1.
Ixelles
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Ixelles is one of the nineteen municipalities located in the Brussels-Capital Region of Belgium. In common with all the Brussels municipalities, it is legally bilingual, Ixelles is located in the suburbs towards the south of Brussels city center and is geographically bisected by the City of Brussels municipality. It is generally considered an affluent area of the city and is noted for its communities of European. Elsene/Ixelles is located in the south of Brussels and is divided into two parts by Louisalaan / Avenue Louise, which is part of the City of Brussels municipality, the smaller west part of the municipality includes Baljuwstraat/Rue du Bailli and extends roughly from Louisalaan/Avenue Louise to Brugmannlaan/Avenue Brugmann. The Ter Kamerenbos/Bois de la Cambre is located just south of Elsene/Ixelles and it was also to be the first Haussmann-esque artery of the city of Brussels. However, fierce resistance to the project was put up by the town of Elsene/Ixelles through whose land the avenue was supposed to run. After years of negotiations, Brussels finally annexed the narrow band of land needed for the avenue plus the Ter Kamerenbos/Bois de la Cambre itself in 1864. That decision accounts for the shape of todays City of Brussels. The placename was first mentioned in 1210 as Elsela, from Old Dutch Elselo meaning alder woods, the origins of the village date from the foundation of the Abbey of La Cambre by a Benedictine nun in 1196. The abbey was located near the springs of the Maelbeek in the Sonian Forest, the abbey was consecrated by the Bishop of Cambrai soon after its foundation. Boniface of Brussels and Alice of Schaerbeek were two of its most famous residents in the 13th century, around 1300, during the reign of John II, Duke of Brabant, a hostel was built near the abbey to provide meals to the wood bearers working in the forest. Soon, a hamlet and a couple of chapels were built, including the Church of the Holy Cross, the area included several ponds, still visible today, that provided fish to the abbey and to the neighbouring hamlets. At that time, part of Ixelles was a dependence of Brussels, in 1478, the wars between Louis XI of France and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor brought devastation to the abbey and the surrounding areas. In 1585, the Spanish burnt down most of the buildings to prevent them from being used as a refuge by the Calvinists, the abbey was restored in time for the Joyous Entry of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella in 1599. Further manors and castles were built in Ixelles in the 16th century, the purity of the pond water attracted breweries to the area, some of which survived well into the 20th century. In 1795, like many of the towns surrounding Brussels. The abbey was stripped of its religious functions, becoming among others a cotton-manufacturing plant, a farm, a school. Many of the gates of Brussels that lined what is now the inner ring road were taken down
2.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
3.
Nice
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Nice is the fifth most populous city in France and the capital of the Alpes-Maritimes département. The urban area of Nice extends beyond the city limits. Nice is about 13 kilometres from the principality of Monaco, the city is nicknamed Nice la Belle, which means Nice the Beautiful, which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of todays Nice contains Terra Amata, a site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Nikaia, after Nike, through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength, for centuries it was a dominion of Savoy, and was then part of France between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to Piedmont-Sardinia until its re-annexation by France in 1860. The citys main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais owes its name to visitors to the resort, for decades now, the picturesque Nicean surroundings have attracted not only those in search of relaxation, but also those seeking inspiration. The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to some of Western cultures most outstanding painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse. Nice has the second largest hotel capacity in the country and it is one of its most visited cities and it also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the capital city of the County of Nice. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by the Greeks of Massalia, the ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice. In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens, but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, during the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, during the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa. The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town, the landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill, another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the area was also defended by walls
4.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
5.
League of Nations
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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
6.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
7.
Charles de Broqueville
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Charles Marie Pierre Albert, Count de Broqueville was the 20th Prime Minister of Belgium, serving during World War I. First elected to the Chamber of Representatives in 1892, he represented the arrondissement of Turnhout until June 1919 and he was the leader of Belgiums Catholic Party, and he served as prime minister between 1911 and 1918, heading the de Broqueville government. Once it became clear that Germany intended to violate Belgian neutrality in August 1914, despite the mobilization, de Broqueville opposed King Albert Is proposal to deploy the Belgian Army along the German frontier in 1914 — instead strategically placing them throughout the country. He recognized that support for Belgium depended upon its continued status as a non-provocative neutral power. The German invasion of 1914 forced the Belgian government into exile at Le Havre, De Broqueville fought the king on the neutrality issue, hereby denying Belgium a full alliance with the Allied forces. This opposition of the king critically weakened de Broquevilles stance among members of his cabinet, consequently, he resigned as Foreign Secretary in January 1918 and as Prime Minister in May when he lost the support of his own party. Belgium, Croix de Guerre Belgium, Minister of State, by Royal Decree, Paul VAN MOLLE, La parlement belge, 1894-1972, Antwerp,1972 Luc SCHEPENS, Albert Ier et le gouvernement Broqueville, 1914–1918, aux origines de la question communautaire. Paris 1983, Thierry DENOËL, Le nouveau dictionnaire des Belges, brussels, Le Cri,1992, p.167. Maria DE WAELE, Charles de Broqueville, in, Nieuwe Encyclopedie van de Vlaamse Beweging, Tielt,1998 Paul VOS, Charles de Broqueville op de kering der tijden, in, Vlaamse Stam,2012, blz. Frans RENAERS, De opvoeding van Charles de Broqueville, in, Vlaamse Stam, Charles de Broqueville at Prime Minister of Belgium
8.
Universal suffrage
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The concept of universal suffrage, also known as general suffrage or common suffrage, consists of the right to vote of all except a small number of adult citizens. As minors are excluded, the concept is frequently described as universal adult suffrage. Many countries make an exception for small numbers of adults that are considered incapable of voting. Other countries also exclude people convicted of crimes or people in jail. In some countries, including the United States, it is very difficult, in any case, where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status. The term active suffrage is sometimes used for the right to vote, passive suffrage for the right to run for office, the equivalent term when talking about both genders would then be universal full suffrage, or full universal suffrage. Greece recognized full male suffrage in 1830 and France and Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution, the German Empire implemented full male suffrage in 1871. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote and it did not grant universal full suffrage until 1919. In 1902 Australia become the first country to grant full suffrage for women, however, universal suffrage was not implemented, as aboriginals didnt get the right to vote until 1962. It also elected the worlds first female members of parliament the following year, in most countries, universal suffrage followed about a generation after universal male suffrage. Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1944, Greece and it is worth noting that countries that took a long time to adopt womens suffrage had previously often been pioneers in granting universal male suffrage. In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, in some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively with time, in the 19th century in Europe, Great Britain and North America, there were movements advocating universal suffrage. The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying liberals and social democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal, the concept of universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all its residents. All countries, however, do not allow certain categories of citizens to vote, saudi Arabia was the last major country that did not allow women to vote, but admitted women both to voting and candidacy in the 2015 municipal elections. France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, the Second French Republic did institute adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848. In 1867, Germany enacted suffrage for all adult males, in the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males. Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their legal process, or their status as an independent nation, interrupted during
9.
Compulsory education
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Compulsory education refers to a period of education that is required of all people and is imposed by law. Depending on the country, this education may take place at a school or at home. Compulsory education was not unheard of in ancient times, however instances are generally tied to royal, religious or military organization—substantially different from modern notions of compulsory education. Platos The Republic is credited with having popularized the concept of education in Western intellectual thought. The ideal city would require ideal individuals, and ideal individuals would require an ideal education, popularization of Platos ideas began with the wider Renaissance and the translation of Platos works by Marsilio Ficino, culminating in the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, known for his own work on education, Emile, or On Education had said To get an idea of public education. It is not a treatise, as those who merely judge books by their title think. In Sparta boys between the age 6 and 7 left their homes and were sent to military school, School courses were harsh and have been described as a brutal training period. Between the age of 18 and 20, Spartan males had to pass a test that consisted of fitness, military ability, a students failure meant a forfeiture of citizenship and political rights. Every parent in Judea since ancient times was required to teach their children at least informally, over the centuries, as cities, towns and villages developed, a class of teachers called Rabbis evolved. The Aztec Triple Alliance, which ruled from 1428 to 1521 in what is now central Mexico, is considered to be the first state to implement a system of compulsory education. The Protestant Reformation prompted the establishment of compulsory education for boys and girls, first in regions that are now part of Germany, and later in Europe and in the United States. Martin Luthers seminal text An die Ratsherren aller Städte deutschen Landes called for establishing compulsory schooling so that all parishioners would be able to read the Bible by themselves, the Protestant South-West of the Holy Roman Empire soon followed suit. In 1559, the German Duchy Württemberg established an education system for boys. In Scotland, the School Establishment Act of 1616 commanded every parish to establish a school for everyone paid for by parishioners, the Parliament of Scotland confirmed this with the Education Act of 1633 and created a local land-based tax to provide the required funding. The required majority support of parishioners, however, provided a tax evasion loophole which heralded the Education Act of 1646, the turmoil of the age meant that in 1661 there was a temporary reversion to the less compulsory 1633 position. In the United States, following Luther and other Reformers, the Separatist Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620, obliged parents to teach their children how to read and write. The 1647 law, in particular, required every town having more than 50 families to hire a teacher, the Puritan zeal for learning was reflected in the early and rapid rise of educational institutions, e. g. Harvard College was founded as early as 1636
10.
Herbert Hoover
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Herbert Clark Hoover was an American politician who served as the 31st President of the United States from 1929 to 1933 during the Great Depression. He was defeated in a landslide in 1932 by Democrat Franklin D, a lifelong Quaker, he became a successful mining engineer around the globe and retired in 1912. In the First World War he built a reputation as a humanitarian by leading relief efforts in Belgium during the war. He headed the U. S. Food Administration during World War I and his reputation as a Progressive businessman fighting for efficiency and elimination of waste was built as the Secretary of Commerce 1921-28. Hoover was a leader in the Efficiency Movement, which held that every institution public and they all could be improved by experts who could identify the problems and solve them. He also believed in the importance of volunteerism and of the role of individuals in society, in the presidential election of 1928, Hoover easily won the Republican nomination, despite having no elected-office experience. Although Hoover never raised the issue, some of his supporters did in mobilizing anti-Catholic sentiment against his opponent Al Smith. He reluctantly approved the Smoot–Hawley Tariff of 1930, which sent foreign trade spiralling down and he believed it was essential to balance the budget despite falling tax revenue, so he raised the tax rates. The economy kept falling, and the unemployment rate rose to 25%, with industry, mining. This downward spiral, plus his support for policies that had lost favor, set the stage for Hoovers overwhelming defeat in 1932 by Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. Most historians agree that Hoovers defeat in the 1932 election was caused primarily by the downward economic spiral, Hoover became a conservative spokesman for opposition to the domestic and foreign policies of the New Deal. He opposed entry into the Second World War and was not given any role to play, in 1946, President Harry S. Truman liked Hoover and appointed him to survey war-torn Germany which produced a number of reports that changed U. S. occupation policy. In 1947, Truman appointed Hoover to head the Hoover Commission, by the time of his death, he had rehabilitated his image. Nevertheless, Hoover is often ranked by historians as one of the worst U. S. presidents. Herbert Hoover was born on August 10,1874, in West Branch, Iowa, he would become the only President so far born in that state and the first born west of the Mississippi River. His father, Jesse Hoover, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner, of German, German-Swiss, Jesse Hoover and his father Eli had moved to Iowa from Ohio twenty years previously. Hoovers mother, Hulda Randall Minthorn, was born in Norwich, Ontario, Canada, both of his parents were Quakers. At about age two he contracted the croup and he was so ill that he was momentarily thought to have died, until he was resuscitated by his uncle, John Minthorn
11.
Commission for Relief in Belgium
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The Commission for Relief in Belgium or C. R. B. − known also as just Belgian Relief − was an organization that arranged for the supply of food to German-occupied Belgium. Its leading figure was chairman Herbert Hoover, when the Great War broke out, Hoover was a mining engineer and financier living in London. Hoover set up and organized an American committee to get the busted Yankee home, making loans, by October 1918 the American Committee had sent some 120,000 Americans home, and in the end lost just $300 in unpaid debt. The tiny nation, at the time among the most urbanized countries in Europe, nonetheless, the German occupiers were requisitioning what was there to help feed their army. The civilian population, in addition to the effect of being conquered in a few days by Germany, faced imminent starvation unless a lot of food were brought in. But it wasnt such a thing as buying food and bringing it in. Great Britain had imposed a blockade on Germany and its occupied countries. If Shaler brought food in, the British figured, the Germans would just requisition it, seeking a solution to this dilemma, Shaler contacted ambassador Page, and Page contacted Hoover. The commissions task was to obtain foodstuffs from abroad and ship it into Belgium, monitors would supervise its distribution by members of the Comité National de Secours et dAlimentation, the Belgian organization headed by Émile Francqui. Employees, living under the German occupation, were not citizens of a country and were legally required to obey the orders of German soldiers. The food imported by the C. R. B. remained the property of the American ambassador to Belgium, Brand Whitlock, throughout the distribution process, keeping the C. R. B. going was a full-time job and then some for Hoover and his associates. The Germans resented the presence of the foreigners in the country and were bitter about the British blockade, in the end, the C. R. B. bought and shipped 11.4 billion pounds of food to 9.5 million civilian victims of the war. The committee chartered ships to carry the food to Belgian ports under safe conduct terms arranged by Hoover in meetings with the British, the CRB shipped 697,116,000 pounds of flour to Belgium and evidence indicates that sugar and grains were also sent. The flour was packaged in bags or Flour Sacks by American mills. As a result, the empty flour sacks were carefully accounted for and distributed to schools, sewing workrooms, convents. Girls and women made famous Belgian lace, embroidered textiles and repaired, the flour sacks were used by these various Belgian groups to make new clothing, accessories, pillows, bags, and other functional items. Artists, in particular, used the flour sacks as the background for creating original oil paintings
12.
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
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It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and this provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for the expensive reparations Germany was intended to pay. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, the conference opened on 18 January 1919. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the five major powers controlled the Conference. Amongst the Big Five, in practice Japan played a small role, the four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the approved the decisions made by the Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations, the main result was the Treaty of Versailles, with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and her allies. This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay, republican Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia were present, a central issue of the Conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany. The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice, Australia wanted New Guinea, New Zealand wanted Samoa, and South Africa wanted South West Africa. Wilson wanted the League of Nations to administer all the German colonies until such time as they were ready for independence, Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions, and he proposed a compromise that there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category, they would be divided up between Britain and France, Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received Class C Mandates to the colonies they wanted, Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the equator. Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States, his top advisor Colonel House was deeply involved in awarding the others, Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands. He and Hughes had some clashes, with the most famous being, Wilson, But after all. Hughes, I represent sixty thousand dead, prior to Wilsons arrival in Europe in December 1918, no American president had ever visited Europe while in office. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era, in doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged and he worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French and British delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe, as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East
13.
Luxembourg
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Luxembourg /ˈlʌksəmbɜːrɡ/, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east and its culture, people and languages are highly intertwined with its neighbours, making it essentially a mixture of French and Germanic cultures. It comprises two regions, the Oesling in the north as part of the Ardennes massif. With an area of 2,586 square kilometres, it is one of the smallest sovereign states in Europe, Luxembourg had a population of 524,853 in October 2012, ranking it the 8th least-populous country in Europe. As a representative democracy with a monarch, it is headed by a Grand Duke, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Luxembourg is a country, with an advanced economy and the worlds highest GDP per capita. Luxembourg is a member of the European Union, OECD, United Nations, NATO, and Benelux, reflecting its political consensus in favour of economic, political. The city of Luxembourg, which is the capital and largest city, is the seat of several institutions. Luxembourg served on the United Nations Security Council for the years 2013 and 2014, around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a state of great strategic value. In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors, in the following centuries, Luxembourgs fortress was steadily enlarged and strengthened by its successive occupants, the Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns and the French. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands and this arrangement was revised by the 1839 First Treaty of London, from which date Luxembourgs full independence is reckoned. In 1842 Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union, the King of the Netherlands remained Head of State as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, maintaining a personal union between the two countries until 1890. At the death of William III, the throne of the Netherlands passed to his daughter Wilhelmina and this allowed Germany the military advantage of controlling and expanding the railways there. In August 1914, Imperial Germany violated Luxembourgs neutrality in the war by invading it in the war against France and this allowed Germany to use the railway lines, while at the same time denying them to France. Nevertheless, despite the German occupation, Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence, in 1940, after the outbreak of World War II, Luxembourgs neutrality was again violated when the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany entered the country, entirely without justification. A government in exile based in London supported the Allies, sending a group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion. Luxembourg was liberated in September 1944, and became a member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourgs neutral status under the constitution formally ended in 1948, in 2005, a referendum on the EU treaty establishing a constitution for Europe was held
14.
Freemasonry
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The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
15.
Brussels
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Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the region of Flanders or Wallonia. The region has a population of 1.2 million and an area with a population of over 1.8 million. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, the secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are also located in Brussels. Today, it is considered an Alpha global city, historically a Dutch-speaking city, Brussels has seen a language shift to French from the late 19th century onwards. Today, the majority language is French, and the Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. All road signs, street names, and many advertisements and services are shown in both languages, Brussels is increasingly becoming multilingual with increasing numbers of migrants, expatriates and minority groups speaking their own languages. The most common theory of the origin of Brussels name is that it derives from the Old Dutch Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh, Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695 when it was still a hamlet. The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel, Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island. Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles daughter, as it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time, in the 13th century, the city got its first walls. After the construction of the city walls in the early 13th century, to let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the small ring, Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished. In 1516 Charles V, who had been heir of the Low Countries since 1506, was declared King of Spain in St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and it was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant. In 1695, during the Nine Years War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery, together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels
16.
Find a Grave
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Find a Grave is a website that allows the public to search and add to an online database of cemetery records. It is owned by Ancestry. com, the worlds largest for-profit genealogy company, the site was created in 1995 by Salt Lake City resident Jim Tipton to support his hobby of visiting the burial sites of celebrities. He later added an online forum, Find a Grave was launched as a commercial entity in 1998, first as a trade name and then incorporated in 2000. The site later expanded to include graves of non-celebrities, in order to allow visitors to pay respect to their deceased relatives or friends. In 2013, Tipton sold Find a Grave to Ancestry. com, burial information is a wonderful source for people researching their family history. In a September 30,2013, press release, Ancestry, as of March 2017, Find a Grave contained over 159 million burial records and 75 million photos. The website contains listings of cemeteries and graves from around the world, american cemeteries are organized by state and county, and many cemetery records contain Google Maps and photographs of the cemeteries and gravesites. Individual grave records may contain dates and places of birth and death, biographical information, cemetery and plot information, photographs, Interment listings are added by individuals, genealogical societies, and other institutions such as the International Wargraves Photography Project. Contributors must register as members to submit listings, called memorials, the submitter becomes the manager of the listing but may transfer management. Only the current manager of a listing may edit it, although any member may use the features to send correction requests to the listings manager. Managers may add links to other listings of deceased spouses, parents, members may post requests for photos of a specific grave, these requests will be automatically sent to other members who have registered their location as being near that grave. Find a Grave also maintains lists of memorials of famous persons by their claim to fame, such as Medal of Honor recipients, religious figures, Find a Grave exercises editorial control over these listings. Canadian Headstones Interment. net National Cemetery Administrations Nationwide Gravesite Locator Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness Tombstone tourist Colker, web site answers grave concerns about stars. Web site attracts millions of grave-seekers, Find VIPs who R. I. P. through online cemetery. Genealogy, Find a Grave tremendous on many different levels, terre Haute, Indiana, Community Newspaper Holdings Inc. Archived from the original on May 14,2011, tip, Find a Grave has info youre dying to know. Tracking Down Relatives, Visiting Graves Virtually, media related to Images from Find A Grave at Wikimedia Commons Official website
17.
Herman Adriaan van Karnebeek
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Jonkheer Herman Adriaan van Karnebeek was a Dutch politician. He served as Minister of Foreign Affairs between 1918 and 1927 and, in capacity, as President of the Assembly of the League of Nations from 1921 until 1922. Abraham van Karnebeek, a liberal politician, who also served as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Herman Adriaan van Karnebeek studied law at the University of Utrecht and he continued serving as Foreign Minister in the first cabinet of dr. He eventually resigned when his concept treaty with Belgium was rejected by a majority on 1 April 1927. From 1936 till his death in 1942 he served as chairman of the Carnegie Foundation and he died on 29 March 1942, aged 67, in The Hague. Van Karnebeek was married to Barones Adriana J. C. van Wassenaar van Rosande, one of his four sons, jhr. Maurits Pieter Marie van Karnebeek, was the mayor of Zwolle from 1940 to 1944, in 1923 he bought the estate De Eese. As of 2013, the estate is still the property of the Van Karnebeek family, from 1889 onwards, he was a cricket-player for The Hague cricket club HCC
18.
Cosme de la Torriente y Peraza
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Cosme de la Torriente y Peraza was a Cuban soldier, politician, lawyer and statesman. He was born on 27 June 1872 and he received his law degree from the University of Havana. De la Torriente was a Colonel in the Spanish–American War and he represented the Cuban Government at the wedding of King Alfonso XIII of Spain and was conferred the Order of Isabella the Catholic. He was president of the League of Nations from 1923 until 1924 and he was conferred the Order of the Legion of Honour of France after World War I. He died on 7 December 1956 in Havana
19.
Giuseppe Motta
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Giuseppe Motta was a Swiss politician. He was a member of the Swiss Federal Council and President of the League of Nations and he was born on 29 December 1871. He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 14 December 1911 and he was affiliated with the Christian Democratic Peoples Party of Switzerland. While in office he held the following departments, Department of Finance Political Department He was President of the Confederation five times, Giuseppe Motta has with 28 years in the Federal Council the third longest tenure to date. Motta was involved with the Federal Council Felix Calonder in Switzerlands accession to the League of Nations, on 16 May 1920 Switzerland joined the League of Nations. He presided in 1924 the League of Nations Assembly and he was one of the most outspoken advocates of admission of Germany. In the interwar period, he pleaded for a departure from Swiss neutrality principle. The Catholic-conservative foreign minister was an opponent of Stalinism. At his suggestion fought Switzerland as one of the few states against acceptation of the Stalins Soviet Union to the League of Nations, in 1924 he became the President of the League of Nations. He died in office on 23 January 1940, among others, via Giuseppe Motta in Lugano, Chiasso, Minusio and Massagno, Piazza Giuseppe Motta in Ascona and Avenue Giuseppe-Motta in Geneva are named for him. His portrait was painted twice in the late 1930s by the Swiss-born American -, the second portrait, half-length seated at a desk and dated 1939, in the Haus Muller-Lombardi in Hospental, Switzerland as part of the Adolfo Muller-Ury Stiftung. This was exhibited at the artists last exhibition at French and Co, New York in the Spring of 1947, Giuseppe Motta in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland. Profile of Giuseppe Motta with election results on the website of the Swiss Federal Council, Giuseppe Motta in the Dodis database of the Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland
20.
Raoul Dandurand
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Raoul Dandurand, PC was a Canadian politician and longtime organizer in Quebec for the Liberal Party of Canada. Dandurand graduated from the Faculty of Law at Université Laval, Dandurand, a Montreal lawyer, was appointed to the Canadian Senate in 1898 by Sir Wilfrid Laurier. He served as Speaker of the Canadian Senate from 1905 to 1909 and was either Leader of the Government in the Canadian Senate or Leader of the Opposition in the Canadian Senate from 1921 until 1942. As Government Leader in the Senate he served in every Cabinet formed by William Lyon Mackenzie King from 1921 until Dandurands death in 1942 and he also served as President of the League of Nations Assembly in 1925 and was Canadas delegate to the League from 1927 to 1930. He is perhaps best remembered for having said, in 1924, josephine was born in Saint-Jean, Quebec, and was educated at the Convent of Les Dames de la Congregation de Notre Dame a branch of Villa-Maria. Her literary works included dramatic pieces, papers and essays on subjects of public interest and in relation to womens duties, rights and she founded and edited Le Coin du Feu, a womans paper. She was a member and office-bearer of the Womens Historical Society and she was President of the Crèche of the Sisters of Mercy, Montreal, Quebec. In 1898 she was created an Officier Academic by the French Government, in 1900, she was appointed as a Commissioner from the Government of Canada to the Paris Exposition. In March,1903, she delivered an address before the Alliance Francaise on La Sociabilite, works by or about Raoul Dandurand at Internet Archive Raoul Dandurand – Parliament of Canada biography
21.
Afonso Costa
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Afonso Augusto da Costa, GCTE, GCL was a Portuguese lawyer, professor, and republican politician. Costa was the leader of the Portuguese Republican Party, and he was one of the figures of the Portuguese First Republic. He was a deputy in the Chamber of Deputies during the last years of the monarchy. After the proclamation of the republic, he was Minister for Justice during Teófilo Bragas short-lived provisional government, during this period, Costa signed the controversial laws which expelled the Jesuits from Portugal, abolished all the religious orders, and established the separation of church and state. These things made him a symbol of the anticlericalism of the First Republic and he served as Prime Minister of Portugal three times. The first time, he was called by President Manuel de Arriaga to form the government and this term of office lasted from 9 January 1913 to 9 February 1914. He returned to power, as Prime Minister and Finance Minister, after the end of the war, Costa led the Portuguese delegation to the Paris Peace Conference from 12 March 1919, and he signed the Treaty of Versailles of 28 June 1919 on behalf of Portugal. He was the Portuguese representative at the first assembly of the League of Nations, on 10 July 1919 he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Military Order of the Tower and of the Sword, of Valour, Loyalty and Merit. On a number of occasions during the First Republic, Costa received invitations to head the government again. After the 28 May coup détat, he opposed the military dictatorship. He died in Paris on 11 May 1937, Costa was given up at birth as a foundling at the wheel of the Santa Casa da Misericórdia of the town of Seia in north-central Portugal. By way of explanation, The Santa Casa da Misericórdia was founded in 1582, by Jose de Anchieta and it is opened to the poor of every nation and religion, and affords a refuge to foundlings and orphans. The foundlings are deposited in a wheel, which is placed perpendicularly in the wall. The wheel is divided into four apartments, one of which opens without. The heartless mother who wishes to part with her infant child, has only to deposit it in the box, together with his older brother and sister, he was registered as a son of unknown parents with the name Afonso Maria de Ligório. Ten years later, his parents, Sebastião Fernandes da Costa and Ana Augusta Pereira, recognized him and they married and readopted the children. Costa re-assumed his birth name in order to conceal the circumstances of his birth and she was the sister of the writer, José de Barros Mendes de Abreu, who was born at Oleiros, Vilar Barroco,20 July 1878. Costas wife is an ancestor of the actresses, Sofia Sá da Bandeira
22.
Nicolae Titulescu
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Nicolae Titulescu was a well-known Romanian diplomat, at various times government minister, finance and foreign minister, and for two terms President of the General Assembly of the League of Nations. Nicolae Titulescu was born in Craiova, the son of a solicitor and he passed through his childhood at his fathers estate in Titulești, Olt County. Upon graduating with honours in 1900 from the Carol I High School in Craiova, he studied law in Paris, in 1905, Titulescu returned to Romania as a professor of law at the University of Iași, and in 1907 he moved to Bucharest. Following the Romanian elections of 1912, he became a parliamentarian with the Conservative-Democrat Party led by Take Ionescu, from 1927 to 1928, Titulescu was the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Beginning in 1921, Titulescu functioned as the permanent representative of Romania to the League of Nations in Geneva and he was chosen twice to be the president of that organization. In 1935, Titulescu was elected a member of the Romanian Academy. He jumped to his feet and shouted, To the door with the savages, later in 1936, King Carol II removed Titulescu from all official positions, asking him to leave the country. Settling first in Switzerland, he moved to France. He returned to Romania in November 1937, partly through the efforts of Iuliu Maniu, in 1937, Titulescu again left Romania and took refuge in France. At Cannes, he denounced the Romanian Fascist regime, in 1941, Nicolae Titulescu died in Cannes following a long illness. In his will, he asked to be buried in Romania, in 1989, after the fall of the communist Romanian government during the Romanian Revolution, Titulescus request became possible
23.
Charles Theodore Te Water
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Charles Theodore Te Water was a South African barrister, diplomat and politician who was appointed as President of the Assembly of the League of Nations. He became a barrister of the Inner Temple in 1910, and was a member of the Pretoria bar between 1910 and 1929. He represented Pretoria for the National Party in the Union Parliament between 1924 and 1929, and was High Commissioner for the Union of South Africa in London between 1929 and 1939. He was the Union of South Africas delegate to the League of Nations between 1929 and 1939, and was appointed as President of the Assembly of the League of Nations between 1933 and 1934 and he was Ambassador at large for South Africa between 1948 and 1949. Te Water was awarded a doctor of laws degree by Wits University in 1955. Chancellor of the University of Pretoria between 1949 and 1964, Charles Te Water died in Cape Town on 6 June 1964, portraits of Charles Theodore Te Water at the National Portrait Gallery, London
24.
Rickard Sandler
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Rickard Johannes Sandler was a Swedish Social Democratic politician. Sandler is the only Swedish Social Democratic Prime Minister who did not also hold the post of party chairman and he is also the second-youngest Prime Minister of Sweden, aged 41 when he took office. Rickard Sandler was born in Torsåker parish, Västernorrland County and his father Johan Sandler was a headmaster at a folk high school and later a Member of Parliament. After receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree from Uppsala University, Rickard Sandler became a teacher at a high school in Kramfors. After joining the Swedish Social Democratic Youth League, Sandlers political career took off. He received a Licentiate of Arts degree in 1911 at the age of 26, after which he became a member of the board of the Social Democratic Party, in 1917 he became editor-in-chief for Ny Tid, a social democratic newspaper in Gothenburg. In 1918, in the government of Prime Minister Nils Edén, Sandler became Secretary of State to the Minister of Finance and he continued in the same capacity when Hjalmar Branting became Prime Minister in 1920. In 1921 when Thorsson went on to start the new Ministry of Trade, Sandler took his place as the Minister of Finance, in Hjalmar Brantings second government, Sandler was a Minister without Portfolio, and in the third the Minister of Trade. He took the position after some persuasion, as he was intent to take up a job as the headmaster of the folk high school in Brunnsvik. As Prime Minister, Sandler had to deal with the issue of reducing the Swedish military and he was supported by the Freeminded Peoples Party in what became the largest disarmament in Sweden. The liberal and conservative parties, who held the majority seats in the Riksdag, disagreed with the government, called for a vote of no confidence, the 1928 elections saw Arvid Lindman of the conservative General Electoral League becoming the Prime Minister. Sandler returned to the government in 1932 as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sandler left the government over a disagreement with the Prime Minister about the Winter War. Sandler wanted Sweden to actively help Finland after the Soviet Union had attacked it on 30 November 1939, now a Member of Parliament, Sandler continued to be influential in Swedish foreign policy. In 1940 he became a member of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, and he was also a United Nations Delegate. Sandler was Governor of Gävleborg County, Sandler was one of the founders of The Workers Enlightenment League in 1912. He was the writer of the Marxist-oriented party programme of the Social Democratic Party in 1920. He published the widely circulated statistical outline of social classes The society as it is, between 1926 and 1932 he was director of Statistics Sweden. Sandler translated Das Kapital by Karl Marx into Swedish, and in 1943 he authored a book on literary, a major expansion of this article on June 23,2006 was translated from the Swedish Wikipedia article, sv, Rickard Sandler
25.
Carlos Saavedra Lamas
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Carlos Saavedra Lamas was an Argentine academic and politician, and in 1936, the first Latin American Nobel Peace Prize recipient. Born in Buenos Aires, Saavedra Lamas was a descendant of an early Argentine patriot and he married the daughter of president Roque Sáenz Peña. Saavedra Lamas was a student at Lacordaire College and at the University of Buenos Aires where he received the Doctor of Laws degree in 1903. Saavedra Lamas was a leading Argentine academician in two areas and his brief Vida internacional, which he wrote at the age of seventy, is an urbane by-product of all this study and experience. Saavedra Lamas began his career in 1906 as director of Public Credit. In 1908 he was elected to the first of two terms in Parliament. There he initiated legislation regarding water rights, irrigation, sugar production, government finances, colonization. His main interest, however, lay in foreign affairs, when General Agustín P. Justo became president of Argentina in 1932, he appointed Saavedra Lamas as foreign minister. In this post for six years, Saavedra Lamas brought international prestige to Argentina and his work in ending the Chaco War between Paraguay and Bolivia had not only local significance but generalized international importance as well. When he took over the office, he immediately engaged in a series of moves to lay the diplomatic groundwork for a negotiated settlement of this dispute. In 1932 he initiated at Washington the Declaration of August 3 which put the American states on record as refusing to any territorial change in the hemisphere brought about by force. In 1935 he organized mediation by six neutral American nations which resulted in the cessation of hostilities between Paraguay and Bolivia, meanwhile, in 1934, Saavedra Lamas presented the South American Antiwar Pact to the League of Nations where it was well received and signed by eleven countries. Acclaimed for all of efforts, he was elected president of the Assembly of the League of Nations in 1936. In addition to the Nobel Peace Prize, he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor of France and he died in 1959 at the age of eighty from the effects of a brain hemorrhage. In March 2014 his solid gold Nobel medal was put up for auction after being found in a South American pawn shop, in August 2014 a project for rebuying his Nobel medal by the Argentine Nation was presented at the Argentine congress
26.
Aga Khan III
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Sir Sultan Muhammed Shah, Aga Khan III GCSI GCMG GCIE GCVO PC was the 48th Imam of the Nizari Ismaili community. He was one of the founders and the first president of the All-India Muslim League and his goal was the advancement of Muslim agendas and protection of Muslim rights in India. The League, until the late 1930s, was not a mass organisation but represented the landed and he shared Sir Syed Ahmad Khans belief that Muslims should first build up their social capital through advanced education before engaging in politics. Aga Khan called on the British Raj to consider Muslims to be a nation within India. Even after he resigned as president of the AIML in 1912, he still exerted major influence on its policies and he was nominated to represent India to the League of Nations in 1932 and served as President of the League of Nations from 1937–38. He was born in Karachi, the capital of Sindh province in British India, to Aga Khan II and his wife, Nawab Alia Shamsul-Muluk. He also attended Eton and University of Cambridge, in 1885, at the age of eight, he succeeded his father as Imam of the Shia Ismaili Muslims. The distinction of a Knight Commander of the Indian Empire was conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897 and he was made a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India by George V. He was appointed a GCMG in 1923 and he received like recognition for his public services from the German Emperor, the Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of Persia and other potentates. During the three Round Table Conferences in London from 1930-32, he played an important role to bring about Indian constitutional reforms. In 1934, he was made a member of the Privy Council and served as a member of the League of Nations, becoming the President of the League of Nations in 1937. Under the leadership of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, numerous institutions for social and economic development were established in the Indian Subcontinent and in East Africa. Ismailis have marked the Jubilees of their Imāms with public celebrations, although the Jubilees have no religious significance, they serve to reaffirm the Imamats worldwide commitment to the improvement of the quality of human life, especially in the developing countries. The Jubilees of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, are well remembered, during his 72 years of Imamat, the community celebrated his Golden, Diamond and Platinum Jubilees. In India and later in Pakistan, social development institutions were established, in the words of Aga Khan III and they included institutions such as the Diamond Jubilee Trust and the Platinum Jubilee Investments Limited which in turn assisted the growth of various types of cooperative societies. Diamond Jubilee High School for Girls were established throughout the remote Northern Areas of what is now Pakistan, in addition, scholarship programs, established at the time of the Golden Jubilee to give assistance to needy students, were progressively expanded. In East Africa, major social welfare and economic development institutions were established and those involved in social welfare included the accelerated development of schools and community centres, and a modern, fully equipped hospital in Nairobi. Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah also introduced organizational forms that gave Ismāʿīlī communities the means to structure and these were built on the Muslim tradition of a communitarian ethic on the one hand, and responsible individual conscience with freedom to negotiate ones own moral commitment and destiny on the other
27.
C. J. Hambro
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Carl Joachim C. J. Hambro was a Norwegian journalist, author and leading politician representing the Conservative Party. A ten-term member of the Parliament of Norway, Hambro served as President of the Parliament for twenty of his years in the legislature. He was actively engaged in affairs, including work with the League of Nations, delegate to the UN General Assembly. Carl Joachim Hambros lineage can be traced back to Rendsburg in the 1720s, the family member Calmer Joachim Hambro relocated to Copenhagen in the late 18th century, and became a businessman. One of his sons, Joseph Hambro, moved on to London, another son Edvard Isaach Hambro moved to Bergen, Norway where he became a merchant in the early 19th century. Edvard Isaach Hambro fathered Carl Joachim Hambro, who in turn fathered the school manager Edvard Isak Hambro, C. J. Hambro was born in Bergen as a son of Edvard Isak Hambro and Nicoline Christine Harbitz. He had three sisters, among them the educator Elise Hambro and he was a distant descendant of Johan Randulf Bull, and thereby a first cousin of Edvard Bull, Sr. Johan Peter Bull and Francis Bull. From June 1910, C. J. Hambro was married to priests daughter Gudrun Dudu Grieg and they had the sons Edvard Hambro, Vilhelm Cato Grieg Hambro, Carl Joachim Hambro and Johan Randulf Bull Hambro, all born between 1911 and 1915. Through Edvard, he was also a grandfather of Christian Hambro, three years after his wife died, in February 1946, C. J. Hambro married actress Gyda Christensen whom he had befriended in 1918. Hambro attended the school and high school his father had founded in Bergen. He took the examen artium in 1902, and enrolled in studies at the Royal Frederick University. While studying, he took many excursions, working as translator, literary critic, part-time teacher and he was also a journalist in Morgenbladet, from 1903 to 1907. He was involved in the Norwegian Students Society, which he chaired in 1908,1909 and he chaired the Conservative Students Association in 1908,1910 and 1911, and was also vice chairman of Filologisk Forening in 1904. From 1910 to 1913 he was the secretary of the Norse Federation and he was also involved in association football, chairing the club Akademisk FK and being vice chairman of the fledgling Football Association of Norway. After graduating from the university, he was a teacher at Kristiania Commerce School, in 1913 he became chief editor of the conservative newspaper Morgenbladet, a post he held until 1919. He then focused on pursuing a career, having been elected in the autumn of 1918. He returned to the press as editor of the magazine Ukens Revy from 1921 to 1929, Ukens Revy had been distinctively pro-German and anti-British during the First World War. During the war, Hambro got entangled in British affairs, in January 1917, the United Kingdom had ceased its coal exports to Norway
