphan to describe children that had lost only one parent. Orphans are relatively rare in developed countries, because most children can expect both of their parents to survive their childhood, much higher numbers of orphans exist in war-torn nations such as Afghanistan. 2001 figures from 2002 UNICEF/UNAIDS report China, A survey conducted by the Ministry of Civil Affairs in 2005 showed that China has about 573,000 orphans below 18 years old. Russia, According to Russian reports from 2002 cited in the New York Times,650,000 children are housed in orphanages and they are released at age 16, and 40% become homeless, while 30% become criminals or commit suicide. Latin America, Street children have a presence in Latin America. Although not all children are orphans, all street children work. Famous orphans include world leaders such as Nelson Mandela and Andrew Jackson, the Hebrew prophet Moses and the Muslim prophet Muhammad, writers such as Edgar Allan Poe, the American orphan Henry Darger portrayed the horrible conditions of his orphanage in his art work. Wars and great epidemics, such as AIDS, have created many orphans. The Second World War, with its numbers of deaths and population movements. Orphaned characters are common as literary protagonists, especially in childrens. The lack of leaves the characters to pursue more interesting and adventurous lives, by freeing them from familial obligations and controls. It creates characters that are self-contained and introspective and who strive for affection, Orphans can metaphorically search for self-understanding through attempting to know their roots. Parents can also be allies and sources of aid for children, all these characteristics make orphans attractive characters for authors
19.
Single parent
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A single parent is an uncoupled individual who shoulders most or all of the day-to-day responsibilities for raising a child or children. A mother is often the primary caregiver in a single-parent family structure that has arisen due to death of the partner, intentional artificial insemination. Historically, death of a partner was a cause of single parenting. Single parenting can also result from the breakup or divorce of coupled parents, custody battles, awarded by the court or rationalized in other terms, determine who the child will spend majority of their time with. Recent years have seen the increasing incidence and visibility of uncoupled women who choose to be single parents, when single women seek to get pregnant intentionally in order to become single mothers by choice, they often seek an anonymous or known sperm donor. Single parent adoption or fostering is also sometimes an option for adults who want to raise a family. The demographics of single parenting show a general increase worldwide in children living in single parent homes, Single parenting has become a norm in the United States and is a trend found in multiple other countries. The morality and advisability of single motherhood has long been debated in the US, Single American mothers live in poverty 5 times more often than married parents. The topic is less contentious in Western European countries where all families enjoy more robust state-sponsored social benefits, Single parenthood has been common historically due to parental mortality rate. In the United States, since the 1960s, there has been an increase in the number of children living with a single parent. The 1980 United States Census reported that 19. 5% were single parent households, from 1980 to 2009, the percentage of single-parent households jumped to 29. 5%. The jump was caused by an increase in births to unmarried women, in 2010,40. 7% of births in the US were to unmarried women. In 2000, 11% of children were living with parents who had never married,15. 6% of children lived with a divorced parent. The results of the 2010 United States Census showed that 27% of children live with one parent, consistent with the trend noted in 2000. Mississippi leads the nation with the highest percent of births to unmarried mothers with 54% in 2014, followed by Louisiana, New Mexico, Florida, about 16% of children worldwide live in a single-parent household. In 2006,12.9 million families in the US were headed by a single parent, in 2003, 14% of all Australian households were single-parent families. At the 2013 census,17. 8% of New Zealand families were single-parent, in the United Kingdom, about 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single-parent families,8 to 11 percent of which have a male single-parent. UK poverty figures show that 52% of single parent families are below the Government-defined poverty line, Single parents in the UK are almost twice as likely to be in low-paid jobs as other workers
20.
Stepfamily
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A stepfamily is a family where at least one parent has children that are not genetically related to the other spouse or partner. Either one parent may have children from a previous relationship, Children in a stepfamily may live with one biological parent, or they may live with each biological parent for a period of time. In addition, visitation rights mean that children in stepfamilies often have contact with both parents, even if they permanently live with only one. A child is referred to as the stepchild, stepdaughter or stepson of their parents new spouse. A stepfather is the husband of ones mother, and not ones biological father, a stepmother is the wife of ones father, and not ones biological mother. A step-grandmother is the stepmother of ones father or mother and wife of ones grandfather, a step-grandfather is the stepfather of ones father or mother and husband of ones grandmother, and not ones biological grandfather. Similarly, a stepbrother is the son of a stepparent who one is not biologically related to, a stepsister is the daughter of a stepparent to whom one is not biologically related. A step-grandson is the son of a stepbrother or stepsister who one is not biologically related to, a step-granddaughter is the daughter of a stepbrother or stepsister who one is not biologically related. A parents spouse of the sex may also count as a stepparent. The traditional and strictest definition of a stepfamily is a couple where one or both members of the couple have pre-existing children who live with them. More recently, the definition is expanded to include all cohabiting couples. Some people also apply the term to non-custodial relationships, where stepparent can refer to the partner of a parent with whom the child does not live. The term is not generally used to refer to the relationship with a child who never lived in the home with the parents new partner. A simple stepfamily is one in only one member of the couple has a prior child or children. If both members of the couple have children, those children are stepbrothers and stepsisters to one another. Any subsequent child born to the couple is a half-sibling of the respective members prior children, if a stepparent legally adopts the partners child or children, he or she becomes the childs legal parent. The most common form of a family is a mother and stepfather arrangement. One-third of all children entering stepfamilies were born to an unmarried mother, of the 60 million American children under the age of 13, half are currently living with one biological parent and that parents current partner
21.
Surrogacy
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Surrogacy is a method or agreement whereby a woman agrees to carry a pregnancy for another person or persons, who will become the newborn childs parent after birth. Monetary compensation may or may not be involved in these arrangements, the legality and costs of surrogacy vary widely between jurisdictions, sometimes resulting in interstate or international surrogacy arrangements. There are laws in countries which restrict and regulate surrogacy. The fertilisation of the surrogate may take place in a number of ways, each of which has implications for the relationship of the resulting child with the surrogate. There are two types of surrogacy, gestational surrogacy and traditional surrogacy. In the United States, gestational surrogacy is more common than traditional surrogacy and is considered less legally complex, traditional surrogacy involves natural or artificial insemination of a surrogate. If the intended fathers sperm is used in the insemination, then the child is genetically related to the intended father. If donor sperm is used, the child is not genetically related to either intended parent but is genetically related to the surrogate. In some cases, an insemination may be performed privately by the parties without the intervention of a doctor or physician, in some jurisdictions, the commissioning parents using donor sperms need to go through an adoption process in order to have legal rights in respect to the resulting child. Many fertility centers which provide for surrogacy assist the parties through the process, gestational surrogacy was first achieved in April 1986. It takes place when a created by in vitro fertilization technology is implanted in a surrogate. The resulting child is related to both intended parents. The embryo is created using the fathers sperm and a donor egg where the donor is not the surrogate. The resulting child is related to the intended father. The embryo is created using the mothers egg and donor sperm. The resulting child is related to the intended mother. A donor embryo is implanted in a surrogate, such an embryo may be available when others undergoing IVF have embryos left over, which they donate to others. The resulting child is unrelated to the intended parent
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Child development
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It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence, yet having a unique course for every child. It does not progress at the rate and each stage is affected by the preceding developmental experiences. Related terms include developmental psychology, referring to development throughout the lifespan, and pediatrics and it may also occur as a result of human nature and our ability to learn from our environment. There are various definitions of periods in a development, since each period is a continuum with individual differences regarding start. Some age-related development periods and examples of defined intervals are, newborn, infant, toddler, preschooler, school-aged child, promoting child development through parental training, among other factors, promotes excellent rates of child development. Parents play a role in a childs life, socialization. Having multiple parents can add stability to the life and therefore encourage healthy development. Another influential factor in a development is the quality of their care. Child care programs present an opportunity for the promotion of child development. The optimal development of children is considered vital to society and so it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, with specific regard to practice that promotes development within the school system. In addition there are some theories that seek to describe a sequence of states that compose child development. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem, each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. Jean Piaget was a Swiss scholar who began his studies in intellectual development in the 1920s, Piaget’s first interests were those that dealt with the ways in which animals adapt to their environments and his first scientific article about this subject was published when he was 10 years old. This eventually led him to pursue a Ph. D. in Zoology, epistemology branches off from philosophy and deals with the origin of knowledge. As he carried out this intelligence testing he began developing a profound interest in the way children’s intellectualism works, as a result, he developed his own laboratory and spent years recording children’s intellectual growth and attempted to find out how children develop through various stages of thinking. This led to Piaget develop four important stages of development, sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete-operational stage. Piaget concluded that adaption to an environment is mananged through schemes, sensorimotor, This is the first stage in Piagets theory, where infants have the following basic senses, vision, hearing, and motor skills. In this stage, knowledge of the world is limited but is constantly developing due to the childs experiences, an example of this would be hiding the child’s favorite toy under a blanket, although the child cannot physically see it they still know to look under the blanket
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Developmental psychology
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Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and this field examines change across three major dimensions, physical development, cognitive development, and socioemotional development. Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature and nurture on the process of human development, many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individuals behavior and environmental factors, including social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development, influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky. Watson and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are typically cited as providing the foundations for modern developmental psychology, in the mid-18th century Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development, infants, puer and adolescence in Emile, Or, On Education. Rousseaus ideas were taken up strongly by educators at the time, stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of mankind. James Mark Baldwin who wrote essays on topics that included Imitation, A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness and Mental Development in the Child, Baldwin was heavily involved in the theory of developmental psychology. Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were developmental, had a significant impact on public perceptions, Sigmund Freud believed that we all had a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious level. In the conscious we are aware of our mental process, the preconscious involves information that, though not currently in our thoughts, can be brought into consciousness. Lastly, the unconscious includes mental processes we are unaware of and he believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious, because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this he developed three personality structures, the id, ego, and superego, the id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle, seek pleasure and avoid pain. The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, and the ego is the organized, based on this, he proposed five universal stages of development, that each are characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the childs psychosexual energy. The first is the stage, which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. During the oral stage the libido is centered in a babys mouth, the baby is able to suck. The second is the stage, from one to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus, the third is the phallic stage, which occurs from three to five years of age. During the phallic stage, the child is aware of their sexual organs, the fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the sexual interests are repressed
24.
Human development (biology)
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Human development is the process of growing to maturity. In biological terms, this entails growth from a zygote to an adult human being. Fertilization occurs when the sperm enters the ovums membrane. The genetical material of the sperm and egg that combine to form a cell, called a zygote. The germinal stage refers to the time from fertilization, through the development of the early embryo, the germinal stage is over at about 10 days of gestation. The zygote contains a full complement of genetic material and develops into the embryo, briefly, embryonic developments have four stages, the morula stage, the bastula stage, the gastrula stage, and the neurula stage. Prior to implantation, the remains in a protein shell, the zona pellucida. A week after fertilization the embryo still has not grown in size and this induces a decidual reaction, wherein the uterine cells proliferate and surround the embryo thus causing it to become embedded within the uterine tissue. The embryo, meanwhile, proliferates and develops both into embryonic and extra-embryonic tissue, the forming the fetal membranes and the placenta. In humans, the embryo is referred to as a fetus in the stages of prenatal development. The transition from embryo to fetus is arbitrarily defined as occurring 8 weeks after fertilization, in comparison to the embryo, the fetus has more recognizable external features and a set of progressively developing internal organs. A nearly identical process occurs in other species, auxology Child development Developmental biology Embryogenesis Life-history theory
25.
Love
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Love is a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes that ranges from interpersonal affection to pleasure. It can refer to an emotion of an attraction and personal attachment. Love can also be a virtue representing human kindness, compassion and it may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, ones self or animals. Ancient Greeks identified four forms of love, kinship or familiarity, friendship, sexual and/or romantic desire, modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love. Non-Western traditions have also distinguished variants or symbioses of these states, Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning—notably in Abrahamic religions. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states. Love in its various forms acts as a facilitator of interpersonal relationships and. Love may be understood as a function to human beings together against menaces. The word love can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts, cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition. Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, abstractly discussed love usually refers to an experience one person feels for another. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing, including oneself, in addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages. The complex and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a thought-terminating cliché, several common proverbs regard love, from Virgils Love conquers all to The Beatles All You Need Is Love. St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as to will the good of another, bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of absolute value, as opposed to relative value. Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is to be delighted by the happiness of another, meher Baba stated that in love there is a feeling of unity and an active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love. Biologist Jeremy Griffith defines love as unconditional selflessness, a person can be said to love an object, principle, or goal to which they are deeply committed and greatly value. People can also love material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things, if sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia. Interpersonal love refers to love human beings
26.
Nature versus nurture
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The alliterative expression nature and nurture in English has been in use since at least the Elizabethan period and goes back to medieval French. The combination of the two concepts as complementary is ancient, galton was influenced by the book On the Origin of Species written by his half-cousin, Charles Darwin. The view that humans acquire all or almost all their traits from nurture was termed tabula rasa by John Locke in 1690. A blank slate view in human developmental psychology assuming that human behavioral traits develop almost exclusively from environmental influences, was held during much of the 20th century. The debate between blank-slate denial of the influence of heritability, and the view admitting both environmental and heritable traits, has often been cast in terms of nature versus nurture. These two conflicting approaches to human development were at the core of a dispute over research agendas throughout the second half of the 20th century. As both nature and nurture factors were found to contribute substantially, often in an extricable manner, in their 2014 survey of scientists, many respondents wrote that the dichotomy of nature versus nurture had outlived its usefulness, and should be retired. The reason is that in many fields of research, close feedback loops have been found in nature and nurture influence one another constantly. As in ecology and behavioral genetics, researchers think nurture has an influence on nature. Similarly in other fields, the line between an inherited and an acquired trait becomes unclear, as in epigenetics or fetal development. John Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is often cited as the document of the blank slate view. Locke was criticizing René Descartes claim of an idea of God universal to humanity. Lockes view was criticized in his own time. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury complained that by denying the possibility of any innate ideas, Locke threw all order and virtue out of the world, Lockes was not the predominant view in the 19th century, which on the contrary tended to focus on instinct. The question of innate ideas or instincts were of importance in the discussion of free will in moral philosophy. In 18th-century philosophy, this was cast in terms of innate ideas establishing the presence of a universal virtue, during this time, the social sciences developed as the project of studying the influence of culture in clean isolation from questions related to biology. Franz Boass The Mind of Primitive Man established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the fifteen years. The tool of twin studies was developed after World War I as an experimental setup intended to exclude all confounders based on inherited behavioral traits, such studies are designed to decompose the variability of a given trait in a given population into a genetic and an environmental component
27.
Parental investment
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Components of fitness include the wellbeing of existing offspring, parents future sexual reproduction, and inclusive fitness through aid to kin. Parental investment may be performed by both the male and female, the mother alone or the father alone. Initially introduced in 1930 by the English biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher, parental care is found in a range of taxonomic groups. An alternative to Fishers theory is Trivers parental investment theory proposed in 1972 and this theory has been influential in explaining sex differences in phenomena such as sexual selection and mate preference. The main premise of this theory is the investment of males and females. Another aspect of the theory is mate preferences of each sex, for example female choosiness, Parental investment theory is a branch of life history theory. Clutton-Brock expanded the concept of PI to include costs to any other component of parental fitness, however, such expenditure is typically beneficial to the offspring, enhancing their condition, survival, and reproductive success. These differences may lead to parent-offspring conflict, Parental investment can be provided by the female, the male, or both. Parents are naturally selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will tend to exist when the benefits are greater than the costs. Penguins are an example of a species that drastically sacrifices their own health and well-being in exchange for the survival of their offspring. This altruistic behavior, one that not necessarily benefit the individual. Although some animals do exhibit altruistic behaviors towards individuals that are not of direct relation, while breeding, males remain in a fasting-period at the breeding site for five weeks, waiting for the female to return for her own incubation shift. However, during time period, males may decide to abandon their egg if the female is delayed in her return to the breeding grounds. In a study, Olof Olsson investigated the correlation between how many experiences in breeding an individual has and the duration an individual will wait until abandoning his egg. He proposed that the more experienced the individual, the better that individual will be at replenishing his exhausted body reserves, a study found that male dunnocks tend to not discriminate between their own young and those of another male in polyandrous or polygynandrous systems. This indiscriminative parental care by males is also observed in redlip blennies, in iteroparous species, where individuals may go through several reproductive bouts during their lifetime, a tradeoff may exist between investment in current offspring and future reproduction. Parents need to balance their offsprings demands against their own self-maintenance, the benefits of parental investment to the offspring are large and are associated with the effects on condition, growth, survival, and ultimately on reproductive success of the offspring. In doing this, her young are larger, heavier, and these benefits are very advantageous since it lowers their risk of being eaten by predators and size is usually the determining factor in conflicts over resources
28.
Pediatrics
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Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents, and the age limit usually ranges from birth up to 18-21 years of age. A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician, the word pediatrics and its cognates mean healer of children, they derive from two Greek words, παῖς and ἰατρός. Pediatricians work both in hospitals, particularly working in its specialized subfields such as neonatology, and as primary care physicians. Pediatrics is known as a new modern medicine in the society today, hippocrates, Aristotle, Celsus, Soranus, and Galen, understood the differences in growing and maturing organisms that necessitated different treatment, Ex toto non sic pueri ut viri curari debent. Some of the oldest traces of pediatrics can be discovered in Ancient India where childrens doctors were called kumara bhrtya, sushruta Samhita an ayurvedic text, composed during the sixth century BC contains the text about pediatrics. Another ayurvedic text from this period is Kashyapa Samhita, a second century AD manuscript by the Greek physician and gynecologist Soranus of Ephesus dealt with neonatal pediatrics. Byzantine physicians Oribasius, Aëtius of Amida, Alexander Trallianus, islamic writers served as a bridge for Greco-Roman and Byzantine medicine and added ideas of their own, especially Haly Abbas, Serapion, Avicenna, and Averroes. The Persian scholar and doctor al-Razi published a treatise on diseases among children. The first book about pediatrics was Libellus de aegritudinibus et remediis infantium 1472 and he was born in Germany, where he received his medical training, but later practiced in New York City. The first generally accepted pediatric hospital is the Hôpital des Enfants Malades, in 1852 Britains first pediatric hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Streets. The first Childrens hospital in Scotland opened in 1860 in Edinburgh, in the US, the first similar institutions were the Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia, which opened in 1855, and then Boston Childrens Hospital. The body size differences are paralleled by maturation changes, the smaller body of an infant or neonate is substantially different physiologically from that of an adult. Congenital defects, genetic variance, and developmental issues are of concern to pediatricians than they often are to adult physicians. A common adage is that children are not simply little adults, the clinician must take into account the immature physiology of the infant or child when considering symptoms, prescribing medications, and diagnosing illnesses. A major difference between the practice of pediatric and adult medicine is that children, in most jurisdictions and with certain exceptions, the issues of guardianship, privacy, legal responsibility and informed consent must always be considered in every pediatric procedure. Pediatricians often have to treat the parents and sometimes, the family, adolescents are in their own legal class, having rights to their own health care decisions in certain circumstances. The training of pediatricians varies considerably across the world, depending on jurisdiction and university, a medical degree course may be either undergraduate-entry or graduate-entry. The former commonly takes five or six years, and has been usual in the Commonwealth, entrants to graduate-entry courses, usually lasting four or five years, have previously completed a three- or four-year university degree, commonly but by no means always in sciences
29.
Social psychology
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Social psychology is the scientific study of how peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. In this definition, scientific refers to the method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all psychological variables that are measurable in a human being, Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the interaction of mental states and immediate social situations. Social psychology is a discipline that had traditionally bridged the gap between psychology and sociology, during the years immediately following World War II there was frequent collaboration between psychologists and sociologists. However, the two disciplines have become increasingly specialized and isolated from other in recent years, with sociologists focusing on macro variables to a much greater extent. Nevertheless, sociological approaches to social psychology remain an important counterpart to psychological research in this area, in addition to the split between psychology and sociology, there has been a somewhat less pronounced difference in emphasis between American social psychologists and European social psychologists. As a generalization, American researchers traditionally have focused more on the individual, however, the discipline had already developed a significant foundation. Following the 18th century, those in the field of social psychology were concerned with developing concrete explanations for different aspects of human nature. They desired to discover concrete cause and effect relationships that explained the social interactions in the world around them, in order to do so, they believed that the scientific method, an empirically based scientific measure, could be applied to human behavior. The first published study in this area was an experiment in 1898 by Norman Triplett, during the 1930s, many Gestalt psychologists, most notably Kurt Lewin, fled to the United States from Nazi Germany. Attitudes and small group phenomena were the most commonly studied topics in this era, during World War II, social psychologists studied persuasion and propaganda for the U. S. military. After the war, researchers interested in a variety of social problems, including gender issues. Most notable, revealing, and contentious of these were the Stanley Milgram shock experiments on obedience to authority, in the sixties, there was growing interest in new topics, such as cognitive dissonance, bystander intervention, and aggression. By the 1970s, however, social psychology in America had reached a crisis, there was heated debate over the ethics of laboratory experimentation, whether or not attitudes really predicted behavior, and how much science could be done in a cultural context. This was also the time when a radical situationist approach challenged the relevance of self, throughout the 1980s and 1990s social psychology reached a more mature level. Two of the social psychology matured in were theories and methods. Careful ethical standards now regulate research, pluralistic and multicultural perspectives have emerged. Modern researchers are interested in many phenomena, but attribution, social cognition, Social psychologists have also maintained their applied interests with contributions in health, environmental, and legal psychology
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Parenting styles
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A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their child rearing. The quality of parenting can be essential than the quantity of time spent with the child. For instance, a parent can spend an afternoon with his or her child, yet the parent may be engaging in a different activity. Parenting styles are the representation of how parents respond and demand to their children, Parenting practices are specific behaviors, while parenting styles represent broader patterns of parenting practices. There are various theories and opinions on the best ways to rear children, as well as differing levels of time, during the stage of infancy, parents try to adjust to a new lifestyle in terms of adapting and bonding with their new infant. For example, the relationship between the parent and child is attachment, in the stage of adolescence, parents encounter new challenges, such as adolescents seeking and desiring freedom. A childs temperament and parents cultural patterns have an influence on the kind of parenting style a child may receive, the degree to which a childs education is part of parenting is a further matter of debate. Additional developmental skills result from positive parenting styles including, maintaining a relationship with others, being self-reliant. During the mid 1980s, researchers began to explore how specific parenting styles influence a childs later development, one study association that has been made is the difference between childs outcome and continuous measures of parental behavior. Some of the associations that are listed include the following, support, involvement, warmth, approval, control, monitoring, Parenting practices such as parental support, monitoring and firm boundaries appear to be linked to higher school grades, less behavior problems and better mental health. These components have no age limit and can begin early in pre-school leading all the way into college, beginning in the 17th century, two philosophers independently wrote works that have been widely influential in child rearing. John Lockes 1693 book Some Thoughts Concerning Education is a known foundation for educational pedagogy from a Puritan standpoint. Locke highlights the importance of experiences to a development. In 1762, the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau published a volume on education, Emile, or and he proposed that early education should be derived less from books and more from a childs interactions with the world. Of these, Rousseau is more consistent with slow parenting, jean Piagets theory of cognitive development describes how children represent and reason about the world. This is a stage theory that consists of a Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operational stage. Piaget was a pioneer in the field of development and continues to influence parents, educators. Erik Erikson, a developmental psychologist, proposed eight life stages through which each person must develop, in order to move on to the next stage, the person must work out a crisis in which a new dilemma must be solved
