1.
Strzelin
–
Strzelin is a town in Lower Silesian Voivodeship in south-western Poland. It is located on the Oława river, a tributary of the Oder, the town is the seat of Strzelin County and also of the smaller municipality of Strzelin. It is known for its granite quarries. Prior to 1945 Strzelin was part of the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia and it was severely damaged in the course of the Lower Silesian Offensive of the Red Army against the Wehrmacht in February 1945
2.
Lower Silesia
–
Lower Silesia is the northwestern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia, Upper Silesia is to the southeast. Throughout its history Lower Silesia has been under the control of the medieval Kingdom of Poland, the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy from 1526. After 1945 the main part of the former Prussian Province of Lower Silesia fell to the Republic of Poland, Lower Silesia is located mostly in the basin of the middle Oder River with its historic capital in Wrocław. To the north, Lower Silesia originally stretched up to Świebodzin and Krosno Odrzańskie, the Barycz river forms the border with historic Greater Poland in the northeast, the Upper Silesian lands lie to the southeast. They are topographically divided into Western, Central and Eastern Sudetes, the adjacent Silesian Lowland includes the Silesian Lowlands and the Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands. The southern part of the Lowland includes The Sudeten Foreland, consisting of quite low Wzgórze Strzegomskie,232 m or 761 ft, Grupa Ślęży, Lower hills occur also in areas of Obniżenie Sudeckie, Świdnik, and Kotlina Dzierżoniowska. The eastern part of Silesian Lowland consists of the wide Silesian Lowlands, the eastern part includes also Równina Wrocławska with its surrounding lands, Równina Oleśnicka, Wysoczyzna Średzka, Równina Grodkowska and Niemodlińska. From the North, the lowlands are delimited by Wał Trzebnicki, consisting of hills that are 200 km long and over 150 m high, in comparison to neighboring lowlands, the range of hills includes, Wzgórza Dalkowskie, Wzgórza Trzebnickie, Wzgórza Twardogórskie, and Wzgórza Ostrzeszowskie. Obniżenie Milicko-Głogowskie, with Kotlina Żmigrodzka and Milicka, is located in the northern part, the region of the lowlands is coated with a thick layer of glacial elements that covers more diverse relief of the older ground. Generally flat and wide bottoms of the valleys are padded with river settlements, slopes of the hills over 180–200 m are coated with fertile clays and therefore, to begin with the Paleozoic era, they became the lands for people to settle and cultivate intensively. Later form of economy caused almost complete deforestation of the slopes, not only fertile grounds, but also mild climate is conductive to development of agriculture and market gardening. The annual average temperature of the Wrocław area is 9.5 °C, average temperature of the hottest month is 19 °C, and −0.5 °C of the coldest month. The average amount of rainfall is 500–620 millimetres, with its maximum in July, the snow layer disappears after 45 days. The winds, similar to those appearing in the West side of Poland, are West and Southwest, Sudeten rivers are characterized by changeable water rates, and high pollution resulting from large industrialization of the area. There is also the largest right-bank tributary of the area, Barycz, the other guite large rivers—Bóbr, Kwisa, and Lusatian Neisse—flow into Oder River beyond Lower Silesian borders. The majority of the rivers is regulated and their basins are improved, the characteristic feature of the lowlands landscape is the lack of lakes. The region of Legnica is the place where a dozen or so of small lakes survived. The largest one is Jezioro Kunickie, Jezioro Koskowickie, Jezioro Jaśkowickie, in contrast to the number of lakes, there are large groups of artificial ponds founded in Barycz basin, in the Middle Ages
3.
Kingdom of Prussia
–
It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
4.
Poland
–
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
5.
Hesse
–
Hesse or Hessia is a federal state of the Federal Republic of Germany, with just over six million inhabitants. The state capital is Wiesbaden, the largest city is Frankfurt am Main, the English name Hesse originates in the Hessian dialects. The variant Hessia comes from the medieval Latin Hassia, the German term Hessen is used by the European Commission because their policy is to leave regional names untranslated. The term Hesse ultimately derives from a Germanic tribe called the Chatti, an inhabitant of Hesse is called a Hessian. The synthetic element hassium, number 108 on the table, is named after the state of Hesse. As early as the Paleolithic period, the Central Hessian region was inhabited, due to the favorable climate of the location, people lived there about 50,000 years ago during the last glacial period, as burial sites show from this era. Finds of paleolitical tools in southern Hesse in Rüsselsheim suggest Pleistocene hunters about 13,000 years ago, the Züschen tomb is a prehistoric burial monument, located between Lohne and Züschen, near Fritzlar, Hesse, Germany. Classified as a grave or a Hessian-Westphalian stone cist, it is one of the most important megalithic monuments in Central Europe. Dating to the fourth millennium BC, it belongs to the Late Neolithic Wartberg culture. An early Celtic presence in what is now Hesse is indicated by a mid-fifth-century BC La Tène style burial uncovered at Glauberg, the region was later settled by the Germanic Chatti tribe around the first century BC, and the name Hesse is a continuation of that tribal name. The ancient Romans had a camp in Dorlar, and in Waldgirmes directly on the eastern outskirts of Wetzlar was a civil settlement under construction. Presumably, the government for the occupied territories of the right bank of Germania was planned at this location. The governor of Germania, at least temporarily, likely had resided here, the settlement appears to have been abandoned by the Romans after the devastating Battle of the Teutoburg Forest failed in the year 9 AD. The Chatti were also involved in the Revolt of the Batavi in 69 AD, Hessia occupies the northwestern part of the modern German state of Hesse, its borders were not clearly delineated. Its geographic center is Fritzlar, it extends in the southeast to Hersfeld on the Fulda river, in the north to past Kassel and up to the rivers Diemel, to the west, it occupies the valleys of the rivers Eder and Lahn. It measured roughly 90 kilometers north-south, and 80 north-west, the area around Fritzlar shows evidence of significant pagan belief from the first century on. Excavations have produced a horse burial and bronze artifacts, a possible religious cult may have centered on a natural spring in Geismar, called Heilgenbron, the name Geismar itself may be derived from that spring. By 650, the Franks were establishing themselves as overlords, which is suggested by evidence of burials
6.
Chemotherapy
–
Chemotherapy is a category of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen. Chemotherapy may be given with an intent, or it may aim to prolong life or to reduce symptoms. Chemotherapy is one of the categories of the medical discipline specifically devoted to pharmacotherapy for cancer. Systemic therapy is used in conjunction with other modalities that constitute local therapy for cancer such as radiation therapy. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents are cytotoxic by means of interfering with cell division, to a large extent, chemotherapy can be thought of as a way to damage or stress cells, which may then lead to cell death if apoptosis is initiated. This results in the most common side-effects of chemotherapy, myelosuppression, mucositis, because of the effect on immune cells, chemotherapy drugs often find use in a host of diseases that result from harmful overactivity of the immune system against self. These include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, vasculitis, there are a number of strategies in the administration of chemotherapeutic drugs used today. Chemotherapy may be given with an intent or it may aim to prolong life or to palliate symptoms. Induction chemotherapy is the first line treatment of cancer with a chemotherapeutic drug and this type of chemotherapy is used for curative intent. Combined modality chemotherapy is the use of drugs with other treatments, such as surgery, radiation therapy. Consolidation chemotherapy is given after remission in order to prolong the overall disease-free time, the drug that is administered is the same as the drug that achieved remission. Intensification chemotherapy is identical to consolidation chemotherapy but a different drug than the induction chemotherapy is used, combination chemotherapy involves treating a patient with a number of different drugs simultaneously. The drugs differ in their mechanism and side-effects, the biggest advantage is minimising the chances of resistance developing to any one agent. Also, the drugs can often be used at lower doses, neoadjuvant chemotherapy is given prior to a local treatment such as surgery, and is designed to shrink the primary tumor. It is also given to cancers with a risk of micrometastatic disease. Adjuvant chemotherapy is given after a local treatment and it can be used when there is little evidence of cancer present, but there is risk of recurrence. It is also useful in killing any cancerous cells that have spread to parts of the body. These micrometastases can be treated with adjuvant chemotherapy and can reduce relapse rates caused by these disseminated cells, maintenance chemotherapy is a repeated low-dose treatment to prolong remission
7.
Immunology
–
Immunology is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. It was the Russian biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov who boosted studies on immunology and he jabbed the thorn of a rose on a starfish and noted that,24 hours later, cells were surrounding the tip. It was a response of the body, trying to maintain its integrity. It was Mechnikov who first observed the phenomenon of phagocytosis, in which the body defends itself against a foreign body, Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology. The important lymphoid organs of the system are the thymus and bone marrow, and chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids. Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine and it studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE, thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory. The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, the immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system and, in vertebrates, an acquired or adaptive immune system. The latter is divided into humoral and cell-mediated components. The humoral response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens, antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells known as B lymphocytes, while antigens are defined as anything that elicits the generation of antibodies. Immunology rests on an understanding of the properties of two biological entities and the cellular response to both. Immunological research continues to more specialized, pursuing non-classical models of immunity and functions of cells, organs. Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system and it also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features. Other immune system include various hypersensitivities that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds. Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent the immune systems attempts to destroy allografts, the body’s capability to react to antigen depends on a persons age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharides. In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus, in neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited
8.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
9.
Hematology
–
Hematology, also spelled haematology, is the branch of medicine concerned with the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases related to blood. Hematology includes the study of cause], such diseases might include hemophilia, blood clots, other bleeding disorders and blood cancers such as leukemia, myeloma, and lymphoma. The laboratory work that goes into the study of blood is frequently performed by a medical technologist or medical laboratory scientist, many hematologists work as hematologist-oncologists, also providing medical treatment for all types of cancer. Physicians specialized in hematology are known as hematologists or haematologists, in some institutions, hematologists also manage the hematology laboratory. Hematologists and hematopathologists generally work in conjunction to formulate a diagnosis, hematology is a distinct subspecialty of internal medicine, separate from but overlapping with the subspecialty of medical oncology
10.
Gram stain
–
Gram staining or Gram stain, also called Grams method, is a method of staining used to differentiate bacterial species into two large groups. The name comes from the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique, Gram staining differentiates bacteria by the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls by detecting peptidoglycan, which is present in the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. Both Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative bacteria pick up the counterstain, the counterstain, however, is unseen on Gram-positive bacteria because of the darker crystal violet stain. The Gram stain is almost always the first step in the identification of a bacterial organism. While Gram staining is a diagnostic tool in both clinical and research settings, not all bacteria can be definitively classified by this technique. This gives rise to gram-variable and gram-indeterminate groups, the method is named after its inventor, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique while working with Carl Friedländer in the morgue of the city hospital in Berlin in 1884. Gram devised his technique not for the purpose of distinguishing one type of bacterium from another and he published his method in 1884, and included in his short report the observation that the typhus bacillus did not retain the stain. Gram staining is a laboratory technique used to differentiate bacterial species into two large groups based on the physical properties of their cell walls. Gram staining is not used to classify archaea, formerly archaeabacteria, the Gram stain is not an infallible tool for diagnosis, identification, or phylogeny, and it is of extremely limited use in environmental microbiology. It is used mainly to make a preliminary morphologic identification or to establish that there are significant numbers of bacteria in a clinical specimen. It cannot identify bacteria to the level, and for most medical conditions. In clinical microbiology laboratories, it is used in combination with other traditional, some organisms are gram-variable, some are not stained with either dye used in the Gram technique and are not seen. Gram staining has been suggested to be as effective a tool as PCR in one primary research report regarding gonococcal urethritis. Gram stains are performed on body fluid or biopsy when infection is suspected, there are four basic steps of the Gram stain, Applying a primary stain to a heat-fixed smear of a bacterial culture. Carbol fuchsin is sometimes substituted for safranin since it more intensely stains anaerobic bacteria, crystal violet dissociates in aqueous solutions into CV+ and chloride ions. These ions penetrate through the wall and cell membrane of both gram-positive and gram-negative cells. The CV+ ion interacts with negatively charged components of bacterial cells, iodide interacts with CV+ and forms large complexes of crystal violet and iodine within the inner and outer layers of the cell. Iodine is often referred to as a mordant, but is an agent that prevents the removal of the CV–I complex and, therefore
11.
Arsphenamine
–
This organoarsenic compound was the first modern chemotherapeutic agent. Arsphenamine was first synthesized in 1907 in Paul Ehrlichs lab by Alfred Bertheim, the antisyphilitic activity of this compound was discovered by Sahachiro Hata in 1909, during a survey of hundreds of newly synthesized organic arsenical compounds. Ehrlich had theorized that by screening many compounds, a drug could be discovered that would have anti-microbial activity, Ehrlichs team began their search for such a magic bullet among chemical derivatives of the dangerously toxic drug atoxyl. Arsphenamine was used to treat the disease syphilis because it is toxic to the bacterium Treponema pallidum, arsphenamine was originally called 606 because it was the sixth in the sixth group of compounds synthesized for testing, it was marketed by Hoechst AG under the trade name Salvarsan in 1910. Salvarsan was the first organic antisyphilitic, and an improvement over the inorganic mercury compounds that had been used previously. It was distributed as a yellow, crystalline, hygroscopic powder that was highly unstable in air, some of the side effects attributed to Salvarsan, including rashes, liver damage, and risks of life and limb, were thought to be caused by improper handling and administration. This caused Ehrlich, who worked assiduously to standardize practices, to observe, Ehrlichs laboratory developed a more soluble arsenical compound, Neosalvarsan, which was easier to prepare, and it became available in 1912. Less severe side-effects such as nausea and vomiting were still common, an additional problem was that both Salvarsan and Neosalvarsan had to be stored in sealed vials under a nitrogen atmosphere to prevent oxidation. These arsenical compounds were supplanted as treatments for syphilis in the 1940s by penicillin, after leaving Ehrlichs laboratory, Hata continued parallel investigation of the new medicines in Japan. Salvarsan has long assumed to have an As=As double bond. However, in 2005, an extensive mass spectral analysis Salvarsan was shown to have As-As single bonds, the drug was also found to be a mixture consisting of cyclo-As3 and cyclo-As5 species. Dr. Ehrlichs Magic Bullet,1940 film about Ehrlichs quest to find a cure for syphilis
12.
Drug
–
A drug is any substance that, when inhaled, injected, smoked, consumed, absorbed via a patch on the skin, or dissolved under the tongue, causes a physiological change in the body. In pharmacology, a drug, also called a medication or medicine, is a chemical substance used to treat, cure, prevent. Traditionally drugs were obtained through extraction from plants, but more recently also by organic synthesis. Pharmaceutical drugs may be used for a duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System and this classifies drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties. Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that affect the function of the nervous system, altering perception. They include alcohol, a depressant, and the nicotine and caffeine. These three are the most widely consumed psychoactive drugs worldwide and are also considered recreational drugs since they are used for rather than medicinal purposes. Other recreational drugs include hallucinogens, opiates and amphetamines and some of these are used in spiritual or religious settings. Some drugs can cause addiction and all drugs can have side effects, excessive use of stimulants can promote stimulant psychosis. Many recreational drugs are illicit and international such as the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs exist for the purpose of their prohibition. The transitive verb to drug arose later and invokes the psychoactive rather than properties of a substance. A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition, the use may also be as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms. In the United Kingdom, behind-the-counter medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies and these medications are designated by the letter P on the label. The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country, medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them. Those that are not patented are called generic drugs since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from the patent holder, pharmaceutical drugs are usually categorised into drug classes. A group of drugs will share a chemical structure, or have the same mechanism of action. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System and this groups drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties
13.
Nobel Prize
–
The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
14.
Paul Ehrlich Institute
–
The Paul Ehrlich Institute is a German research institution and medical regulatory body, and is the German federal institute for vaccines and biomedicines. It is an agency and subordinate to the Federal Ministry of Health. It is a WHO Collaborating Centre for quality assurance of blood products, the institute is located in Langen, Hesse, near Frankfurt, and was located in Frankfurt for most of the 20th century. It is named for its director, the immunologist and Nobel Prize laureate Paul Ehrlich. The institute was founded on 1 June 1896 in Steglitz, Berlin as the Institute for Serum Research and Serum Testing, the institute was founded specifically to provide a platform for Ehrlichs research. In 1899, it was moved to Frankfurt and renamed the Royal Institute for Experimental Therapy, after Germany became a republic in 1919, it was renamed the National Institute for Experimental Therapy. Ehrlich received numerous honours in Germany for his work on immunology and was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in medicine, in 1947, the institute was renamed the Paul Ehrlich Institute in honour of its founding director. In 1987, the institute moved from Paul-Ehrlich-Straße in Frankfurt to Langen, the regulatory tasks of the Paul Ehrlich Institute include the marketing authorisation of particular groups of medicinal products and the approval of clinical trials
15.
Silesia
–
Silesia is a region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is about 40,000 km2, and its population about 8,000,000, Silesia is located along the Oder River. It consists of Lower Silesia and Upper Silesia, the region is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesias largest city and historical capital is Wrocław, the biggest metropolitan area is the Upper Silesian metropolitan area, the centre of which is Katowice. Parts of the Czech city of Ostrava fall within the borders of Silesia, Silesias borders and national affiliation have changed over time, both when it was a hereditary possession of noble houses and after the rise of modern nation-states. The first known states to hold there were probably those of Greater Moravia at the end of the 9th century. In the 10th century, Silesia was incorporated into the early Polish state, in the 14th century, it became a constituent part of the Bohemian Crown Lands under the Holy Roman Empire, which passed to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526. Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1742, later becoming part of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, the varied history with changing aristocratic possessions resulted in an abundance of castles in Silesia, especially in the Jelenia Góra valley. The remaining former Austrian parts of Silesia were partitioned to Czechoslovakia, in 1945, after World War II, the bulk of Silesia was transferred to Polish jurisdiction by the Potsdam Agreement of the victorious Allied Powers and became part of Poland. The small Lusatian strip west of the Oder-Neisse line, which had belonged to Silesia since 1815 and its centres are Görlitz and Bautzen. Most inhabitants of Silesia today speak the languages of their respective countries. The population of Upper Silesia is native, while Lower Silesia was settled by a German-speaking population before 1945, an ongoing debate exists whether Silesian speech should be considered a dialect of Polish or a separate language. Also, a Lower Silesian German dialect is used, although today it is almost extinct and it is used by expellees within Germany, as well as Germans who were left behind. The names all relate to the name of a river and mountain in mid-southern Silesia, the mountain served as a cultic place. Ślęża is listed as one of the numerous Pre-Indo-European topographic names in the region, according to some Polish Slavists, the name Ślęża or Ślęż is directly related to the Old Slavic words ślęg or śląg, which means dampness, moisture, or humidity. They disagree with the hypothesis of an origin for the name Śląsk from the name of the Silings tribe, in the fourth century BC, Celts entered Silesia, settling around Mount Ślęża near modern Wrocław, Oława, and Strzelin. Germanic Lugii tribes were first recorded within Silesia in the 1st century, Slavic peoples arrived in the region around the 7th century, and by the early ninth century, their settlements had stabilized. Local Slavs started to erect boundary structures like the Silesian Przesieka, the eastern border of Silesian settlement was situated to the west of the Bytom, and east from Racibórz and Cieszyn
16.
Province of Lower Silesia
–
The Province of Lower Silesia was a province of the Free State of Prussia from 1919 to 1945. Between 1938 and 1941 it was reunited with Upper Silesia as the Province of Silesia, the capital of Lower Silesia was Breslau. The province was divided into two administrative regions, Breslau and Liegnitz. The province was not congruent with the region of Lower Silesia. The province was disestablished at the end of World War II and with the implementation of the Oder–Neisse line in 1945, the smaller western part was incorporated into the German states of Saxony and Brandenburg
17.
Ashkenazi Jews
–
The traditional diaspora language of Ashkenazi Jews is Yiddish, with Hebrew used only as a sacred language until relatively recently. Throughout their time in Europe, Ashkenazim have made important contributions to philosophy, scholarship, literature, art, music. Ashkenazim originate from the Jews who settled along the Rhine River, in Western Germany, there they became a distinct diaspora community with a unique way of life that adapted traditions from Babylon, The Land of Israel, and the Western Mediterranean to their new environment. The Ashkenazi religious rite developed in such as Mainz, Worms. The eminent French Rishon Rabbi Shlomo Itzhaki would have a significant impact on the Jewish religion, in the late Middle Ages, the majority of the Ashkenazi population shifted steadily eastward, moving out of the Holy Roman Empire into the Pale of Settlement. The genocidal impact of the Holocaust devastated the Ashkenazim and their culture, immediately prior to the Holocaust, the number of Jews in the world stood at approximately 16.7 million. Statistical figures vary for the demography of Ashkenazi Jews, oscillating between 10 million and 11.2 million. Sergio DellaPergola in a calculation of Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews. Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% of Jews worldwide, genetic studies on Ashkenazim—researching both their paternal and maternal lineages—suggest a significant proportion of Middle Eastern ancestry. Ashkenazi Jews are popularly contrasted with Sephardi Jews, who are descendants of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, there are some differences in how the two groups pronounce certain Hebrew letters, and in points of ritual. The name Ashkenazi derives from the figure of Ashkenaz, the first son of Gomer, son of Khaphet, son of Noah. The name of Gomer has often been linked to the ethnonym Cimmerians, the intrusive n in the Biblical name is likely due to a scribal error confusing a waw ו with a nun נ. In Jeremiah 51,27, Ashkenaz figures as one of three kingdoms in the far north, the others being Minni and Ararat, perhaps corresponding to Urartu, called on by God to resist Babylon. Ashkenaz is linked to Scandza/Scanzia, viewed as the cradle of Germanic tribes and his contemporary Saadia Gaon identified Ashkenaz with the Saquliba or Slavic territories, and such usage covered also the lands of tribes neighboring the Slavs, and Eastern and Central Europe. In modern times, Samuel Krauss identified the Biblical Ashkenaz with Khazaria, sometime in the early medieval period, the Jews of central and eastern Europe came to be called by this term. In conformity with the custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names, Spain was denominated Sefarad, France was called Tsarefat, Rashi uses leshon Ashkenaz to describe German speech, and Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters referred to the Crusaders as Ashkenazim. Given the close links between the Jewish communities of France and Germany following the Carolingian unification, the term Ashkenazi came to refer to both the Jews of medieval Germany and France. Outside of their origins in ancient Israel, the history of Ashkenazim is shrouded in mystery, the most well-supported theory is the one that details a Jewish migration from Israel through what is now Italy and other parts of southern Europe
18.
Wroclaw
–
Wrocław is the largest city in western Poland. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, Wrocław is the historical capital of Silesia and Lower Silesia. Today, it is the capital of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, at various times in history, it has been part of the Kingdom of Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, the Austrian Empire, Prussia and Germany. It became part of Poland in 1945, as a result of the changes after the Second World War. The population of Wrocław in 2016 was 637,075, making it the fourth-largest city in Poland, the city hosted the Eucharistic Congress in 1997 and the Euro 2012 football championships. Wrocław is classified as a city by GaWC, with the ranking of high sufficiency. In 2016, the city was a European Capital of Culture, also in this year, Wrocław hosted the Theatre Olympics, World Bridge Games and the European Film Awards. In 2017, the city is the host of the IFLA Annual Conference, the first municipal seal stated Sigillum civitatis Wratislavie. A simplified name is given, in 1175, as Wrezlaw, the Czech spelling was used in Latin documents as Wratislavia or Vratislavia. At that time, Prezla was used in Middle High German, in the middle of the 14th century, the Early New High German form of the name, Breslau, began to replace its earlier versions. The city is believed to be named after Wrocisław or Vratislav. It is also possible that the city was named after the duke of the Silesians or after an early ruler of the city called Vratislav. The citys name in other languages is available at the list of names of European cities, persons born or living in the city are known as Vratislavians. In ancient times at or near Wrocław was a place called Budorigum and it has been mapped to the ancient Claudius Ptolemy map of the years 142-147 AD. The city of Wrocław originated at the intersection of two routes, the Via Regia and the Amber Road. Settlements in the area existed from the 6th century onward, when during migration period, Slavic tribe Ślężans settled on the Oder, the city was first recorded in the 10th century as Vratislavia, the Bohemian duke Vratislaus I founded here a Bohemian stronghold. Vratislavia was possibly derived from the dukes name Vratislav, in 985, Duke Mieszko I of Poland conquered Silesia including Wrocław. The town was mentioned explicitly in the year 1000 AD in connection with a founding of a bishopric during the Congress of Gniezno
19.
Albert Neisser
–
Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser was a German physician who discovered the causative agent of gonorrhea, a strain of bacteria that was named in his honour. Neisser was born in the Silesian town of Schweidnitz, the son of a well-known Jewish physician, after he completed the elementary school in Münsterberg, Neisser enrolled in the St. Maria Magdalena School in Breslau. In this school, he was a contemporary of another name in the history of medicine. He obtained the Abitur in 1872, Neisser began to study medicine at the University of Breslau, but later moved to Erlangen, completing his studies in 1877. Initially Neisser wanted to be an internist, but did not find a suitable place and he found work, however as an assistant of the dermatologist Oskar Simon, concentrating on sexually transmitted diseases and leprosy. During the following two years he studied and obtained experimental evidence about the pathogen for gonorrhea, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisser was also the co-discoverer of the causative agent of leprosy. In 1879 the Norwegian physician Gerhard Armauer Hansen gave to young Neisser some tissue samples of his patients, Neisser successfully stained the bacteria and announced his findings in 1880, claiming to have discovered the pathogenesis of leprosy. In 1882 Neisser was appointed professor extraordinarius by the University at the age of 29, later he was promoted to the director of the hospital. In the following year he married Toni Neisser, née Kauffmann, in 1898 Albert Neisser published clinical trials on serum therapy in patients with syphilis. He injected cell free serum from patients with syphilis into patients who were admitted for other medical conditions, most of these patients were prostitutes, who were neither informed about the experiment nor asked for their consent. When some of them contracted syphilis Neisser argued that the women did not contract syphilis as a result of his serum injections, in 1905 and 1906 Neisser travelled to Java, in order to study the possible transmission of syphilis from apes to humans. In 1907, Neisser was promoted to professor ordinarius of dermatology, as a scientific leader, Neisser was also very active. In the field of health, he promoted vigorously preventive and educational measures to the public. He was one of the founder of the Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Bekämpfung der Geschlechtskrankheiten in 1902, Neisser died of septicemia on 30 July 1916, at the age of 61 years, in Breslau
20.
Strasbourg
–
Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution
21.
Freiburg im Breisgau
–
Freiburg im Breisgau is a city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany with a population of about 220,000. In the south-west of the country, it straddles the Dreisam river, historically, the city has acted as the hub of the Breisgau region on the western edge of the Black Forest in the Upper Rhine Plain. The city is known for its medieval minster and Renaissance university, as well as for its standard of living. The city is situated in the heart of the major Baden wine-growing region, according to meteorological statistics, the city is the sunniest and warmest in Germany and held the all-time German temperature record of 40.2 °C from 2003 to 2015. Freiburg was founded by Konrad and Duke Berthold III of Zähringen in 1120 as a market town, hence its name. Frei means free, and Burg, like the modern English word borough, was used in those days for a city or town. The German word Burg also means a town, as in Hamburg. Thus, it is likely that the name of place means a fortified town of free citizens. This town was located at a junction of trade routes between the Mediterranean Sea and the North Sea regions, and the Rhine and Danube rivers. In 1200, Freiburgs population numbered approximately 6,000 people, at about that time, under the rule of Bertold V, the last duke of Zähringen, the city began construction of its Freiburg Münster cathedral on the site of an older parish church. Begun in the Romanesque style, it was continued and completed 1513 for the most part as a Gothic edifice, in 1218, when Bertold V died, then Egino V von Urach, the count of Urach assumed the title of Freiburgs count as Egino I von Freiburg. The city council did not trust the new nobles and wrote down its established rights in a document, at the end of the thirteenth century there was a feud between the citizens of Freiburg and their lord, Count Egino II of Freiburg. Egino II raised taxes and sought to limit the freedom, after which the Freiburgers used catapults to destroy the counts castle atop the Schloßberg. The furious count called on his brother-in-law the Bishop of Strasbourg, Konradius von Lichtenberg, the bishop responded by marching with his army to Freiburg. According to an old Freiburg legend, a butcher named Hauri stabbed the Bishop of Strasbourg to death on 29 July 1299. It was a Pyrrhic victory, since henceforth the citizens of Freiburg had to pay an annual expiation of 300 marks in silver to the count of Freiburg until 1368, in 1366 the counts of Freiburg made another failed attempt to occupy the city during a night raid. Eventually the citizens were fed up with their lords, and in 1368 Freiburg purchased its independence from them, the city turned itself over to the protection of the Habsburgs, who allowed the city to retain a large measure of freedom. Most of the nobles of the city died in the battle of Sempach, the patrician family Schnewlin took control of the city until the guildsmen revolted
22.
Leipzig
–
Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways
23.
Histology
–
Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is commonly performed by examining cells and tissues under a microscope or electron microscope, the specimen having been sectioned, stained. Histological studies may be conducted using tissue culture, where human or animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains, histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine. Trained physicians, frequently licensed pathologists, are the personnel who perform histopathological examination and their field of study is called histotechnology. In the 17th century, Italian Marcello Malpighi invented one of the first microscopes for studying tiny biological entities, Malpighi analysed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope. Malpighi, while studying the structure of the lung, noticed its membranous alveoli and his discovery established how the oxygen we breathe enters the blood stream and serves the body. In the 19th century, histology was a discipline in its own right. The French anatomist Bichat introduced the concept of tissue in anatomy in 1801, the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal. They had dueling interpretations of the structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the same images. Cajal won the prize for his theory and Golgi for the staining technique he invented to make it possible. There are four types of animal tissues, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue. All tissue types are subtypes of these four basic tissue types and their structure is very different from animal tissues. The most common fixative for light microscopy is 10% neutral buffered formalin, for electron microscopy, the most commonly used fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually as a 2. 5% solution in phosphate buffered saline. These fixatives preserve tissues or cells mainly by irreversibly cross-linking proteins and this can be detrimental to certain histological techniques. Further fixatives are often used for electron microscopy such as osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetate Formalin fixation leads to degradation of mRNA, miRNA and DNA in tissues, however, extraction, amplification and analysis of these nucleic acids from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is possible using appropriate protocols. Frozen section procedure is a way to fix and mount histology sections using a refrigeration device called a cryostat. It is often used after surgical removal of tumors to allow determination of margin
24.
Egypt
–
Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
25.
Robert Koch
–
Robert Heinrich Hermann Koch was a celebrated German physician and pioneering microbiologist. In addition to his studies on these diseases, Koch created and improved laboratory technologies and techniques in the field of microbiology. As a result of his research on tuberculosis, Koch received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905. Robert Koch was born in Clausthal, Hanover, Germany, on 11 December 1843, to Hermann Koch, Koch excelled in academics from an early age. Before entering school in 1848, he had taught himself how to read and he graduated from high school in 1862, having excelled in science and maths. At the age of 19, Koch entered the University of Göttingen, however, after three semesters, Koch decided to change his area of study to medicine, as he aspired to be a physician. During his fifth semester of school, Jacob Henle, an anatomist who had published a theory of contagion in 1840. In his sixth semester, Koch began to research at the Physiological Institute. This would eventually form the basis of his dissertation, in January 1866, Koch graduated from medical school, earning honors of the highest distinction. Several years after his graduation in 1866, he worked as a surgeon in the Franco-Prussian War, from 1880-1885, Koch held a position as government advisor with the Imperial Department of Health. Koch began conducting research on microorganisms in a laboratory connected to his patient examination room, koch’s early research in this laboratory yielded one of his major contributions to the field of microbiology, as he developed the technique of growing bacteria. Furthermore, he managed to isolate and grow selected pathogens in pure laboratory culture, from 1885 to 1890, he served as an administrator and professor at Berlin University. For this he accepted harsh conditions, the Prussian Ministry of Health insisted after the scandal with tuberculin, that any of Kochs inventions would unconditionally belong to the government and not compensated. Koch lost the right to apply for patent protection, in an attempt to grow bacteria, Koch began to use solid nutrients such as potato slices. Through these initial experiments, Koch observed individual colonies of identical and he found that potato slices were not suitable media for all organisms, and later began to use nutrient solutions with gelatin. Koch’s discovery of the agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of postulates which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases. The organism must be isolated from a host containing the disease, samples of the organism taken from pure culture must cause the same disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible animal in the laboratory. The organism must be isolated from the animal and must be identified as the same original organism first isolated from the originally diseased host
26.
Henry Hallett Dale
–
Sir Henry Hallett Dale OM GBE PRS was an English pharmacologist and physiologist. For his study of acetylcholine as agent in the transmission of nerve impulses he shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Otto Loewi. Henry Hallett Dale was born in Islington, London, to Charles James Dale, a manufacturer from Staffordshire. Henry was the third of seven children, one of became an accomplished composer. Henry was educated at the local Tollington Park College and then The Leys School Cambridge and in 1894 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, for a few months in 1903 he also studied under Paul Ehrlich in Frankfurt, Germany. Dale received his Doctor of Medicine degree from Cambridge in 1909, while working at the University College London, he met and became friends with Otto Loewi. Dale became the Director of the Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology at the National Institute for Medical Research in London in 1914 and he became a Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution in 1942. During World War II he served on the Scientific Advisory Panel to the Cabinet, although Dale and his colleagues first identified acetylcholine in 1914 as a possible neurotransmitter, Loewi showed its importance in the nervous system. The two men shared the 1936 Nobel Prize for Medicine, during the 1940s Dale was embroiled in the scientific debate over the nature of signaling at the synapse. Dale and others believed that signaling at the synapse was chemical, while John Carew Eccles and it was later found that most synaptic signalling is chemical, but there are some synapses that are electrical. Dale also originated the scheme used to differentiate according to the neurotransmitters they release. Thus, neurons releasing noradrenaline are called noradrenergic, neurons releasing GABA are GABAergic and this is called Dales principle, one interpretation of which holds that each neuron releases only one type of neurotransmitter. This finding, that numerous neurotransmitters can be released by the neuron, is referred to as the coexistence principle. This phenomenon was most popularized by the Swedish neuroanatomist and neuropharmacologist Tomas Hökfelt, between 1938 and 1960 Dale was Chairman of the Wellcome Trust. Dale was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1914 and he was knighted in 1932, receiving the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire in 1943 and the Order of Merit in 1944. He served as President of the Royal Society from 1940 to 1945, the Sir Henry Dale Fellowships of the Wellcome Trust are named in his honour and the Society for Endocrinology awards the Dale Medal annually in his honour. In 1904, Dale had married his first cousin Elen Harriet Hallett and had a son, one of his daughters, Alison, married Alexander R. Todd, who not only also won the Nobel Prize but also served as President of the Royal Society. Abigail OSullivan, Henry Dales Nobel Prize winning discovery
27.
Paul Karrer
–
Prof Paul Karrer FRS FRSE FCS was a Swiss organic chemist best known for his research on vitamins. He and Walter Haworth won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1937, Karrer was born in Moscow, Russia to Paul Karrer and Julie Lerch, both Swiss nationals. In 1892 Karrers family returned to Switzerland where he was educated at Wildegg and at the school in Lenzburg, Aarau. He studied chemistry at the University of Zurich under Alfred Werner and after gaining his Ph. D. in 1911 and he then took a post as chemist with Paul Ehrlich at the Georg Speyer Haus, Frankfurt-am-Main. In 1919 he became Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Chemical Institute, Karrers early research concerned complex metal compounds but his most important work has concerned plant pigments, particularly the yellow carotenoids. Later, Karrer confirmed the structure of ascorbic acid and extended his researches into the vitamin B2 and his important contributions to the chemistry of the flavins led to identification of lactoflavin as part of the complex originally thought to be vitamin B2. Karrer published many papers, and received honours and awards. His textbook Lehrbuch der Organischen Chemie was published in 1927, went through thirteen editions, Karrer was married to Helena Froelich in 1914 and had three sons, one of whom died in infancy. He died on 18 June 1971, at the age of 82 in Zürich. The prestigious Paul Karrer Gold Medal and lecture was established in his honour in 1959 by a group of leading companies such as CIBA AG, J. R. Geigy, AG, Sandoz AG, Société des Produits Nestlé AG and Dr. A. It is awarded annually or biennually to an outstanding chemist who delivers a lecture at the University of Zurich, sources Shampo, Kyle, RA. Paul Karrer—research on vitamins. Paul Karrer,21 April 1889—18 June 1971, biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. Bulletin der Schweizerischen Akademie der Medizinischen Wissenschaften, bulletin de lAcademie nationale de médecine. Karrer, Viscontini, M, Hochreuter, R. Crystallized 3-carboxamide-N1-D-ribosidopyridinium bromide and related compounds
28.
Wilhelm II, German Emperor
–
Wilhelm II or William II was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. He was the eldest grandchild of the British Queen Victoria and related to many monarchs and his leading generals, Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, dictated policy during the First World War with little regard for the civilian government. An ineffective war-time leader, he lost the support of the army, abdicated in November 1918, and fled to exile in the Netherlands. Wilhelm was born on 27 January 1859 at the Crown Princes Palace, Berlin to Prince Frederick William of Prussia and his wife, Victoria, Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of Britains Queen Victoria. At the time of his birth, his great-uncle Frederick William IV was king of Prussia, a traumatic breech birth left him with a withered left arm due to Erbs palsy, which he tried with some success to conceal. His left arm was about 6 inches shorter than his right arm, historians have suggested that this disability affected his emotional development. In 1863, Wilhelm was taken to England to be present at the wedding of his Uncle Bertie, William attended the ceremony in a Highland costume, complete with a small toy dirk. During the ceremony the four-year-old became restless and his eighteen-year-old uncle Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, charged with keeping an eye on him, told him to be quiet, but Wilhelm drew his dirk and threatened Alfred. When Alfred attempted to subdue him by force, Wilhelm bit him on the leg and his grandmother, Queen Victoria, missed seeing the fracas, to her Wilhelm remained a clever, dear, good little child, the great favourite of my beloved Vicky. His mother, Vicky, was obsessed with his damaged arm and she blamed herself for the childs handicap and insisted that he become a good rider. The thought that he, as heir to the throne, should not be able to ride was intolerable to her, riding lessons began when Wilhelm was eight and were a matter of endurance for Wilhelm. Over and over, the prince was set on his horse. He fell off time after time but despite his tears was set on its back again, after weeks of this he finally got it right and was able to maintain his balance. Wilhelm, from six years of age, was tutored and heavily influenced by the 39-year-old teacher Georg Hinzpeter, Hinzpeter, he later wrote, was really a good fellow. Whether he was the tutor for me, I dare not decide. The torments inflicted on me, in this riding, must be attributed to my mother. As a teenager he was educated at Kassel at the Friedrichsgymnasium, in January 1877, Wilhelm finished high school and on his eighteenth birthday received as a present from his grandmother, Queen Victoria, the Order of the Garter. After Kassel he spent four terms at the University of Bonn, studying law and he became a member of the exclusive Corps Borussia Bonn
29.
Old Jewish Cemetery, Frankfurt
–
The Old Jewish Cemetery of Frankfurt is located at Rat-Beil-Straße directly adjacent to the oldest parts of the gentile Frankfurt Main Cemetery. Together, Frankfurt Main Cemetery, the Old Jewish Cemetery and the New Jewish Cemetery constitute one of the largest cemetery areas in Germany, the Old Jewish Cemetery is noted for many monumental graves and includes the graves of many notable individuals. The Old Jewish Cemetery is the largest of Frankfurts twelve Jewish cemeteries and it was opened, together with the Main Cemetery, in 1828. By 1928, when the cemetery was closed for new graves because it was full, since 1928, interment has only been possible in already established graves. In its place, the New Jewish Cemetery was opened in 1928, Kramer, Frankfurt am Main 1988, ISBN 3-7829-0354-4. Peter Braunholz, Britta Boerdner, Christian Setzepfandt, Der Frankfurter Hauptfriedhof, societäts-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-7973-1147-4. Isidor Kracauer, Geschichte der Juden in Frankfurt a. M.2 vols, J. Kauffmann, Frankfurt am Main 1925/27. Verlag Waldemar Kramer, Frankfurt am Main 1966, valentin Senger, Klaus Meier-Ude, Die jüdischen Friedhöfe in Frankfurt am Main. Fachhochschulverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-936065-15-2, pp. 10–20
30.
Karl Weigert
–
Karl Weigert, Carl Weigert was a German Jewish pathologist. He received his education at the universities of Berlin, Vienna, there he became an associate professor of pathology in 1879. In 1884 he was appointed professor of anatomy at the Senkenbergsche Stiftung in Frankfurt am Main. Weigert assisted Cohnheim in many of his researches, and wrote much on the staining of bacteria in microscopy, in 1884 he introduced a precise method for staining myelin sheaths. He is credited with the discovery of vascular tuberculosis, and was the first to demonstrate how tuberculous material could enter the bloodstream and he contributed many essays to medical journals. Among his works are, Zur Anatomie der Pocken, beiträge zur Kenntniss der Normalen Menschlichen Neuroglia. Vienna,1901, Oesterreichische Wochenschrift,1904, pp.533,534 This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Singer, Isidore. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company
31.
Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz
–
Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz was a German anatomist, famous for consolidating the neuron theory of organization of the nervous system and for naming the chromosome. He is also remembered in two structures of the human body which were named after him, Waldeyers tonsillar ring. Waldeyers name is associated in neuroscience with the so-called neuron theory. Waldeyer learned Spanish in order to absorb Cajals extraordinary detailed studies using Golgis method and became his friend, mentor, the theory was published in a series of papers in the main medical journal of Germany, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, which became extremely influential. However, as Cajal points out, though Waldeyer supported the theory with the prestige of his authority, he did not contribute a single personal observation. He limited himself to a brilliant exposition of the objective proofs, adduced by His, Kölliker, Retzius, van Gehuchten and myself. He coined in 1888 the term “chromosome” to describe them and he also published the first embryological, anatomical and functional studies about the naso-oro-pharyngeal lymphatic tissue, which received his name. Über Karyokinese und ihre Beziehungen zu den Befruchtungsvorgängen, archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie und Entwicklungsmechanik,1888,32, 1–122. Ueber einige neuere Forschungen im Gebiete der Anatomie des Centralnervensystems, Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, Berlin,1891,17, 1213–1218, 1244–1246, 1287–1289, 1331–1332, 1350–1356. His most famous statement and summary of the neuron theory, Bonn,1920, 2nd edition, Bonn,1921, 3rd edition,1922. Short biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
32.
Julius Friedrich Cohnheim
–
Julius Friedrich Cohnheim was a German-Jewish pathologist. Cohnheim was born at Demmin, Pomerania and he studied at the universities of Würzburg, Marburg, Greifswald, and Berlin, receiving his doctors degree at the University of Berlin in 1861. After taking a course in Prague, he returned to Berlin in 1862, where he practised until 1864. In the fall of the year he became assistant at the pathological institute of Berlin University under Rudolf Virchow. During this time he published articles relating to physiological chemistry and histology. In it he proved that the emigration of the white blood-corpuscles is the origin of pus, in 1868 Cohnheim was appointed professor of pathological anatomy and general pathology in the University of Kiel, and four years later he went to the University of Breslau to fill a similar position. His work there was interrupted in the winter of 1873-74 by illness, in 1878 he accepted an invitation to become professor of pathology in the University of Leipzig, which chair he occupied until his death. Aside from his literary and experimental activity, Cohnheim was both popular and successful as a teacher and he died in Leipzig in 1884. Ueber die Entzündung seröser Häute, in Virchows Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medizin, zur Kenntniss der zuckerbildenden Fermente, ib. xxviii. Ein Fall von Abscessen in Amyloid entarteten Organen, ib. xxxiii, ueber die Endigung der Muskelnerven, ib. xxxiv. Ueber den feineren Bau der quergestreiften Muskelfasern, ib. xxxiv, zur pathologischen Anatomie der Trichinenkrankheit, ib. xxxvi. Ueber die Endigung der sensiblen Nerven in der Hornhaut, ib. xxxviii, ueber Entzündung und Eiterung, ib. xl. With Bernhard Fränkel, Experimentelle Untersuchungen über die Uebertragbarkeit der Tuberkulose auf Thiere, Untersuchungen über die embolischen Processe, Berlin,1872 Neue Untersuchungen über die Entzündung, ib.1873 Vorlesungen über allgemeine Pathologie, ein Handbuch für Aertze und Studirende ib. 1877-80, 2d ed.1882 Die Tuberkulose vom Standpunkte der Infectionslehre, Leipzig, gesammelte Abhandlungen, Berlin,1885, Herausgegeben von E. Wagner. Mit einem Lebensbilde Cohnheims von W. Kühne, pathology List of pathologists This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Singer, Isidore, et al. eds. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company and his life and contributions to pathology. 14, pp. 335–42, PMID6383186 Maulitz, R C, Rudolf Virchow, Julius Cohnheim, bulletin of the history of medicine,52, pp. 162–82, PMID361110, Julius Cohnheim experimental pathologist. JAMA,206, pp. 1561–2, doi,10. 1001/jama.206.7.1561, PMID4879583 DOERR, W, Ärztliche Wochenschrift,15, pp. 78–82, PMID13817213
33.
Plasma cell
–
Plasma cells, also called plasma B cells, plasmocytes, plasmacytes, or effector B cells, are white blood cells that secrete large volumes of antibodies. They are transported by the plasma and the lymphatic system. Plasma cells originate in the marrow, B cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody molecules closely modeled after the receptors of the precursor B cell. Once released into the blood and lymph, these molecules bind to the target antigen. After leaving the bone marrow, the B cell acts as an antigen presenting cell and internalizes offending antigens, pieces of the antigen are loaded onto MHC II molecules, and presented on its extracellular surface to CD4+ T cells. These T cells bind to the MHC II-antigen molecule and cause activation of the B cell and this is a type of safeguard to the system, almost like a two-factor authentication method. First, the B cells have to encounter a foreign antigen, germinal center B cells may differentiate into memory B cells or plasma cells. Most of these B cells will become plasmablasts, and eventually plasma cells, some B cells will undergo a process known as affinity maturation. This process favors, by selection for the ability to bind antigen with higher affinity, the most immature blood cell that is considered of plasma cell lineage is the plasmablast. Plasmablasts secrete more antibodies than B cells, but less than plasma cells and they divide rapidly and are still capable of internalizing antigens and presenting them to T cells. A cell may stay in state for several days, and then either die or irrevocably differentiate into a mature. Differentiation of mature B cells into cells is dependent upon the transcription factors Blimp-1/PRDM1. After the process of affinity maturation in germinal centers, plasma cells have an indeterminate lifespan, recently they have been shown to reside for much longer periods in the bone marrow as long-lived plasma cells. They secrete high levels of antibodies, ranging from hundreds to thousands of antibodies per second per cell, however, continued exposure to antigen through those low levels of immunoglobulin is important, as it partly determines the cells lifespan. The lifespan, class of antibodies produced, and the location that the cell moves to also depends on signals, such as cytokines. Differentiation through a T cell-independent antigen stimulation can happen anywhere in the body, for example, plasma cells will likely secrete IgG3 antibodies if they matured in the presence of the cytokine interferon-gamma. Since B cell maturation also involves somatic hypermutation, these antibodies frequently have a high affinity for their antigen. Plasma cells can produce a single kind of antibody in a single class of immunoglobulin
34.
Mast cell
–
A mast cell is a type of white blood cell. Specifically, it is a type of granulocyte derived from the stem cell that is a part of the immune and neuroimmune systems and contains many granules rich in histamine. The mast cell is similar in both appearance and function to the basophil, another type of white blood cell. Although mast cells were thought to be tissue resident basophils. Mast cells were first described by Paul Ehrlich in his 1878 doctoral thesis on the basis of their unique staining characteristics and these granules also led him to the incorrect belief that they existed to nourish the surrounding tissue, so he named them Mastzellen. They are now considered to be part of the immune system, mast cells are very similar to basophil granulocytes in blood. Both are granulated cells that contain histamine and heparin, an anticoagulant, the Fc region of immunoglobulin E becomes bound to mast cells and basophils and when IgEs paratopes bind to an antigen, it causes the cells to release histamine and other inflammatory mediators. These similarities have led many to speculate that mast cells are basophils that have homed in on tissues, furthermore, they share a common precursor in bone marrow expressing the CD34 molecule. Basophils leave the bone marrow already mature, whereas the mast cell circulates in an immature form, the site an immature mast cell settles in probably determines its precise characteristics. The first in vitro differentiation and growth of a population of mouse mast cells has been carried out using conditioned medium derived from concanavalin A-stimulated splenocytes. Later, it was discovered that T cell-derived interleukin 3 was the component present in the media that was required for mast cell differentiation. Mast cells in rodents are divided into two subtypes, connective tissue-type mast cells and mucosal mast cells. The activities of the latter are dependent on T-cells, mast cells play a key role in the inflammatory process. When activated, a mast cell can either release or rapidly release mediators, or compounds that induce inflammation. Complement proteins can activate membrane receptors on mast cells to various functions as well. Mast cells express a high-affinity receptor for the Fc region of IgE and this receptor is of such high affinity that binding of IgE molecules is in essence irreversible. As a result, mast cells are coated with IgE, which is produced by plasma cells, IgE molecules, like all antibodies, are specific to one particular antigen. In allergic reactions, mast cells remain inactive until an allergen binds to IgE already coated upon the cell, other membrane activation events can either prime mast cells for subsequent degranulation or act in synergy with FcεRI signal transduction
35.
Lymphocyte
–
A lymphocyte is one of the subtypes of white blood cell in a vertebrates immune system. Lymphocytes include natural killer cells, T cells, and B cells and they are the main type of cell found in lymph, which prompted the name lymphocyte. The three major types of lymphocyte are T cells, B cells and natural killer cells, lymphocytes can be identified by their large nucleus. T cells and B cells are the cellular components of the adaptive immune response. T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity, whereas B cells are responsible for humoral immunity. The function of T cells and B cells is to recognize specific “non-self” antigens, once they have identified an invader, the cells generate specific responses that are tailored to maximally eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. B cells respond to pathogens by producing large quantities of antibodies which then neutralize foreign objects like bacteria, following activation, B cells and T cells leave a lasting legacy of the antigens they have encountered, in the form of memory cells. NK cells are a part of the immune system and play a major role in defending the host from both tumors and virally infected cells. NK cells distinguish infected cells and tumors from normal and uninfected cells by recognizing changes of a molecule called MHC class I. NK cells are activated in response to a family of cytokines called interferons, activated NK cells release cytotoxic granules which then destroy the altered cells. They were named natural killer cells because of the notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells which are missing MHC class I. This notion seemed doubtful at the time but turned out to be correct, mammalian stem cells differentiate into several kinds of blood cell within the bone marrow. All lymphocytes originate, during this process, from a common lymphoid progenitor before differentiating into their distinct lymphocyte types, the differentiation of lymphocytes follows various pathways in a hierarchical fashion as well as in a more plastic fashion. The formation of lymphocytes is known as lymphopoiesis, following maturation, the lymphocytes enter the circulation and peripheral lymphoid organs where they survey for invading pathogens and/or tumor cells. The lymphocytes involved in adaptive immunity differentiate further after exposure to an antigen, they form effector, effector lymphocytes function to eliminate the antigen, either by releasing antibodies, cytotoxic granules or by signaling to other cells of the immune system. Microscopically, in a Wrights stained peripheral blood smear, a normal lymphocyte has a large, in normal situations, the coarse, dense nucleus of a lymphocyte is approximately the size of a red blood cell. Some lymphocytes show a clear perinuclear zone around the nucleus or could exhibit a clear zone to one side of the nucleus. Polyribosomes are a prominent feature in the lymphocytes and can be viewed with an electron microscope, the ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis, allowing the generation of large quantities of cytokines and immunoglobulins by these cells
36.
White blood cell
–
White blood cells, also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system, all white blood cells have nuclei, which distinguishes them from the other blood cells, the anucleated red blood cells and platelets. Types of white cells can be classified in standard ways. Two pairs of broadest categories classify them either by structure or by cell division lineage and these broadest categories can be further divided into the five main types, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. These types are distinguished by their physical and functional characteristics, further subtypes can be classified, for example, among lymphocytes, there are B cells, T cells, and NK cells. The number of leukocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease, the normal white cell count is usually between 4 × 109/L and 11 × 109/L. In the US this is expressed as 4,000 to 11,000 white blood cells per microliter of blood. They make up approximately 1% of the blood volume in a healthy adult. However, this 1% of the blood makes a difference to health. An increase in the number of leukocytes over the limits is called leukocytosis. It is normal when it is part of immune responses. It is occasionally abnormal, when it is neoplastic or autoimmune in origin, a decrease below the lower limit is called leukopenia. The name white blood cell derives from the appearance of a blood sample after centrifugation. White cells are found in the buff, a thin, typically white layer of nucleated cells between the red blood cells and the blood plasma. The scientific term leukocyte directly reflects its description and it is derived from the Greek roots leuk- meaning white and cyt- meaning cell. The buffy coat may sometimes be green if there are large amounts of neutrophils in the sample, all white blood cells are nucleated, which distinguishes them from the anucleated red blood cells and platelets. Types of leukocytes can be classified in standard ways, two pairs of broadest categories classify them either by structure or by cell lineage
37.
Eosinophil
–
Along with mast cells and basophils, they also control mechanisms associated with allergy and asthma. They are granulocytes that develop during hematopoiesis in the bone marrow before migrating into blood and these mediators are released by a process called degranulation following activation of the eosinophil, and are toxic to both parasite and host tissues. In normal individuals, eosinophils make up about 1–6% of white blood cells, the presence of eosinophils in these latter organs is associated with disease. Eosinophils persist in the circulation for 8–12 hours, and can survive in tissue for an additional 8–12 days in the absence of stimulation, eosinophils develop and mature in the bone marrow. They differentiate from myeloid precursor cells in response to the cytokines interleukin 3, interleukin 5, eosinophils produce and store many secondary granule proteins prior to their exit from the bone marrow. There is evidence to suggest that eosinophil granule protein expression is regulated by the non-coding RNA EGOT, following activation, eosinophils effector functions include production of, cationic granule proteins and their release by degranulation. Reactive oxygen species such as hypobromite, superoxide, and peroxide, lipid mediators like the eicosanoids from the leukotriene and prostaglandin families. Growth factors such as TGF beta, VEGF, and PDGF. cytokines such as IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-13, and TNF alpha. Eosinophils along with basophils and mast cells, are important mediators of allergic responses and they also fight helminth colonization and may be slightly elevated in the presence of certain parasites. Eosinophils are also involved in other biological processes, including postpubertal mammary gland development, oestrus cycling, allograft rejection. They have also implicated in antigen presentation to T cells. An accumulation of eosinophils in the mucosa is considered a major diagnostic criterion for allergic rhinitis. Following activation by a stimulus, eosinophils degranulate to release an array of cytotoxic granule cationic proteins that are capable of inducing tissue damage. Eosinophil cationic protein and eosinophil-derived neurotoxin are ribonucleases with antiviral activity, major basic protein induces mast cell and basophil degranulation, and is implicated in peripheral nerve remodelling. Eosinophil peroxidase forms reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen intermediates that promote oxidative stress in the target, an increase in eosinophils, i. e. But, perhaps the most common cause for eosinophilia is an allergic condition such as asthma. In 1989, contaminated L-tryptophan supplements caused a form of eosinophilia known as eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. Treatments used to combat autoimmune diseases and conditions caused by eosinophils include, numbers of eosinophils in blood are rapidly reduced monoclonal antibody therapy – e. g. Furthermore, this effect was exaggerated when the mice became obese from a high fat diet. Eosinopenia, decrease in eosinophils Eosinophil - BioWeb at University of Wisconsin System Histology at ucsf. edu What is an eosinophil, at the Cincinnati Center for Eosinophilic Disorders
listen); 14 March 1854 – 20 August 1915) was a German Jewish physician and scientist who worked in the fields of hematology, immunology, and antimicrobial chemotherapy. He invented the precursor technique to Gram staining bacteria, the methods he developed for staining tissue made it possible to distinguish between different types of blood cells, which led to the capability to diagnose numerous blood diseases._Paul_Ehrlich.JPG)
