1.
General officers in the Confederate States Army
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The general officers of the Confederate States Army were the senior military leaders of the Confederacy during the American Civil War of 1861–1865. They were often former officers from the United States Army prior to the Civil War, most Confederate generals needed confirmation from the Confederate Congress, much like prospective generals in the modern U. S. armed forces. Much of the design of the Confederate States Army was based on the structure, the Confederate Army was composed of three parts, the Army of the Confederate States of America, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States, and the various Southern state militias. Graduates from West Point and Mexican War veterans were highly sought after by Jefferson Davis for military service, like their Federal counterparts, the Confederate Army had both professional and political generals within it. Ranks throughout the CSA were roughly based on the U. S. Army in design and seniority. On February 27,1861, a staff for the army was authorized, consisting of four positions, an adjutant general, a quartermaster general, a commissary general. Initially the last of these was to be a staff officer only, the post of adjutant general was filled by Samuel Cooper and he held it throughout the Civil War, as well as the armys inspector general. As officers were appointed to the grades of general by Jefferson Davis. The dates of rank, as well as seniority of officers appointed to the grade on the same day, were determined by Davis usually following the guidelines established for the prewar U. S. Army. These generals were most often infantry or cavalry brigade commanders, aides to other higher ranking generals, and War Department staff officers. By wars end the Confederacy had at least 383 different men who held this rank in the PACS, the organization of regiments into brigades was authorized by the Congress on March 6,1861. Brigadier generals would command them, and these generals were to be nominated by Davis and these generals also often led sub-districts within military departments, with command over soldiers in their sub-district. These generals outranked Confederate Army colonels, who commonly led infantry regiments and this rank is equivalent to brigadier general in the modern U. S. army. These generals were most commonly infantry division commanders, aides to other higher ranking generals and they also led the districts that made up military departments, and had command over the troops in their districts. By wars end, the Confederacy had at least 88 different men who had held this rank, divisions were authorized by the Congress on March 6,1861, and major generals would command them. These generals were to be nominated by Davis and confirmed by the Senate, Major generals outranked brigadiers and all other lesser officers. This rank was not synonymous with the Unions use of it, as Northern major generals led divisions, corps and this rank is equivalent in most respects to major general in the modern U. S. Army. All of the Confederacys lieutenant generals were in the PACS, the Congress legalized the creation of army corps on September 18,1862, and directed that lieutenant generals lead them
2.
County Cork
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County Cork is the largest and southernmost county of Ireland. It lies in the province of Munster and is named after the city of Cork, Cork County Council is the local authority for the county. Its largest settlements are Cork City, Ballincollig and Carrigaline, in 2016, the countys population was 542,196, making it the third most populous county in Ireland. There are two local authorities whose remit collectively encompasses the area of the county and city of Cork. The county, excluding Cork city, is administered by Cork County Council, both city and county are part of the South-West Region. For standardized European statistical purposes both Cork County Council and Cork City Council rank equally as first-level local administrative units of the NUTS3 South-West Region, there are 34 such LAU1 entities in the Republic of Ireland. For elections to Dáil Éireann, the county is divided into five constituencies—Cork East, Cork North–Central, Cork North–West, Cork South–Central, together they return 19 deputies to the Dáil. The county is part of the South constituency for the purposes of European elections, for purposes other than local government, such as the formation of sporting teams, the term County Cork is often taken to include both city and county. County Cork is located in the province of Munster and it borders four other counties, Kerry to the west, Limerick to the north, Tipperary to the north-east and Waterford to the east. Cork is the largest county in the state by land area and it is the largest of Munsters 6 counties by both population and area. The population of Cork city stood at 125,622 in 2016, the population of the entire county is 542,196 making it the states second most populous county and the third most populous county on the island of Ireland. The remit of Cork County Council includes some suburbs of the city not within the area of Cork City Council, there are 24 historic baronies in the county—the most of any county in Ireland. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, there are 253 civil parishes in the county. Townlands are the smallest officially defined geographical divisions in Ireland, there are approximately 5447 townlands in the county, the Shehy Mountains are on the border with Kerry and may be accessed from the area known as Priests Leap, near the village of Coomhola. The Galtee Mountains are located across parts of Tipperary, Limerick, the upland areas of the Ballyhoura, Boggeragh, Derrynasaggart and the Mullaghareirk Mountain ranges add to the range of habitats found in the county. Important habitats in the uplands include blanket bog, heath, glacial lakes, Cork has the 13th highest county peak in Ireland. The three great rivers, the Bandon, the Blackwater and the Lee, and their valleys dominate central Cork, habitats of the valleys and floodplains include woodlands, marshes, fens and species-rich limestone grasslands
3.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
4.
Franklin, Tennessee
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Franklin is a city in and county seat of Williamson County, Tennessee, United States. Located about 21 miles south of Nashville, it is one of the cities of the Nashville metropolitan area. Since 1980, its population has increased more than fivefold and, based on its 2013 estimated population of 68,886, it is ranked as the seventh-largest city in Tennessee. The city of Franklin was founded October 26,1799, by Abram Maury, Maury named the town after national founding father Benjamin Franklin, who was a close friend of Dr. Hugh Williamson, a member of the Continental Congress after whom Williamson County was named. Ewen Cameron built the first European-American house in the town of Franklin, Cameron was born February 23,1768, in Balgalkan, Ferintosh, Scotland. He emigrated to Virginia in 1785 and from there came to Tennessee, Cameron died February 28,1846, having lived 48 years in the same log house. His second wife, Mary, and he are buried in the old City Cemetery and his descendants have lived in Franklin continuously since 1798, when his son Duncan was born. During the American Civil War, the Battle of Franklin was fought in the city on November 30,1864, forty-four buildings were converted to use as field hospitals. The Carter, Carnton, and the Lotz historic homes are still standing from this era, long a suburb to Nashville, Tennessee, Franklin has expanded more than fivefold since 1980, when its population was 12,407. In 2012, it had an population of 68,280. This makes it rank as the seventh-largest city in the state, many of its residents commute to businesses in Nashville, but considerable growth has occurred in Franklin and the county of a regional economy. In the early morning hours of Christmas Eve of 1988, one died when an F4 tornado struck the city. Franklin is located at 35°55′45″N 86°51′27″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 78.0 km².77.8 km² of it is land and 0.2 km² of it is covered by water. Since the late 20th century, the city has grown rapidly in population, as of the census of 2010,62,487 people,16,128 households, and 11,225 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,393.3 people per square mile, the 17,296 housing units averaged 575.9 per square mile. The average household size was 2.55 and the family size was 3.09. In the city, the population was distributed as 27. 9% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,38. 1% from 25 to 44,19. 2% from 45 to 64, the median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.2 males
5.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
6.
Helena, Arkansas
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Helena is the eastern portion of Helena-West Helena, Arkansas, a city in Phillips County, Arkansas. As of the 2000 census, this portion of the city population was 6,323, Helena was the county seat of Phillips County until January 1,2006, when it merged its government and city limits with neighboring West Helena. Helena is the birthplace of Arkansas former Senior United States Senator Blanche Lincoln, Helena is home to the longest running daily radio program in the U. S. King Biscuit Time. From 1906 to 1946, Helena was a point on the former Missouri and North Arkansas Railroad. After, a loss of service in early 2015, a successful effort was launched by the Helena-West Helena/Phillips County Port Authority to have freight service restored. The service was restored on October 1,2015 and two new freight customers have already been gained, Helena is located at 34°31′34″N 90°36′5″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, Helena had an area of 8.9 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 6,323 people,2,312 households, the population density was 710.7 people per square mile. There were 2,710 housing units at a density of 304. 6/sq mi. The racial makeup of Helena is 67. 93% Black or African American,30. 59% White,0. 13% Native American,0. 60% Asian,0. 17% from other races,0. 73% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 30. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.28. In Helena, the population is out with 32. 5% under the age of 18,10. 0% from 18 to 24,22. 1% from 25 to 44,20. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 83.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.5 males, the median income for a household in Helena is $18,662, and the median income for a family was $21,534. Males had an income of $27,203 versus $17,250 for females. The per capita income for Helena is $13,028, about 38. 4% of families and 41. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 54. 9% of those under age 18 and 24. 1% of those age 65 or over. Helena, Arkansas is home to a number of buildings such as the Sidney H. Horner House. Helena-West Helena School District operates schools in what was Helena, dorathy M. Allen, the first woman elected to the Arkansas Senate Bruce Bennett, former Arkansas Attorney General Caroline Shawk Brooks, First known American sculpture to work with butter
7.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
8.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
9.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
10.
Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
11.
Corporal
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Corporal is a military rank in use in some form by many militaries and by some police forces or other uniformed organizations. Within NATO, each member nations corresponding military rank of corporal is combined under the NATO-standard rank scale code OR-4, however, there are often differences in how each nation employs Corporals. Some militaries dont have Corporals, but may instead have a Junior Sergeant, in some militaries, the rank of corporal nominally corresponds to commanding a section or squad of soldiers. The lateral promotion is used to make the soldier a non-commissioned officer without changing the soldiers pay, as the Table of Organization & Equipment rank of a fire team leader is sergeant and that of squad leader is staff sergeant. In most countries that derive their military structure from the British military system, the word is derived from the medieval Italian phrase capo corporale. It may also be derived from an appointment as an officers bodyguard, all three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic use two or three ranks of corporal, or cabo. Corporals in the Argentine military are considered suboficiales subalternos, superior only to all ranks of Volunteers, in the Argentine Army, there are two ranks of corporal, junior and senior, Cabo and cabo primero. While the Argentine Navy has three ranks, from junior to senior, Cabo segundo, Cabo primero and cabo principal. The Air Force has the number of corporal ranks as the navy. The rank is used by the Argentine National Gendarmerie and the Argentine Federal Police. Corporal is the second lowest of the officer ranks in the Australian Army. A corporal is usually appointed as a commander, and is in charge of 7-14 soldiers of private rank. They are assisted by a second-in-command, usually a lance-corporal or senior private, a Corporal within Artillery is known as a bombardier. Corporal is also a rank of the Royal Australian Air Force, with the exception Belgian Naval Component, the branches of the Belgian Armed Forces use three ranks of corporal, corporal, master corporal and 1st master corporal. Corporal is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-3, whereas master corporal, the rank immediately below corporal is 1st private and the rank directly above 1st master corporal is sergeant. The equivalent of these ranks in the Naval Component are quartermaster, chief quartermaster, Corporal is the first NCO rank of the Army, Navy, Air Force and states military polices. Soldiers who successfully complete the course may be promoted to the rank of corporal should they excel in the course. A corporal in the Brazilian Army will lead the smallest fractions of units as machine gun squads, mortar, Corporal is an Army and Air Force non-commissioned member rank of the Canadian Forces
12.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
13.
Battle of Shiloh
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The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, fought April 6–7,1862, in southwestern Tennessee. A Union force known as the Army of the Tennessee under Major General Ulysses S. T. Beauregard, launched an attack on Grants army from its base in Corinth. Johnston was killed in action during the fighting, Beauregard, who succeeded to command of the army. Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. This allowed them to launch a counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day. On April 6, the first day of the battle, the Confederates struck with the intention of driving the Union defenders away from the river, Johnston hoped to defeat Grants army before the anticipated arrival of General Buells Army of the Ohio. The Confederate battle lines became confused during the fighting, and Grants men instead fell back to the northeast. A Union position on a sunken road, nicknamed the Hornets Nest. Benjamin Prentisss and William H. L. Wallaces divisions, provided critical time for the remainder of the Union line to stabilize under the protection of artillery batteries. Wallace was mortally wounded when the position collapsed, while several regiments from the two divisions were surrounded and surrendered. General Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death while leading an attack. Beauregard, his second in command, acknowledged how tired the army was from the days exertions, Confederate forces were forced to retreat from the area, ending their hopes of blocking the Union advance into northern Mississippi. Smiths orders were to lead raids intended to capture or damage the railroads in southwestern Tennessee, Brig. Gen. William T. Shermans troops arrived from Paducah, Kentucky, to conduct a similar mission to break the railroads near Eastport, Mississippi. Halleck also ordered Grant to advance his Army of West Tennessee on an invasion up the Tennessee River, Grant left Fort Henry and headed upriver, arriving at Savannah, Tennessee, on March 14, and established his headquarters on the east bank of the river. Grants troops set up camp farther upriver, five divisions at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, meanwhile, Hallecks command was enlarged through consolidation of Grants and Buells armies and renamed the Department of the Mississippi. With Buells Army of the Ohio under his command, Halleck ordered Buell to concentrate with Grant at Savannah, Buell began a march with much of his army from Nashville, Tennessee, and headed southwest toward Savannah. The railroad was a supply line connecting the Mississippi River at Memphis, Tennessee to Richmond. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant developed a reputation during the war for being concerned with his own plans than with those of the enemy
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Battle of Stones River
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Of the major battles of the Civil War, Stones River had the highest percentage of casualties on both sides. Union Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecranss Army of the Cumberland marched from Nashville, Tennessee, on December 26,1862, on December 31, each army commander planned to attack his opponents right flank, but Bragg struck first. A massive assault by the corps of Maj. Gen. William J. Hardee, followed by that of Leonidas Polk, repeated Confederate attacks were repulsed from this concentrated line, most notably in the cedar Round Forest salient against the brigade of Col. William B. Bragg attempted to continue the assault with the corps of Maj. Gen. John C, Breckinridge, but the troops were slow in arriving and their multiple piecemeal attacks failed. Fighting resumed on January 2,1863, when Bragg ordered Breckinridge to assault the well-fortified Union position on a hill to the east of the Stones River, faced with overwhelming artillery, the Confederates were repulsed with heavy losses. Falsely believing that Rosecrans was receiving reinforcements, Bragg chose to withdraw his army on January 3 to Tullahoma and this caused Bragg to lose the confidence of the Army of Tennessee. Although Braggs newly combined force was up to 38,000 veteran troops, Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell, the Union commander at Perryville, was equally passive and refused to attack Bragg. His army, joined with Smiths Army of Kentucky and together renamed the Army of Tennessee as of November 20, the loss of Stevensons 7,500 men would be sorely felt in the coming battle. Bragg reorganized his army, and Kirby Smith left for East Tennessee, Bragg commanded two corps, under Maj. Gen. William J. Hardee and Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk (divisions of Maj. Gens. Benjamin F. Cheatham and Jones M. Withers, and a command under Brig. Gen. Joseph Wheeler. Davis refused to relieve either Bragg or the rebellious generals, on the Union side, President Abraham Lincoln had become frustrated with Buells passivity and replaced him with Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, victor of the recent battles of Iuka and Corinth. Rosecrans moved his XIV Corps to Nashville, Tennessee, and was warned by Washington that he too would be replaced if he did not move aggressively against Bragg, however, Rosecrans took ample time to reorganize and train his forces and resupply his army. He did not begin his march in pursuit of Bragg until December 26, the relatively small battle that followed Morgans surprise attack was an embarrassing Union defeat, resulting in many captured Union supplies and soldiers. The Union also engaged in a cavalry raid. On December 26, the day Rosecrans marched from Nashville, a force under Brig. Gen. Samuel P. Carter raided the upper Tennessee Valley from Manchester. Until January 5, Carters men destroyed railroad bridges and fought a few skirmishes, but none of the cavalry raids, Confederate or Union, had any significant effect on the Stones River Campaign. The left wing of 14,500 men under Maj. Gen. Thomas L. Crittenden took a route that was parallel to the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, passing through La Vergne and south of Smyrna. The right wing of 16,000 men under Maj. Gen. Alexander M. McCook marched south along the Nolensville Turnpike to Nolensville, south to Triune, the center wing of 13,500 men under Maj. Gen
15.
Battle of Chickamauga
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The Battle of Chickamauga, fought September 18–20,1863, marked the end of a Union offensive in southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia called the Chickamauga Campaign. The battle was the most significant Union defeat in the Western Theater of the American Civil War and it was the first major battle of the war that was fought in Georgia. After his successful Tullahoma Campaign, Rosecrans renewed the offensive, aiming to force the Confederates out of Chattanooga, in early September, Rosecrans consolidated his forces scattered in Tennessee and Georgia and forced Braggs army out of Chattanooga, heading south. The Union troops followed it and brushed with it at Daviss Cross Roads, Bragg was determined to reoccupy Chattanooga and decided to meet a part of Rosecranss army, defeat it, and then move back into the city. On September 17 he headed north, intending to attack the isolated XXI Corps, as Bragg marched north on September 18, his cavalry and infantry fought with Union cavalry and mounted infantry, which were armed with Spencer repeating rifles. Fighting began in earnest on the morning of September 19, Braggs men strongly assaulted but could not break the Union line. The next day, Bragg resumed his assault, in late morning, Rosecrans was misinformed that he had a gap in his line. Longstreets attack drove one-third of the Union army, including Rosecrans himself, Union units spontaneously rallied to create a defensive line on Horseshoe Ridge, forming a new right wing for the line of Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, who assumed overall command of remaining forces. Although the Confederates launched costly and determined assaults, Thomas and his men held until twilight, Union forces then retired to Chattanooga while the Confederates occupied the surrounding heights, besieging the city. General-in-chief Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck and President Abraham Lincoln were insistent that Rosecrans move quickly to take Chattanooga, seizing the city would open the door for the Union to advance toward Atlanta and the heartland of the South. Chattanooga was a rail hub, and an important manufacturing center for the production of iron and coke. Situated between Lookout Mountain, Missionary Ridge, Raccoon Mountain, and Stringers Ridge, Chattanooga occupied an important, defensible position. Although Braxton Braggs Army of Tennessee had about 52,000 men at the end of July, Buckner, into Braggs Department of Tennessee, which added 17,800 men to Braggs army, but also extended his command responsibilities northward to the Knoxville area. This brought a third subordinate into Braggs command who had little or no respect for him, Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk and Maj. Gen. William J. Hardee had already made their animosity well known. Buckners attitude was colored by Braggs unsuccessful invasion of Buckners native Kentucky in 1862, as well as by the loss of his command through the merger. A positive aspect for Bragg was Hardees request to be transferred to Mississippi in July, but he was replaced by Lt. Gen. D. H. Hill, a general who did not get along with Robert E. Lee in Virginia. The Confederate War Department asked Bragg in early August whether he could assume the offensive against Rosecrans if he were given reinforcements for Mississippi and he demurred, concerned about the daunting geographical obstacles and logistical challenges, preferring to wait for Rosecrans to solve those same problems and attack him. He was also concerned about a sizable Union force under Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside that was threatening Knoxville, Bragg withdrew his forces from advanced positions around Bridgeport, which left Rosecrans free to maneuver on the northern side of the Tennessee River
16.
Chattanooga Campaign
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The Chattanooga Campaign was a series of maneuvers and battles in October and November 1863, during the American Civil War. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was given command of Union forces in the West, significant reinforcements also began to arrive with him in Chattanooga from Mississippi and the Eastern Theater. On October 19th, Grant removed Rosecrans from command of the Army of the Cumberland, after opening a supply line to feed his starving men and animals, Grants army fought off a Confederate counterattack at the Battle of Wauhatchie on October 28–29,1863. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman maneuvered to launch an attack against Braggs right flank on Missionary Ridge. On November 24, Shermans men crossed the Tennessee River in the morning, the same day, Eastern Theater troops under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker defeated the Confederates in the Battle of Lookout Mountain. The next day began a movement toward Braggs left flank at Rossville. On November 25, Shermans attack on Braggs right flank made little progress, hoping to distract Braggs attention, Grant ordered Thomass army to advance in the center of his line to the base of Missionary Ridge. Braggs defeat eliminated the last significant Confederate control of Tennessee and opened the door to an invasion of the Deep South, Chattanooga was a vital rail hub, and an important manufacturing center for the production of iron and coke, located on the navigable Tennessee River. Rosecrans pursued Bragg and the two collided at the Battle of Chickamauga on September 19–20. Bragg did not cut off the routes to Chattanooga and did not organize a pursuit that might have seriously damaged the Union army before it could regroup. The Union forces took advantage of previous Confederate works to erect defensive positions in a tight. Bragg had three courses of action and he could outflank Rosecrans by crossing the Tennessee either below or above the city, assault the Union force directly in their fortifications, or starve the Federals by establishing a siege line. A direct assault was too costly against a well-fortified enemy, receiving intelligence that Rosecranss men had only six days of rations, Bragg chose the siege option, while attempting to accumulate sufficient logistical capability to cross the Tennessee. Braggs army besieged the city, threatening to starve the Union forces into surrender, Bragg also had little inclination to take offensive action against the Federal army because he was occupied in leadership quarrels within his army. On September 29, Bragg relieved from command two of his subordinates who had disappointed him in the Chickamauga Campaign, Maj. Gen. Thomas C, hindman and Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk. On October 4, twelve of his most senior generals sent a petition to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, Davis personally visited Chattanooga to hear the complaints. After he decided to retain Bragg in command, Bragg retaliated against some of those generals by relieving Lt. Gen. D. H. Hill and Maj. Gen. Simon B. In Chattanooga, Rosecrans was stunned by the defeat of his army, President Abraham Lincoln remarked that Rosecrans seemed confused and stunned like a duck hit on the head
17.
Battle of Pickett's Mill
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The Battle of Picketts Mill was fought on May 27,1864, in Paulding County, Georgia, during the American Civil War between Union and Confederate forces. Union Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman attempted an attack on the flank of Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston. After the Union defeat at New Hope Church, Sherman ordered Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard to attack Johnstons seemingly exposed right flank, the Confederates were ready for the attack, which did not unfold as planned because supporting troops never appeared. The Confederates repulsed the attack causing high casualties, author Ambrose Bierce fought for the Union at Picketts Mill as a topographical engineer under William Babcock Hazen. Bierces short story The Crime at Picketts Mill is about this battle, Bierce reported that the battle took about 45 minutes, that the total loss was 1,400 men, one-half were killed and wounded in Hazens brigade in 30 minutes of actual fighting. The address of Picketts Mill Battlefield Historic Site is 4432 Mt. Tabor Church Rd, Dallas and it is now preserved as a Georgia state park and includes roads used by Union and Confederate troops, earthwork battlements, and an 1800s era pioneer cabin. The areas ravine is a site where hundreds died, Picketts Mill at Civil War Virtual Tours Battle of Picketts Mill Paulding County Historical Society & Museum The Ambrose Bierce Project
18.
Atlanta Campaign
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The Atlanta Campaign was a series of battles fought in the Western Theater of the American Civil War throughout northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta during the summer of 1864. Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman invaded Georgia from the vicinity of Chattanooga, Tennessee, beginning in May 1864, Johnstons Army of Tennessee withdrew toward Atlanta in the face of successive flanking maneuvers by Shermans group of armies. In July, the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, replaced Johnston with the more aggressive John Bell Hood, Hoods army was eventually besieged in Atlanta and the city fell on September 2, setting the stage for Shermans March to the Sea and hastening the end of the war. The Atlanta Campaign followed the Union victory in the Battles for Chattanooga in November 1863, Chattanooga was known as the Gateway to the South, grants strategy was to apply pressure against the Confederacy in several coordinated offensives. While he, George G. Meade, Benjamin Butler, Franz Sigel, George Crook, at the start of the campaign, Shermans Military Division of the Mississippi consisted of three armies, Maj. Gen. James B. McPhersons Army of the Tennessee, including the corps of Maj. Gen. John A. Logan, Maj. Gen. Grenville M. Dodge, when McPherson was killed at the Battle of Atlanta, Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard replaced him. Maj. Gen. John M. Schofields Army of the Ohio, consisting of Schofields XXIII Corps and a cavalry division commanded by Maj. Gen. George Stoneman. Maj. Gen. George H. Thomass Army of the Cumberland, including the corps of Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, Maj. Gen. John M. Palmer, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, and Brig. Gen. Washington L. Elliott. After Howard took army command, David S. Stanley took over IV Corps, however, by June, a steady stream of reinforcements brought Shermans strength to 112,000. Opposing Sherman, the Army of Tennessee was commanded first by Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, the four corps in the 50, 000-man army were commanded by, Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee. When Polk was killed on June 14, Loring briefly took over as commander of the corps but was replaced by Alexander P. Stewart on June 23. But in Georgia, he faced the more aggressive Sherman. Johnstons army repeatedly took up strongly entrenched defensive positions in the campaign, Sherman prudently avoided suicidal frontal assaults against most of these positions, instead maneuvering in flanking marches around the defenses as he advanced from Chattanooga towards Atlanta. Whenever Sherman flanked the defensive lines, Johnston would retreat to another prepared position, both armies took advantage of the railroads as supply lines, with Johnston shortening his supply lines as he drew closer to Atlanta, and Sherman lengthening his own. Johnston had entrenched his army on the long, high mountain of Rocky Face Ridge, the two columns engaged the enemy at Buzzard Roost and at Dug Gap. In the meantime, the column, under McPherson, passed through Snake Creek Gap and on May 9 advanced to the outskirts of Resaca. Fearing defeat, McPherson pulled his column back to Snake Creek Gap, on May 10, Sherman decided to take most of his men and join McPherson to take Resaca. The next morning, as he discovered Shermans army withdrawing from their positions in front of Rocky Face Ridge, Union troops tested the Confederate lines around Resaca to pinpoint their whereabouts
19.
Battle of Franklin (1864)
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The Battle of Franklin was fought on November 30,1864, in Franklin, Tennessee, as part of the Franklin–Nashville Campaign of the American Civil War. It was one of the worst disasters of the war for the Confederate States Army, after its defeat against Maj. Gen. George H. Following his defeat in the Atlanta Campaign, Hood had hoped to lure Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman into battle by disrupting his supply line from Chattanooga to Atlanta. After a brief period in which he pursued Hood, Sherman decided instead to cut his main army off from these lines, shermans march left the aggressive Hood unoccupied, and his Army of Tennessee had several options in attacking Sherman or falling upon his rear lines. The task of defending Tennessee and the rearguard against Hood fell to Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, another 30,000 troops under Thomass command were in or moving toward Nashville. Hood spent the first three weeks of November quietly supplying the Army of Tennessee in northern Alabama in preparation for his offensive, with a series of fast marches that covered 70 miles in three days, Hood tried to maneuver between the two armies to destroy each in detail. On November 28, Thomas directed Schofield to begin preparations for a north to Franklin. Meanwhile, early on the morning of November 29, Hood sent Cheathams, now that Hood had outflanked him by noon on November 29, Schofields army was in critical danger. Both the Union infantry and supply train managed to pass Spring Hill unscathed by dawn on November 30 and that morning, Hood was surprised and furious to discover Schofields unexpected escape. After an angry conference with his commanders in which he blamed everyone but himself for the mistakes. Schofields advance guard arrived in Franklin at about 4,30 a. m. on November 30, Brig. Gen. Schofield decided to defend at Franklin with his back to the river because he had no pontoon bridges available that would enable his men to cross the river. The bridges had been left behind in his retreat from Columbia because they lacked wagons to transport them, Schofield needed time to repair the permanent bridges spanning the river—a burned wagon bridge and an intact railroad bridge. He ordered his engineers to rebuild the bridge and to lay planking over the undamaged railroad bridge to enable it to carry wagons. By the beginning of the assault, nearly all the wagons were across the Harpeth. By noon, the Union works were ready, the line formed an approximate semicircle around the town from northwest to southeast. The other half of the circle was the Harpeth River, counterclockwise from the northwest were the divisions of Kimball, Ruger, and Reilly. There was a gap in the line where the Columbia Pike entered the outskirts of the town, about 200 feet behind this gap, a 150-yard retrenchment line was constructed of dirt and rails, which was intended to be a barrier to traffic, not a full-fledged defensive earthwork. The actual earthworks in the portion of the line were formidable
20.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael
21.
Americans
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Americans are citizens of the United States of America. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, Americans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Americans, non-citizen residents, dual citizens, and expatriates may also claim an American identity. See Names for United States citizens. S, virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. It also includes influences of African-American culture, westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements, immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics, in addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, the United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Some other race is also an option in the census and other surveys, people of European descent, or White Americans, constitute the majority of the 308 million people living in the United States, with 72. 4% of the population in the 2010 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the peoples of Europe, the Middle East. Of those reporting to be White American,7,487,133 reported to be Multiracial, with largest combination being white, additionally, there are 29,184,290 White Hispanics or Latinos. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states, there are four minority-majority states, California, Texas, New Mexico, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia has a non-white majority, the state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. The largest continental ancestral group of Americans are that of Europeans who have origins in any of the peoples of Europe. This includes people via African, North American, Caribbean, Central American or South American and Oceanian nations that have a large European diaspora, the Spanish were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the United States. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the Thirteen Colonies to English parents. 8% of the total population, Hispanic or Latino Americans constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group after non-Hispanic Whites in the United States, hispanic/Latino Americans are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category, rather than a race
22.
41st (Welch) Regiment of Foot
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The 41st Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, raised in 1719. Under the Childers Reforms it amalgamated with the 69th Regiment of Foot to form the Welch Regiment in 1881, for much of its early history the regiment undertook garrison duties at Portsmouth. It was renamed the Royal Invalids in 1741, and it was numbered the 41st Regiment of Foot in 1751. In 1782, when other regiments took county titles, it was denoted as the 41st Regiment of Foot, in 1787 it ceased to comprise invalids and became a line regiment. On 23 January 1788, Arthur Wesley, the future Duke of Wellington and it was posted to Canada in 1800 and saw service there during the War of 1812. It fought under Major General Isaac Brock at the Siege of Detroit in August 1812, following Brocks death, it fought under Major-General Henry Procter at the Battle of Frenchtown in January 1813 and formed the bulk of the attacking force at the Siege of Fort Meigs in April 1813. It then formed part of the crew of the British naval squadron which was defeated at the Battle of Lake Erie in September 1813 and it also took part in the successful Capture of Fort Niagara in December 1813. The regiment was posted to India in July 1822 and was deployed to Rangoon for service in the First Anglo-Burmese War in May 1824 and it formed part of an army which advanced up the River Irrawaddy to the Kingdom of Ava and then captured Bagan in February 1826. It received an affiliation in 1831, becoming the 41st Regiment of Foot. The regiment was sent to Afghanistan in 1842 for service in the First Anglo-Afghan War and saw action at Kandahar and Ghazni. Patrick Cleburne, a private in the regiment from 1846 to 1849, subsequently moved to United States,24 at Maindy Barracks in Cardiff. On 1 July 1881 the Childers Reforms came into effect and the regiment amalgamated with the 69th Regiment of Foot to form the Welch Regiment, edmund Fielding 1743–1752, Col. Tomkyn Wardour 1752–1764, Lt-Gen. Alexander Leslie, 6th Lord Lindores 1765–1771, Maj-Gen, sir Thomas Stirling, 5th Baronet 1808–1809, Lt-Gen. Sir Josiah Champagné, GCH 1819–1837, Lt-Gen, sir Edward Stopford, GCB 1837–1848, Gen. Sir Ralph Darling, GCH 1848–1861, Gen. Charles Ashe à Court-Repington, CB, KH 1861–1881, sir Richard England, GCB, KH Lomax, David Alexander Napier. A history of the services of the 41st regiment from its formation in 1719 to 1895, archived from the original on 13 January 2008
23.
Trinity College, Dublin
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Trinity College is the sole constituent college of the University of Dublin, a research university in Ireland. It is one of the seven ancient universities of Britain and Ireland, originally it was established outside the city walls of Dublin in the buildings of the dissolved Augustinian Priory of All Hallows. Trinity College was set up in part to consolidate the rule of the Tudor monarchy in Ireland, although Catholics and Dissenters had been permitted to enter as early as 1793, certain restrictions on their membership of the college remained until 1873. From 1871 to 1970, the Catholic Church in Ireland forbade its adherents from attending Trinity College without permission, women were first admitted to the college as full members in January 1904. Trinity College is now surrounded by Dublin and is located on College Green, the college proper occupies 190,000 m2, with many of its buildings ranged around large quadrangles and two playing fields. Academically, it is divided into three faculties comprising 25 schools, offering degree and diploma courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The Library of Trinity College is a deposit library for Ireland. The first University of Dublin was created by the Pope in 1311, following this, and some debate about a new university at St. The first Provost of the College was the Archbishop of Dublin, Adam Loftus, two years after foundation, a few Fellows and students began to work in the new College, which then lay around one small square. During the eighteenth century Trinity College was seen as the university of the Protestant Ascendancy, Parliament, meeting on the other side of College Green, made generous grants for building. The first building of this period was the Old Library building, begun in 1712, followed by the Printing House, during the second half of the century Parliament Square slowly emerged. The great building drive was completed in the nineteenth century by Botany Bay. In December 1845 Denis Caulfield Heron was the subject of a hearing at Trinity College, Heron had previously been examined and, on merit, declared a scholar of the college but had not been allowed to take up his place due to his Catholic religion. Heron appealed to the Courts which issued a writ of mandamus requiring the case to be adjudicated by the Archbishop of Dublin, the decision of Richard Whately and John George de la Poer Beresford was that Heron would remain excluded from Scholarship. This decision confirmed that the position remained that persons who were not Anglicans could not be elected to Scholarship, Fellowship or be made a Professor. However within less than three decades of this all disabilities imposed on Catholics were repealed as in 1873, all tests were abolished. Prior to 1956 it was the responsibility of the local Bishop, the nineteenth century was also marked by important developments in the professional schools. The Law School was reorganised after the middle of the century, the Engineering School was established in 1842 and was one of the first of its kind in Ireland and Britain
24.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
25.
Battle of Missionary Ridge
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The Battle of Missionary Ridge was fought November 25,1863, as part of the Chattanooga Campaign of the American Civil War. In the afternoon, Grant was concerned that Bragg was reinforcing his right flank at Shermans expense, the Union soldiers moved forward and quickly pushed the Confederates from the first line of rifle pits but were then subjected to a punishing fire from the Confederate lines up the ridge. At this point, the Union soldiers continued the attack against the remaining lines and this second advance was taken up by the commanders on the spot, but also by some of the soldiers who, on their own, sought shelter from the fire further up the slope. The Union advance was disorganized but effective, finally overwhelming and scattering what ought to have been, as General Grant himself believed, an impregnable Confederate line. After their disastrous defeat at the Battle of Chickamauga, the 40,000 men of the Union Army of the Cumberland under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga. Confederate General Braxton Braggs Army of Tennessee besieged the city, threatening to starve the Union forces into surrender, the only supply line that was not controlled by the Confederates was a roundabout, tortuous course nearly 60 miles long over Waldens Ridge from Bridgeport, Alabama. Heavy rains began to fall in late September, washing away long stretches of the mountain roads, on October 1, Maj. Gen. Toward the end of October, typical Federal soldiers rations were four cakes of hard bread and a quarter pound of pork every three days. In response, Bragg ordered Lt. Gen. James Longstreet to force the Federals out of Lookout Valley, the ensuing Battle of Wauhatchie was one of the wars few battles fought exclusively at night. The Confederate attack against a portion of Hookers force was repulsed, Sherman arrived with his 20,000 men of the Army of the Tennessee in mid-November. Grant, Sherman, and Thomas planned an attack on Braggs force, with an assault by Sherman against the northern end of Missionary Ridge. Running behind schedule, Shermans force was ready to cross the Tennessee River early on November 24, Gen. Ambrose Burnside was being threatened by a Confederate force under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet. Thomas sent over 14,000 men toward a minor hill named Orchard Knob, Grant changed his orders and instructed Thomass men to dig in and hold the position. Surprised by Thomass move and realizing that his center and right might be more vulnerable than he had thought and he recalled all units he had recently ordered to Knoxville if they were within a days march. Maj. Gen. Patrick R. Cleburnes division returned after dark from Chickamauga Station and he assigned Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee to command his now critical right flank, turning over the left flank to Maj. Gen. Carter L. Stevenson. Braggs concern for his right proved justified and his decisions were fortuitous, in the center, Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge ordered his men to begin fortifying the crest of Missionary Ridge, unable to decide whether to defend the base or the crest of the Ridge, the divisions of Brig. Bate and J. Patton Anderson were ordered to move half of their divisions to the crest, James L. McDonough wrote of the upper entrenchments, Placed along the physical crest rather than what is termed the military crest. These works severely handicapped the defenders, November 24 was dark, with low clouds, fog, and drizzling rain
26.
Battle of Ringgold Gap
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The Battle of Ringgold Gap was fought November 27,1863, in northwest Georgia during the Chattanooga Campaign of the American Civil War. The disastrous Confederate rout at Missionary Ridge on November 25 forced the Army of Tennessee to retreat into northwest Georgia, the army soon came upon the mountain pass known as the Ringgold Gap. To give time for his artillery and wagon trains to get through the gap, while Cleburne expressed doubt he could defend the gap adequately with his single division, Bragg refused to send any further troops to assist Cleburne. Cleburne deployed his men at the gap before dawn of November 27, Colonel Hiram Granburys brigade was placed to the right of the gap, the remainder of the division was deployed in the gap itself as a reserve. The Confederate rear guard had burned the bridges over South Chickamauga Creek, joseph Hooker was given command of divisions from the IV Corps, XI Corps, XII Corps, and XV Corps and ordered to cut the Western and Atlantic Railroad near Graysville. However, he decided to concentrate his forces near the town of Ringgold, Hooker halted two and a half miles from Ringgold Gap during the night of November 26–27. The two forces met at 8 a. m. on November 27, when the XV Corps division of Peter Osterhaus attacked Granburys brigade, the Confederates held their fire until the Union line was fifty yards away. The initial volley disorganized Osterhauss division and halted his attack, while a Union attack on the Confederate right flank was routed. John Gearys XII Corps division was the next to arrive, one brigade again attacked the Confederate right while another regiment attacked the gap, charles Crufts IV Corps division was sent to attack Cleburnes left flank but was defeated. After holding his position for five hours, Cleburne was ordered about noon to start falling back towards the main Confederate army. Leaving skirmishers along his front to hide his withdrawal, he pulled back from the gap about 2 p. m. Cleburne had lost 20 killed and 201 wounded during the battle. Grant arrived near the gap at this time and, due to the position of his army, decided to return to Chattanooga. Union casualties totaled 509 killed and wounded, although Hooker was severely criticized for his conduct of the battle by Union Assistant Secretary of War Dana and several of Hookers men, Grant choose to retain Hooker temporarily. A small park in Ringgold Gap commemorates the battle, the nearby Western and Atlantic Depot still shows scars from the damage it received from artillery fire during the battle. The Ringgold Gap Battlefield was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2011, broome, Doyle D. Jr. Daring Rear-Guard Defense. The Shipwreck of Their Hopes, The Battles for Chattanooga, urbanna, University of Illinois Press,1994. The Civil War Battlefield Guide, 2nd ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co.1998, chattanooga—A Death Grip on the Confederacy. Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press,1984, National Park Service battle description Battle of Ringgold Gap at www. us-civilwar
27.
Anglo-Irish people
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Many became eminent as administrators in the British Empire and as senior army and naval officers. The term is not usually applied to Presbyterians in the province of Ulster, whose ancestry is mostly Scottish, rather than English or Irish, the Anglo-Irish held a wide range of political views, with many of them being outspoken Irish Nationalists. And while many of the Anglo-Irish were part of the English diaspora in Ireland, in the course of the 17th century, this Anglo-Irish landed class replaced the Gaelic Irish and Old English aristocracies as the ruling class in Ireland. They were also referred to as New English to distinguish them from the Old English who descended from the medieval Hiberno-Norman settlers and those who converted to the Church of Ireland were usually able to keep or regain their lost property, as the issue was primarily one of allegiance. In the late 18th century the Parliament of Ireland in Dublin won legislative independence, the Anglo-Irish social class was usually of mixed English and Irish or Welsh ancestry. Members of this class commonly identified themselves as Irish, while retaining English habits in politics, commerce. They participated in the popular English sports of the day, particularly racing and fox hunting, many of the more successful of them spent much of their careers either in Great Britain or in some part of the British Empire. Many constructed large houses, which became known in Ireland as Big Houses. The Dublin working class playwright Brendan Behan, a staunch Irish Republican, saw the Anglo-Irish as Irelands leisure class, the Anglo-Irish novelist and short story writer Elizabeth Bowen memorably described her experience as feeling English in Ireland, Irish in England and not accepted fully as belonging to either. Due to their prominence in the military and their conservative politics and they also controlled financial companies such as the Bank of Ireland and Goodbody Stockbrokers. Prominent Anglo-Irish poets, writers, and playwrights include Jonathan Swift, George Berkeley, Oliver Goldsmith, Bram Stoker, Oscar Wilde, J. M. Synge, W. B. Yeats, Cecil Day-Lewis, Bernard Shaw, Augusta, Lady Gregory, Samuel Beckett, Giles Cooper, C. S. Lewis, Lord Longford, the polar explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton was also an Anglo-Irishman. Medical experts included Sir William Wilde, Robert Graves, Thomas Wrigley Grimshaw, William Stokes, Robert Collis, Sir John Lumsden, William Desmond Taylor was an early and prolific maker of silent films in Hollywood. Philanthropists included Thomas Barnardo and The 1st Earl of Iveagh, the Anglo-Irish, as a class, were mostly opposed to the notions of Irish independence and Home Rule. Most were supporters of continued political union with Great Britain, which existed between 1800 and 1922, however, Protestants in Ireland, and the Anglo-Irish class in particular, were by no means universally attached to the cause of continued political union with Great Britain. For instance, author Jonathan Swift, a clergyman in the Church of Ireland, the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was led by members of the Anglo-Irish and Ulster Scots class, some of whom feared the political implications of the impending union with Great Britain. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, Irish nationalism became increasingly tied to a Roman Catholic identity, by the beginning of the twentieth century, many Anglo-Irishmen in southern Ireland had become convinced of the need for a political settlement with Irish nationalists. Anglo-Irish politicians such as Sir Horace Plunkett and Lord Monteagle became leading figures in finding a solution to the Irish question
28.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
29.
Thomas C. Hindman
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Shortly after he was born in Knoxville, Tennessee, Hindman moved with his family to Jacksonville, Alabama, and later Ripley, Mississippi. After receiving his education in Ripley, he attended the Lawrenceville Classical Institute. Afterwards, he raised a company in Tippah County for the 2nd Mississippi regiment in the Mexican–American War, Hindman served during the war as a lieutenant and later as a captain of his company. After the war, he returned to Ripley and he studied law, and was admitted to the state bar in 1851. He started a law practice in Ripley, and served as a member of the Mississippi House of Representatives from 1854 to 1856, Hindman moved his law practice to Helena, Arkansas after his term in the Mississippi House ended. He was elected as the Democratic Representative from Arkansass 1st congressional district in the Thirty-sixth Congress from March 4,1859 to March 4,1861. He was re-elected to the Thirty-seventh Congress, but declined to serve after the onset of the Civil War, instead, Hindman joined the armed forces of the Confederacy. He was promoted to general on September 28,1861. He commanded the Trans-Mississippi Department, and later raised and commanded Hindmans Legion for the Confederate States Army, after the war, Hindman avoided surrender to the federal government by fleeing to Mexico City. He worked in Mexico as a planter and attempted to practice law. After the execution of Maximilian I of Mexico in 1867, Hindman submitted a petition for a pardon to President Andrew Johnson, Hindman, nonetheless, returned to his former life in Helena. He became the leader of the Young Democracy, a new organization that was willing to accept the Reconstruction for the restoration of the Union. He was assassinated on September 27,1868 at his Helena home, Hindmans parents, Thomas Hindman and Sallie Holt Hindman, were of English and Scottish ancestry. His maternal ancestors included Major Robert Holt, a successful planter, the Holt family originally came from Halifax County, Virginia before moving to Knoxville. One of the descendants of the Carmichael clan, Sarah Carmichael, married Samuel Hindman and they then moved to Knoxville, and their youngest son Thomas C. Hindman, Sr. was born on November 10,1793, family legend claims that Hindman, Sr. was the first white male child born in Knoxville. Hindman, Sr. was an ensign in the 39th United States Infantry during the War of 1812 and he was promoted to third lieutenant on January 11,1814, and to second lieutenant on May 20 of the same year. He fought in the Battle of New Orleans, the major battle of the war
30.
Know Nothing
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The Native American Party, renamed the American Party in 1855 and commonly known as the Know Nothing movement, was an American political party that operated nationally in the mid-1850s. The motivators of the Partys rise were,1. )Nativist sentiment caused by the sudden, unprecedented influx of German and Irish immigrants in the late 1840s,2. )A rapid, steep decline in wages caused by the sudden influx of very large numbers of Irish immigrants fleeing the potato famine,3. )The threat members perceived that the expansion of slavery into factory labor. In the eyes of supporters of both the Free Soil and Know Nothing movements, the existence of black slavery threatened to reduce free, white workers to wage slaves, and 4. )Fear that land in the western territories would be awarded to wealthy slave plantation owners rather than to white small farmers. It was due to fear that slavery would destroy the economic prospects of working families that the Party enrolled massive numbers of voters in the wake of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The Partys most prominent leaders were U. S, the American Party nominated former President Millard Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election. Anti-Catholicism had been a factor in colonial America but played little role in American politics until the arrival of large numbers of Irish and it then reemerged in nativist attacks on Catholic immigration. It appeared in New York politics as early as 1843, under the banner of the American Republican Party, the movement quickly spread to nearby states, using that name or Native American Party or variants of it. They succeeded in a number of local and Congressional elections, notably in 1844 in Philadelphia, in the early 1850s, numerous secret orders grew up, of which the Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star Spangled Banner came to be the most important. They merged in New York in the early 1850s as an order that quickly spread across the North, reaching non-Catholics. The name Know Nothing originated in the organization of the party. When a member was asked about its activities, he was supposed to reply, outsiders called them Know Nothings, and the name stuck. In 1855, the Know Nothings first entered politics under the American Party label, the immigration of large numbers of Irish and German Catholics to the United States in the period between 1830 and 1860 made religious differences between Catholics and Protestants a political issue. Violence occasionally erupted at the polls, Protestants alleged that Pope Pius IX had put down the failed liberal Revolutions of 1848 and that he was an opponent of liberty, democracy and Republicanism. One Boston minister described Catholicism as the ally of tyranny, the opponent of material prosperity, the foe of thrift, the enemy of the railroad, the caucus, and the school. In 1849, a secret society, the Order of the Star Spangled Banner, was created by Charles B. Allen in New York City. Fear of Catholic immigration led to a dissatisfaction with the Democratic Party, activists formed secret groups, coordinating their votes and throwing their weight behind candidates sympathetic to their cause. When asked about these organizations, members were to reply I know nothing. Immigration during the first five years of the 1850s reached a level five times greater than a decade earlier, most of the new arrivals were poor Catholic peasants or laborers from Ireland and Germany who crowded into the tenements of large cities
31.
Secession in the United States
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Threats and aspirations to secede from the United States, or arguments justifying secession, have been a feature of the countrys politics almost since its birth. Some have argued for secession as a right and others as from a natural right of revolution. In Texas v. White, the United States Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession unconstitutional and this movement collapsed in 1865 with the defeat of Confederate forces by Union armies in the American Civil War. A2008 Zogby International poll found that 22% of Americans believed that any state or region has the right to peaceably secede, a 2014 Reuters/Ipsos poll showed 24% of Americans supported their state seceding from the union if necessary, 53% opposed the idea. Republicans were somewhat more supportive than Democrats, mankind are more disposed to suffer, while Evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the Forms to which they are accustomed. But when a train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing. A design to them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government. He observed that the case can be made that no result of the war was more important than the destruction, once, however, during the founding era, many a public figure. Declared that the states could interpose their powers between their citizens and the power of the government, and talk of secession was not unknown. But according to McDonald, to avoid resorting to the violence that had accompanied the Revolution, in effect, the Constitution completed and perfected the Revolution. Whatever the intentions of the Founders, threats of secession and disunion were a constant in the discourse of Americans preceding the Civil War. Disunion connoted the dissolution of the failure of the Founders efforts to establish a stable. For many Americans in the North and the South, disunion was a nightmare, and yet, for many other Americans, disunion served as the main instrument by which they could achieve their political goals. In late 1777 the Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states, the confederation government was administered de facto by the Congress under the provisions of the approved draft of the Articles until they achieved ratification—and de jure status—in early 1781. In 1786 delegates of five called for a convention of delegates in Philadelphia to amend the Articles—which would require unanimous consent of the thirteen states. The delegates to the Philadelphia Convention convened and deliberated from May to September 1787, instead of pursuing their official charge they returned a draft Constitution, proposed for constructing and administering a new federal—later also known as national—government. In effect, the delegates proposed to abandon and replace the Articles of Confederation rather than amend them, one explanation was that the Articles of Confederation simply failed to protect the vital interests of the individual states. Necessity then, rather than legality, was the factor in abandoning the Articles
32.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
33.
William J. Hardee
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William Joseph Hardee was a career U. S. Army officer, serving during the Second Seminole War and in the Mexican-American War, where he was captured and exchanged. In the American Civil War, he sided with the South, Hardee served in the Western Theater and quarreled sharply with two of his commanding officers, Braxton Bragg and John Bell Hood. He served in the Atlanta Campaign of 1864 and the Carolinas Campaign of 1865, Hardees writings about military tactics were widely used on both sides in the conflict. Hardee was born to Sarah Ellis and Major John Hardee at the Rural Felicity plantation in Camden County and he graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1838 and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 2nd U. S. Dragoons. During the Seminole Wars, he was stricken with illness, and while hospitalized he met, after he recovered, the Army sent him to France to study military tactics in 1840. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1839 and to captain in 1844, in the Mexican-American War, Hardee served in the Army of Occupation under Zachary Taylor and won two brevet promotions. He was captured on April 25,1846 at Carricitos Ranch, Texas, now serving under Winfield Scott, Hardee was wounded in a skirmish at La Rosia, Mexico in 1847. After the war, he led units of Texas Rangers and soldiers in Texas, after his wife died in 1853, he returned to West Point as a tactics instructor and served as commandant of cadets from 1856 to 1860. He served as the major in the 2nd U. S. Cavalry when that regiment was formed in 1855. He is also said to have designed the so-called Hardee hat about this time, Hardee resigned his U. S. Army commission on January 31,1861, after his home state of Georgia seceded from the Union. He joined the Confederate States Army as a colonel on March 7 and was given command of Forts Morgan and he was subsequently promoted to brigadier general and major general. By October 10,1862, he was one of the first Confederate lieutenant generals and he received his nickname, Old Reliable, while with this command. Hardee operated in Arkansas until he was called to join General Albert Sidney Johnstons Army of Mississippi as a commander for the Battle of Shiloh. He was wounded there in the arm on April 6,1862, Johnston was killed at Shiloh and Hardees corps joined General Braxton Braggs Army of Tennessee. At the Battle of Perryville in October 1862, Hardee commanded the Left Wing of Braggs army. In his arguably most successful battle, Stones River that December, after the Tullahoma Campaign, Hardee lost patience with the irascible Bragg and briefly commanded the Department of Mississippi and East Louisiana under General Joseph E. Johnston. During this period, he met Mary Foreman Lewis, an Alabama plantation owner, Hardee returned to Braggs army after the Battle of Chickamauga, taking over the corps of Leonidas Polk at Chattanooga, Tennessee, besieging the Union Army there. Hardee renewed his opposition to serving under Bragg and joined a group of officers who finally convinced Confederate President Jefferson Davis to relieve Bragg, Joseph E. Johnston took over command of the Army for the Atlanta Campaign in 1864
34.
Albert Sidney Johnston
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Albert Sidney Johnston served as a general in three different armies, the Texian Army, the United States Army, and the Confederate States Army. He saw extensive combat during his career, fighting actions in the Texas War of Independence, the Mexican–American War, the Utah War. Johnston was the officer, Union or Confederate, killed during the entire war. Davis believed the loss of Johnston was the point of our fate. Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston, Johnston was born in Washington, Kentucky, the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail Johnston. His father was a native of Salisbury, Connecticut, although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in Texas, which he considered his home. He was first educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, where he met fellow student Jefferson Davis, both were appointed to the United States Military Academy, Davis two years behind Johnston. In 1826 Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a second lieutenant in the 2nd U. S. Infantry. Johnston was assigned to posts in New York and Missouri and served in the Black Hawk War in 1832 as chief of staff to Bvt, in 1829 he married Henrietta Preston, sister of Kentucky politician and future Civil War general William Preston. They had one son, William Preston Johnston, who became a colonel in the Confederate Army, the senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 in order to care for his dying wife in Kentucky, who succumbed two years later to tuberculosis. After serving as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas from 1838 to 1840, in 1843, he married Eliza Griffin, his late wifes first cousin. The couple moved to Texas, where they settled on a plantation in Brazoria County. Johnston named the property China Grove, here they raised Johnstons two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Eliza and him. In 1836 Johnston moved to Texas and he enlisted as a private in the Texas Army during the Texas War of Independence against the Republic of Mexico. He was named Adjutant General as a colonel in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5,1836, on January 31,1837, he became senior brigadier general in command of the Texas Army. On December 22,1838, Mirabeau B, lamar, the second president of the Republic of Texas, appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He provided for the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, in February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky. Johnston returned to Texas during the Mexican–American War under General Zachary Taylor as a colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers, the enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the Battle of Monterrey
35.
Army of Central Kentucky
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The Army of Central Kentucky was a military organization within Department No.2. Originally called the Army Corps of Central Kentucky, it was created in the fall of 1861 as a subsection of Department No. 2, and continued in existence until the end of March 1862 when it was absorbed and merged into the Army of Mississippi, which was then re-organized as the Army of Tennessee on November 20,1862. Brig. Gen. Buckner assumed command of all forces in central Kentucky during September 1861 after having first served as a major general, the forces were organized into two divisions with a reserve force. Later a third division under Brig. Gen. John B, after Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston took command, Buckner continued to command a division of the Army of Central Kentucky at Bowling Green and Fort Donelson, where he surrendered. After being exchanged in August 1862, Buckner was promoted to major general, Gen. Johnston was in command of the Army of Central Kentucky from October 28,1861, until March 29,1862, with the exception of a two-week temporary command by Hardee in December. The area of operation for this army was designated as the part of Tennessee north of the Cumberland River, on December 26,1861, part of the Army of the Kanawha was added. On March 29,1862, the army at about 23,000 men strong was merged into the Army of the Mississippi in preparation for the Battle of Shiloh, maj. Gen. Hardee took temporary command of the army from December 4 to December 18,1861. New York, McKay,1959, revised 1988, Eicher, John H. and Eicher, David J. Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press,2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3
36.
15th Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Josey's)
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The 15th Arkansas Infantry Regiment was a Confederate Army infantry regiment that served during the American Civil War. The regiment was organized in May 1861 under the command of Colonel Patrick Cleburne and it served throughout the war in the western theater, seeing action in the Kentucky, Tennessee, and Georgia campaigns. Following its depletion in numbers the regiment was consolidated several times with other Arkansas regiments, there were two other regiments which also received the designation of 15th Arkansas. The 21st Arkansas Infantry was redesignated 15th Arkansas in February 1863 and this second 15th Arkansas was surrendered at Vicksburg in July 1863. A third regiment, under command of Colonels Gee and later Johnson and this last regiment surrendered at Port Hudson, Louisiana, in July 1863. The 1st Regiment, Arkansas State Troops, was organized mainly from existing militia companies several of which had participated in the seizure of the Federal Arsenal at Little Rock. Ten Volunteer Companies were enrolled in State service on May 14,1861, at Camp Rector, seven of the original ten companies had initially been organized under the state militia laws. Captain Patrick R. Cleburne, of the Yell Rifles, was elected Colonel of the regiment, as the very first regiment of the line authorized by the Arkansas State Military Board in the Civil War, they bore the title of 1st Regiment, Arkansas State Troops. The regiment moved via steamboat from Camp Rector down the Mississippi and back up the White River to Pocahontas, Arkansas, where they were sworn into Confederate service. The men of Company C and Company G declined to transfer to the Provisional Army of the Confederate States, so the men were honorably discharged, the following companies were transferred into Confederate Service, Company A – Harris Guards. The Regiment conducted its training at Pitmans Ferry and was assigned to a division commanded by Confederate General William Hardees Division. At the time the regiment was moved across the Mississippi River, by January 1862 the Confederate War Department had discovered that there was already a 1st Arkansas Infantry enrolled in Confederate service. Col James Fleming Fagans regiment was accepted and enrolled in the Provisional Army of the Confederate States at Lynchburg, Virginia, on May 19,1861, the regiment was redesignated as the 15th Arkansas Infantry on December 31,1861. Unfortunately the Arkansas State Military Board had already authorized the use of this designation for Col. James M. Gees regiment. Effectively the Confederate Army went from having two 1st Arkansas Regiments to having two 15th Arkansas Regiments, however, these designations stuck for the rest of the war. Thus, by January 1862 Cleburnes 1st Arkansas Regiment was reorganized for the war as the 15th Arkansas Regiment, as follows, Colonel Cleburne was appointed Brigadier General in March 1862, and was succeeded by Lieutenant Colonel Archibald K. Patton. After the battle of Shiloh, Colonel Lucius E. Polk took command, Colonel Polk was appointed Brigadier General in December 1862, and was succeeded by Colonel John E. Josey. War Department cataloged the regiments Compiled Service Records as the 15th Arkansas Infantry. on March 29,1862, the Army of Central Kentucky was merged into the Army of Mississippi in preparation for the Battle of Shiloh
37.
Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
38.
Braxton Bragg
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Bragg, a native of North Carolina, was educated at West Point and became an artillery officer. He served in Florida and then received three brevet promotions for distinguished service in the Mexican-American War, most notably the Battle of Buena Vista. After a series of posts in the Indian Territory, he resigned from the U. S. Army in 1856 to become a plantation owner in Louisiana. During the Civil War, Bragg trained soldiers in the Gulf Coast region and he was a corps commander at the Battle of Shiloh and subsequently was named to command the Army of Mississippi. He and Edmund Kirby Smith attempted an invasion of Kentucky in 1862, in December, he fought another inconclusive battle at Murfreesboro, Tennessee, the Battle of Stones River, but once again withdrew his army. In 1863, he fought a series of battles against Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, in June, he was outmaneuvered in the Tullahoma Campaign and retreated into Chattanooga. In November, Braggs army was routed in turn by Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in the Battles for Chattanooga. The defeat at Chattanooga was the last straw, and Bragg was recalled in early 1864 to Richmond, near the end of the war, he defended Wilmington, North Carolina, and served as a corps commander in the Carolinas Campaign. After the war Bragg worked as the superintendent of the New Orleans waterworks, a supervisor of improvements at Mobile, Alabama. Bragg is generally considered among the worst generals of the Civil War, although his commands often outnumbered those he fought against, most of the battles in which he engaged ended in defeats. The only exception was Chickamauga, which was due to the timely arrival of Lieutenant General James Longstreets corps. Most historians fault Bragg for impatience and poor treatment of others, Braxton Bragg was born in Warrenton, North Carolina, one of the six sons of Thomas and Margaret Crosland Bragg. One of his brothers was future Confederate Attorney General Thomas Bragg. He was often ridiculed as a child because of rumors about his mothers prison sentence for murdering an African American freeman. Grady McWhiney, the biographer of Braggs early life and career, states that despite these rumors. He was descended from Thomas Bragg, who was born in England, in the thousands of letters that Bragg wrote during his lifetime, he spoke fondly of his father, but never mentioned his mother. When Bragg was only ten old, his father decided on a military career for him. Eventually the oldest Bragg son, John, recently elected as a state legislator, senator Willie P. Mangum and West Point admitted Braxton at the age of 16
39.
Confederate Heartland Offensive
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Though they scored some successes, notably a tactical win at Perryville, they soon retreated, leaving Kentucky primarily under Union control for the rest of the war. Western campaigns by Union forces earlier in 1862 had reaped much progress, the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers had been opened to the U. S. Navy after successes at the battles of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. The railroad hub at Corinth had been evacuated by the Confederates, new Orleans, the Confederacys largest city at that time, had been captured by Admiral David Farragut. Consequentially, protecting the Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River became a top priority for the Confederacy, Kentucky, the most southern of the border states, produced cotton in west Kentucky, tobacco, and was the primary supplier of hemp for rope used in the cotton industry. The state was also a slave trade center. Eighty percent of Kentucky counties had voted for secession after the Union Army occupied Louisville, upwards of 400,00 Union troops occupied Kentucky at times, using firing squads, conscription and martial law orders. Still, about half of all Kentuckians fought for the Confederacy, some in Virginia and Tennessee units, Kentucky had called for support from the deep south during the early secession period. The lower south failed to respond at that time, Bragg and the lower south did respond later. Kentucky had a star on the Confederate flag, and seats in the Confederate Congress, in addition many Confederate leaders were from Kentucky like Jefferson Davis and Breckenridge and many others. For example, most of Mrs Mary Todd Lincolns relatives from the Lexington, Bragg transported all of his infantry by railroads from Tupelo, Mississippi, to Chattanooga, Tennessee, while his cavalry and artillery moved by road. By moving his army to Chattanooga, he was able to challenge Buells advance on the city and he captured over 4,000 Union soldiers at Munfordville, and then moved his army to Bardstown. On October 4,1862, he participated in the inauguration of Richard Hawes as the provisional Confederate governor of Kentucky, the wing of Braggs army under Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk met Buells army at Perryville on October 8 and won a tactical victory against him. Kirby Smith pleaded with Bragg to follow up on his success, For Gods sake, General, Bragg referred to his retreat as a withdrawal, the successful culmination of a giant raid. He had multiple reasons for withdrawing, disheartening news had arrived from North Mississippi that Earl Van Dorn and Sterling Price had failed at Corinth, just as Robert E. Lee had failed in his Maryland Campaign. He saw that his army had not much to gain from a further, isolated victory, whereas a defeat might cost not only the food and supplies yet collected. The armies of Bragg and Kirby Smith suffered from a lack of unified command, Bragg can be faulted for moving his army away from Munfordville, out of Buells path, a prime location for a battle to Confederate advantage. Polk can also be blamed for not following Braggs instructions on the day before, Davis kept Bragg in command of the Army of Tennessee. Lincoln removed Buell from command of the Army of the Ohio for being too cautious in pursuit of Bragg, foote, Shelby, The Civil War, A Narrative, Fort Sumter to Perryville, Random House,1958, ISBN 0-394-49517-9
40.
Edmund Kirby Smith
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Edmund Kirby Smith was a career United States Army officer who served with the Confederates during the Civil War, as one of only seven officers to reach the rank of Full General. The area included most actions east of the Rocky Mountains and west of the Mississippi River, in 1863, Smith dispatched troops in an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the Siege of Vicksburg. After Vicksburg was captured in July, the isolated Trans-Mississippi zone was cut off from the rest of the Confederacy, and became virtually an independent nation, nicknamed Kirby Smithdom. In the Red River Campaign of Spring 1864, he commanded victorious Confederate troops under General Richard Taylor, on May 26,1865, he surrendered his army at Galveston, Texas, before fleeing abroad to avoid arrest for treason. After the war, Smith worked in the telegraph and railway industries, Smith was born in 1824 in St. Augustine, Florida, as the youngest child to Joseph Lee Smith and Frances Kirby Smith. Both his parents were natives of Litchfield, Connecticut, where their children were born. The family moved to Florida in 1821, shortly before the elder Smith was named a Superior Court judge in the new Florida Territory, acquired by the US from Spain. Older siblings included Ephraim, born in 1807, sister Frances, born in 1809, and Josephine, who died in 1835, likely of tuberculosis. In 1836, his parents sent him to a boarding school in Virginia. On July 1,1841, Smith entered West Point and graduated four years later, while there he was nicknamed Seminole after the Native Americans of his state, and brevetted a second lieutenant in the 5th U. S. He was promoted to lieutenant on August 22,1846. In the Mexican–American War, he served under General Zachary Taylor at the Battle of Palo Alto and he served under General Winfield Scott later, and received brevet promotions to first lieutenant for Cerro Gordo and to captain for Contreras and Churubusco. His older brother, Ephraim Kirby Smith, who graduated from West Point in 1826 and was a captain in the regular army, Infantry in the campaigns with both Taylor and Scott. Ephraim died in 1847 from wounds suffered at the Battle of Molino del Rey, after that war, Kirby Smith served as a captain in the 2nd U. S. Cavalry, primarily in Texas. Kirby Smith collected and studied materials as a botanist, like other military officers. Some of the items from his collecting at West Point, he donated to the Smithsonian Institution, Kirby Smith was assigned to teaching mathematics at West Point, from 1849 to 1852. According to his letters to his mother, he was happy with this environment, on May 13,1859, he was wounded in his thigh fighting Indians in the Nescutunga Valley of Texas. On January 31,1861, Smith was promoted to major and his sister Frances Webster remained loyal to the Union although married to Lucien Bonaparte Webster, a Confederate officer, who died during the war
41.
Battle of Perryville
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Confederate Gen. Braxton Braggs Army of Mississippi initially won a tactical victory against primarily a single corps of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buells Union Army of the Ohio. The battle is considered a strategic Union victory, sometimes called the Battle for Kentucky, the Union retained control of the critical border state of Kentucky for the remainder of the war. On October 7, Buells army, in pursuit of Bragg, Union forces first skirmished with Confederate cavalry on the Springfield Pike before the fighting became more general, on Peters Hill, when the Confederate infantry arrived. Both sides were desperate to get access to fresh water, the next day, at dawn, fighting began again around Peters Hill as a Union division advanced up the pike, halting just before the Confederate line. After noon, a Confederate division struck the Union left flank—the I Corps of Maj. Gen. Alexander M. McCook—and forced it to fall back. When more Confederate divisions joined the fray, the Union line made a stand, counterattacked. Buell, several miles behind the action, was unaware that a battle was taking place. The Union troops on the flank, reinforced by two brigades, stabilized their line, and the Confederate attack sputtered to a halt. Later, three Confederate regiments assaulted the Union division on the Springfield Pike but were repulsed and fell back into Perryville, Union troops pursued, and skirmishing occurred in the streets until dark. By that time, Union reinforcements were threatening the Confederate left flank, Bragg, short of men and supplies, withdrew during the night, and continued the Confederate retreat by way of Cumberland Gap into East Tennessee. Considering the casualties relative to the strengths of the armies. It was the largest battle fought in the state of Kentucky, in September 1861, Kentucky-born President Abraham Lincoln wrote in a private letter, I think to lose Kentucky is nearly to lose the whole game. This neutrality was first violated on September 3,1861, when Confederate Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus, two days later Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant seized Paducah. Henceforth, the proclaimed neutrality was a dead letter, while the state never seceded from the Union, Confederate sympathizers who were members of the legislature set up a temporary Confederate capital in Bowling Green in November 1861. It never wielded significant power inside the state, the Confederate States recognized Kentucky and added a star representing the state to the Confederate flag. The initiative to invade Kentucky came primarily from Confederate Maj. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith and he believed the campaign would allow them to obtain supplies, enlist recruits, divert Union troops from Tennessee, and claim Kentucky for the Confederacy. In July 1862 Col. John Hunt Morgan carried out a cavalry raid in the state. The raid caused considerable consternation in Buells command and in Washington, during the raid, Morgan and his forces were cheered and supported by many residents
42.
Army of Tennessee
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The Army of Tennessee was the principal Confederate army operating between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River during the American Civil War. It was formed in late 1862 and fought until the end of the war in 1865 and it should not be confused with the Union Army of the Tennessee, named after the Tennessee River. The army was formed on November 20,1862, when General Braxton Bragg renamed the former Army of Mississippi and was divided into two corps commanded by Leonidas Polk and William J. Hardee, the remaining division was assigned to Hardees corps while Kirby Smith returned to East Tennessee. The armys cavalry was consolidated into a command under Joseph Wheeler. The armys first major engagement under its new name took place against the Army of the Cumberland on December 31 along the Stones River. The attacks started at 6 a. m. against the Union right wing and forced the Union flank back towards the Union supply route to Nashville, Bragg expected Union commander William S. Rosecrans to retreat during the night but Rosecrans decided to remain. No fighting took place on January 1, the next day Bragg assigned one division to seize a ridge on the east side of Stones River, Bragg retreated during the night and halted near the Duck River. When he learned of the dispute, Confederate President Jefferson Davis sent Joseph Johnston to inspect the army, Johnston however refused to take command of the army. In the summer of 1863, Rosecrans began an offensive, generally known as the Tullahoma Campaign, due to the low level of the river, Bragg felt compelled to retreat back to his supply center of Chattanooga, Tennessee, where he established his headquarters. When the Union forces halted following the campaign, Bragg took the opportunity to make several changes in the army. Hardee was transferred to Mississippi in July and replaced by D. H. Hill, the cavalry was reorganized into two corps commanded by Wheeler and Forrest, a two-division Reserve Corps was also organized under the command of W. H. T. Rosecrans launched the Chickamauga Campaign in late August, staging demonstrations near Chattanooga and this convinced Bragg that Rosecrans was crossing the river to the north, however, Union forces were actually crossing to the south of the city. This forced Bragg to fall back into northern Georgia, abandoning the important railroad hub of Chattanooga on September 8, over the course of the next several days, Bragg attempted to launch several attacks on isolated parts of the Union army but each attempt failed. During September 19 at Chickamauga, both sides fed in reinforcements as the day progressed, Polk was ordered to attack at daylight on September 20, with Longstreet attacking immediately afterwards, but Polk didnt launch his attack until midmorning. The left wing failed to dislodge the Union army but Longstreets wing attacked a gap in the Union army which routed the Union right flank. A portion of the Union army rallied on Horseshoe Ridge and held off multiple Confederate attacks until evening, when it followed the rest of Rosecrans army into Chattanooga. Bragg considered an attack on the city too costly. Instead he spread the Confederate army along the Tennessee River, cutting the Union railroad supply line into the city, during the next several weeks, Bragg became embroiled with a dispute with the armys corps commanders
43.
William Tecumseh Sherman
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William Tecumseh Sherman was an American soldier, businessman, educator and author. Sherman began his Civil War career serving in the First Battle of Bull Run and he served under General Ulysses S. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the Western Theater of the war and he proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city of Atlanta, a military success that contributed to the re-election of Abraham Lincoln. Shermans subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacys ability to continue fighting and he accepted the surrender of all the Confederate armies in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in April 1865, after having been present at most major military engagements in the Western Theater. When Grant assumed the U. S. presidency in 1869, Sherman succeeded him as Commanding General of the Army, as such, he was responsible for the U. S. Armys engagement in the Indian Wars over the next 15 years. Sherman advocated total war against hostile Indians to force them back onto their reservations and he steadfastly refused to be drawn into politics and in 1875 published his Memoirs, one of the best-known first-hand accounts of the Civil War. British military historian B. H. Liddell Hart famously declared that Sherman was the first modern general, Sherman was born in 1820 in Lancaster, Ohio, near the banks of the Hocking River. His father Charles Robert Sherman, a lawyer who sat on the Ohio Supreme Court. He left his widow, Mary Hoyt Sherman, with eleven children, Sherman was distantly related to American founding father Roger Sherman and grew to admire him. Shermans older brother Charles Taylor Sherman became a federal judge, one of his younger brothers, John Sherman, served as a U. S. senator and Cabinet secretary. Another younger brother, Hoyt Sherman, was a successful banker, Sherman would marry his foster sister, Ellen Boyle Ewing, at age 30 and have eight children with her. Shermans unusual given name has attracted considerable attention. Sherman reported that his name came from his father having caught a fancy for the great chief of the Shawnees. Since an account in a 1932 biography about Sherman, it has often reported that, as an infant. According to these accounts, Sherman only acquired the name William at age nine or ten and his foster mother, Maria Willis Boyle, was of Irish ancestry and a devout Roman Catholic. Sherman was raised in a Roman Catholic household, though he left the church. Sherman wrote in his Memoirs that his father named him William Tecumseh, Sherman was baptized by a Presbyterian minister as an infant, as an adult, Sherman signed all his correspondence – including to his wife – W. T. Sherman. His friends and family called him Cump
44.
Joseph Hooker
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Joseph Hooker was a career United States Army officer, achieving the rank of major general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Although he served throughout the war, usually with distinction, Hooker is best remembered for his defeat by Confederate General Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in 1863. After graduating from the United States Military Academy in 1837, Hooker served in the Seminole Wars, resigning from the Army in 1853, he pursued farming, land development, and politics in California. After the start of the Civil War he returned to the Army as a brigadier general and he distinguished himself as an aggressive combat commander leading a division in the Battle of Williamsburg, May 5,1862, resulting in his promotion to major general. As a corps commander, he led the initial Union attacks at the Battle of Antietam, at the Battle of Fredericksburg, he commanded a Grand Division of two corps, and was ordered to conduct numerous futile frontal assaults that caused his men to suffer serious losses. Throughout this period, he conspired against and openly criticized his army commanders, following the defeat at Fredericksburg, he was given command of the Army of the Potomac. Hooker planned a campaign against Robert E. Lee. Hooker suddenly lacked the nerve to marshal the strength of his army against Lee. Hooker became known as Fighting Joe following a journalists clerical error reporting from the Battle of Williamsburg, however, Hooker was born in Hadley, Massachusetts, the grandson of a captain in the American Revolutionary War. He was of entirely English ancestry, all of which had been in New England since the early 1600s and his initial schooling was at the local Hopkins Academy. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1837, ranked 29th out of a class of 50 and his initial assignment was in Florida fighting in the second of the Seminole Wars. He served in the Mexican-American War in staff positions in the campaigns of both Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott and he received brevet promotions for his staff leadership and gallantry in three battles, Monterrey, National Bridge, and Chapultepec. His future Army reputation as a man began in Mexico. Hooker settled in Sonoma County, California, as a farmer and land developer and his house still exists in the city of Sonoma. When living in Sonoma, he stood unsuccessfully for election to represent the region in the California legislature and he was obviously unhappy and unsuccessful in his civilian pursuits because, in 1858, he wrote to Secretary of War John B. Floyd to request that his name be presented to the president Buchanan as a candidate for a lieutenant colonelcy, from 1859 to 1861, he held a commission as a colonel in the California militia. He had to borrow money to make the trip east from California and he was appointed, in August 1861, as brigadier general of volunteers to rank from May 17. He commanded a brigade and then division around Washington, D. C. as part of the effort to organize and train the new Army of the Potomac and he distinguished himself at the Battle of Williamsburg and throughout the Seven Days Battles
United Kingdom
Confederate States
Confederate States Army
Corporal
Major General
