1.
Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)
–
The Communist Party of Ukraine, known as the Communist Party of Ukraine until 1952, was the Ukrainian branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Communist Party of Ukraine was created in July 1918 in Moscow, after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Bolshevik faction Social-Democracy of Ukraine was forced to dissolve as all Bolsheviks were forced out of Ukraine. On October 13,1952 the party officially was renamed as the Communist Party of Ukraine, on August 26,1991 the Communist Party was outlawed in Ukraine. Different sectors reconstituted themselves in different parties, the remaining members either changed political direction or created their own left-wing parties such as the Vitrenko bloc, Social-Democratic party, and others. Beside full members there also were candidate to the committee, the initial composition included Yan Hamarnik, Dmitriy Lebed, Mikhail Mayorov, Mykola Skrypnyk, Petro Slynko, Yakov Yakovlev. On September 9,1918 Mayorov and Slynko replaced Kertvelishvili and Farbman as full members, during World War II on October 2,1942 there was created the Illegal Central Committee of the Party consisting of 17 members. The committee was dissolved on June 29,1943, among the members of the committee were such personalities as Sydir Kovpak, Leonid Korniets, Oleksiy Fedorov, and others. The party had its own Politburo created on March 6,1919, on September 25,1952 the committee was renamed into the Bureau of the Central Committee of CPU, and in October the same year as the Bureau of the CC CPU. On October 10,1952 it became the Presidium of the CC CPU, on June 26,1966 again the bureau was finally left with its original name as the Politburo of the CC CPU. At first it consisted of five members and later one was added. The first Politburo included Andriy Bubnov, Emanuel Kviring, Volodymyr Mescheriakov, Heorhiy Pyatakov, Christian Rakovsky, from March 23 until April 15,1920 there was elected a Provisional Bureau which the next day was ratified by the Russian Communist Party. Along with Politburo the party like its Russian counterpart had its own Orgburo that was created the day as Politburo. The party was headed by its secretary, the position was highly influential and often was considered to be more important than the head of state. The following list is composed of the secretary of the Central Committee of the party who were the leaders of the Party, the position also was changing names between being called the First Secretary or the General Secretary, depending on a political atmosphere in the Soviet Union. The position was not officially of the head of state, but certainly was very influential, Mykola Oleksiiovych Skrypnyk There were 28 Congresses with the last one consisting out of two stages. There also were three consolidated conferences of the party from 1926 to 1932, at the second stage of the last Congress there were 273 members in the Central Committee. This took place in Moscow and decided to call for preparations for an uprising against the occupying Central Powers forces. There were only 15 members in the Central Committee and six candidates, promoted to members, Mikhail Mayorov and Pyotr Slinko This also took place in Moscow
Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)
–
1922 - 1934
Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)
–
1934 - 1938
Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)
–
1938 - 1941
Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)
–
1943 - 1991
2.
Vladimir Polonsky
–
Vladimir Ivanovich Polonsky, was the 5th First Secretary of Azerbaijan Communist Party and a revolutionary. Polonsky was born to a Jewish family in Tobolsk, Russia, since 1907, he was a member of Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. Starting from 1908, Polonsky has been a sailor and worked blue collar jobs in Saint Petersburg, in 1913, he became a member of union administration. He was jailed for his activities in 1914. In 1918-1920, he was a division commissar on western and southern fronts, in 1930-1933, Polonsky was the First Secretary of the Azerbaijan Communist Party and the Secretary of Transcaucasian Committee of CP of Soviet Union. He was arrested on June 22,1937, claims that he was tortured are not accompanied by evidence. He was sentenced to death by the Military Tribunal of USSR, Polonsky was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Vladimir Polonsky
–
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
3.
Ivanovo
–
Ivanovo is a city and the administrative center of Ivanovo Oblast, Russia, located 254 kilometers from Moscow and approximately 100 kilometers from Yaroslavl, Vladimir, and Kostroma. The Uvod River, a tributary of the Klyazma, flows north to south. There are also two rivers in Ivanovo, the Talka and the Kharinka, the city is first mentioned in 1561, when it was given to the Cherkassky princely family by Ivan IV, after the latters marriage to Maria Cherkasskaya. However, the relevant document has since been lost, the modern city was created by merging the old flax-processing village Ivanovo with the industrial Voznesensky Posad in 1871. Yakov Garelin—a patron of arts, historian, manufacturer, and public figure—is considered to be the founder of the city, under his government, the city began to develop, industrialise, and grow. Until 1932, the name of the city was Ivanovo-Voznesensk. Because of its manufacturing industry, Ivanovo earned the sobriquet of the Russian Manchester during the 19th century. By the early 20th century, Ivanovo was competing with Łódź for the title of the textile production center of Europe. As the workers living conditions were appalling, the strikes were frequent, one of these strikes led to the first Russian revolution. According to the Soviet historiography, the Ivanovo Soviet was one of the first soviets in history, in 1937 the city opened the Interdom - a school for children of foreign Communists, including high learning. In Ivanov the legendary air squadron Normandie-Niemen began operations, by agreement between the Soviet government and the Free French government-in-exile in late 1942, a group of French pilots was sent to the Soviet Union. Construction of a new airport began on the outskirts of the city. The pilots were provided with decent housing, and 14 Yak-1 fighter aircraft, during 1943, the French fought alongside the Soviet Air Forces. After the war, along with the textile industry in Ivanovo engineering. In the 1960s, the city became the center of the Upper-Economic Council, the 1980s saw the accelerated pace of housing construction. Since the beginning of the 21st century there has been declining production in Ivanovo, in the first decade of the century, a large number of enterprises were closed. The weaving factories BIM, BAT melange Plant and other companies in the textile industry ceased to exist. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the City of Ivanovo—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts
Ivanovo
–
Lenina Avenue
Ivanovo
–
Industrial and art museum
Ivanovo
–
Ship-house
Ivanovo
–
Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology
4.
Russian Empire
–
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
Russian Empire
–
Peter the Great officially renamed the Tsardom of Russia the Russian Empire in 1721, and himself its first emperor. He instituted the
sweeping reforms and oversaw the transformation of Russia into a major European power.
Russian Empire
–
Flag
Russian Empire
–
Empress
Catherine the Great, who reigned from 1762 to 1796, continued the empire's expansion and modernization. Considering herself an
enlightened absolutist, she played a key role in the
Russian Enlightenment.
Russian Empire
–
Catherine II Sestroretsk Rouble (1771) is made of solid copper measuring 77 millimetres (3 3 ⁄ 100 in) (diameter), 26 millimetres (1 1 ⁄ 50 in) (thickness), and weighs 1.022 kg (2.25 lb). It is the largest copper coin ever issued.
5.
Moscow
–
Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
Moscow
–
Left to right, top to bottom:
Moscow State University,
Spasskaya Clocktower,
Cathedral of Christ the Saviour;
Bolshoi Theatre,
Moscow International Business Center;
Red Square
Moscow
–
Tatar raid upon Moscow
Moscow
–
Map of Moscow, 1784
Moscow
–
Red Square, painting by
Fedor Alekseev, 1801
6.
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
–
The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
–
Flag (1954–1991)
7.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
8.
Russian language
–
Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
Russian language
–
Russian language street sign in
Russia.
Russian language
–
Russian minimarket in
Limassol, Cyprus; translation: "Teremok market. Russian goods. Phone number: 96 74 19 63"
Russian language
–
This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter
П.
Russian language
–
The
Ostromir Gospels of 1056 is the second oldest
East Slavic book known, one of many medieval
illuminated manuscripts preserved in the
Russian National Library.
9.
Holodomor
–
The Holodomor was a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine in 1932 and 1933 that killed an officially estimated 7 million to 10 million people. It was part of the wider Soviet famine of 1932–33, which affected the major grain-producing areas of the country, during the Holodomor millions of inhabitants of Ukraine, the majority of whom were ethnic Ukrainians, died of starvation in a peacetime catastrophe unprecedented in the history of Ukraine. Since 2006, the Holodomor has been recognized by Ukraine and 15 other countries as a genocide of the Ukrainian people carried out by the Soviet government. Early estimates of the toll by scholars and government officials varied greatly. Recent research has since narrowed the estimates to between 2.4 and 7.5 million, the exact number of deaths is hard to determine, due to a lack of records, but the number increases significantly when the deaths in heavily Ukrainian-populated Kuban are included. Older estimates are often cited in political commentary. Some scholars believe that the famine was planned by Joseph Stalin to eliminate a Ukrainian independence movement, the word Holodomor literally translated from Ukrainian means death by hunger, or to kill by hunger, to starve to death. Sometimes the expression is translated into English as murder by hunger or starvation, Holodomor is a compound of the Ukrainian words holod meaning hunger and mor meaning plague. The expression moryty holodom means to inflict death by hunger, the Ukrainian verb moryty means to poison somebody, drive to exhaustion or to torment somebody. The perfective form of the verb moryty is zamoryty – kill or drive to death by hunger, the word was used in print as early as 1978 by Ukrainian immigrant organisations in the United States and Canada. However, in the Soviet Union – of which Ukraine was a constituent republic – references to the famine were controlled, historians could speak only of food difficulties, and the use of the very word golod/holod was forbidden. Discussion of the Holodomor became more open as part of Glasnost in the late 1980s, the term may have first appeared in print in the Soviet Union on 18 July 1988, in his article on the topic. Holodomor is now an entry in the modern, two-volume dictionary of the Ukrainian language, the term is described as artificial hunger, organised on a vast scale by a criminal regime against a countrys population. The famine had been predicted as far back as 1930 by academics and advisers to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic government, between 1926 and 1939, the Ukrainian population increased by 6. 6%, whereas Russia and Belarus grew by 16. 9% and 11. 7%, respectively. From the 1932 harvest, Soviet authorities were able to procure only 4.3 million tons as compared with 7.2 million tons obtained from the 1931 harvest. Rations in town were cut back, and in the winter of 1932–33. The urban workers were supplied by a system, but rations were gradually cut, and by the spring of 1933. The first reports of malnutrition and deaths from starvation emerged from two urban areas of the city of Uman, reported in January 1933 by Vinnytsia and Kiev oblasts
Holodomor
–
Starved peasants on a street in
Kharkiv, 1933.
Holodomor
–
Soviet famine of 1932–33. Areas of most disastrous famine marked with black.
Holodomor
–
Passers-by and the corpse of a starved man on a street in
Kharkiv, 1932
Holodomor
–
Photograph by Alexander Wienerberger, 1933
10.
Vladimir Governorate
–
A governorate, or a guberniya, was a major and principal administrative subdivision of the Russian Empire and the early Russian SFSR. The term is translated as government, governorate, or province. A governorate was ruled by a governor, a word borrowed from Latin gubernator, sometimes the term guberniya was informally used to refer to the office of a governor. Selected governorates were united under a governor general such as Grand Duchy of Finland, Tsardom of Poland, Russian Turkestan. There also were military governors such as Kronshtadt, Vladivostok, aside of governorates, other types of divisions were oblasts and okrugs. This subdivision type was created by the edict of Peter the Great on December 18,1708 On the establishment of the gubernias and cities assigned to them, in 1719, guberniyas were further subdivided into provinces. Later the number of guberniyas was increased to 23, the term guberniya, however, still remained in use. These viceroyalties were governed by namestniki or governors general, correspondingly, the term governorate general was in use to refer to the actual territory being governed. The office of general had more administrative power and was in a higher position than the previous office of governor. Sometimes a governor general ruled several guberniyas, for the guberniya as subdivisions of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland, see Administrative division of Congress Poland and Governorates of the Grand Duchy of Finland. For the guberniya as subdivisions of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the Ukrainian SSR, after the February Revolution, the Russian Provisional Government renamed governors into guberniya commissars. The October Revolution left the subdivision in place, but the apparatus was replaced by guberniya soviets. Actual subdivisions of the Soviet Union into particular territorial units was subject to numerous changes, eventually, in 1929, the subdivision was replaced by the notions of oblast, okrug, and raion. In post-Soviet republics such as Russia and Ukraine, the term Guberniya is obsolete, there is another archaic meaning of the word as the word denoted a type of estate in former Lithuania of the Russian Empire till 1917. History of the division of Russia List of governorates of the Russian Empire Governorate-General GOELRO plan Ignatov. History of state administration of Russia
Vladimir Governorate
–
Division of Russia into eight guberniyas in 1708
11.
Bolshevik
–
The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party. In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues and they ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, with the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism, in the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules. Lenin wanted members who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means, Julius Martov suggested by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the partys organisations. Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a core of active members. A main source of the factions could be attributed to Lenin’s steadfast opinion. It was obvious at early stages in Lenin’s revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas and it was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split. He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed there were only two types of people, Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest. Leon Trotsky, one of Lenins fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre, Lenins view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation. The root of the split was a book titled What is to be Done. that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile, in Germany, the book was published in 1902, in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the points of Lenin’s writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person over the masses. After the proposed revolution had overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power. Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their lives to the cause in order for it to be successful. Lenins view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a supporter of Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin’s variations caused the party internal dissonance. Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, as discussed in What is to be Done. Lenin firmly believed that a political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution
Bolshevik
–
Bolshevik Party meeting. Sitting (from left):
Avel Enukidze,
Mikhail Kalinin,
Nikolai Bukharin,
Mikhail Tomsky,
Mikhail Lashevich,
Lev Kamenev,
Yevgeni Preobrazhensky,
Leonid Serebryakov,
Vladimir Lenin and
Alexei Rykov.
Bolshevik
–
Boris Kustodiev ’s 1920 painting " Bolshevik "
Bolshevik
–
Left to right:
Leon Trotsky,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Lev Kamenev
Bolshevik
–
"Down with Bolshevism. Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death", anti-Bolshevik propaganda, Germany, 1919.
12.
Siberia
–
Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the borders of Mongolia. With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres, Siberia accounts for 77% of Russias land area and this is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth. If it were a country by itself, it would still be the largest country in area, the origin of the name is unknown. Some sources say that Siberia originates from the Siberian Tatar word for sleeping land, another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya, a folk, which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages. This ethnic group was assimilated to the Siberian Tatar people. The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empires conquest of the Siberian Khanate, a further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people. The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the word for north. He said that the neighbouring Chinese, Arabs and Mongolians would not have known Russian and he suggests that the name is a combination of two words, su and bir. The region is of significance, as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch. Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs, Yuka and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon, a rhinoceros from the Kolyma River. The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earths geological history. They continued for a million years and are considered a cause of the Great Dying about 250 million years ago. At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago, H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, the last was determined in 2010, by DNA evidence, to be a new species. Siberia was inhabited by different groups of such as the Enets, the Nenets, the Huns, the Scythians. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630, the Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century. With the breakup of the Golden Horde, the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century, turkic-speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century
Siberia
–
Painting of
Chukchi by
Louis Choris, 1816
Siberia
–
Siberian Federal District Geographic Russian Siberia Siberia in its widest definition and historical use
Siberia
–
The tower of a 17th-century
ostrog fort in
Yakutsk
Siberia
–
Siberian
Cossack family in
Novosibirsk
13.
Far Eastern Republic
–
The Far Eastern Republic, sometimes called the Chita Republic, was a nominally independent state that existed from April 1920 to November 1922 in the easternmost part of the Russian Far East. Its first president was Alexander Krasnoshchyokov, the Far Eastern Republic occupied the territory of modern Zabaykalsky Krai, Amur Oblast, Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Khabarovsk Krai, and Primorsky Krai of Russia. Its capital was established at Verkhneudinsk, but in October 1920 it was moved to Chita, after the fall of Vladivostok on 25 October 1922, the civil war was declared over. Three weeks later, on 15 November 1922, the Far Eastern Republic was merged with the RSFSR, the Far Eastern Republic was established in the aftermath of the Russian Civil War. When the Japanese evacuated the Trans-Baikal and Amur oblasts in the spring of 1920, a new central authority was established at Chita to govern the Far Eastern Republic remaining in the Japanese wake. The Far Eastern Republic was established comprising only the area around Verkhne-Udinsk, but during the summer of 1920, the Soviet government of the Amur territory agreed to join. On 1 April 1920, American forces headed by General William S. Graves departed Siberia, on 6 April 1920, a hastily convened Constituent Assembly gathered at Verkhneudinsk and proclaimed the establishment of the Far Eastern Republic. The Far Eastern Republic, controlled by moderate socialists, was only recognized by the various cities of the region towards the end of 1920. Violence, atrocities, and reprisals continued to erupt periodically for the next 18 months, Japan agreed to recognize the new buffer state in a truce with the Red Army signed 15 July 1920, effectively abandoning Ataman Grigory Semenov and his Russia Eastern Outskirts. By October Semenov had been expelled from his base of operations in Chita, with Semenov out of the picture, the capital of the Far Eastern Republic moved to that city. On 11 November 1920 a provisional national assembly for the Far East met in Vladivostok, the gathering recognized the government at Chita and set 9 January 1921 as the date for new elections for the Constituent Assembly of the Far Eastern Republic. A new constitution closely resembling the United States Constitution was written, however, right-wing forces rejected the idea of a fledgling democratic republic. On 26 May 1921 a White coup took place in Vladivostok, a cordon sanitaire of Japanese troops protected the insurgents, who sought to establish a new régime known as the Provisional Government of the Priamur. Shortly after the coup, Ataman Semenov arrived in Vladivostok and attempted to proclaim himself commander-in-chief—an effort which failed when his Japanese benefactors forsook him, the new Provisional Government of Priamur attempted—with little success—to rally the various anti-Bolshevik forces to its banner. A July Zemsky sobor deposed the Merkulov brothers and named an officer of the Czech Legion. With the Japanese exiting the country throughout the summer of 1922, as the Red Army, thinly disguised as the army of the Far Eastern Republic, approached, thousands of Russians fled abroad to escape the new régime. The army of the Far Eastern Republic retook Vladivostok on 25 October 1922, with the Civil War finally over, Soviet Russia absorbed the Far Eastern Republic on 15 November 1922. The government of the Far Eastern Republic dissolved itself and transferred all its authority, the Far Eastern Republic consisted of four provinces of the former Russian empire—Trans-Baikal, Amur, the Maritime Province, and the northern half of Sakhalin island
Far Eastern Republic
–
Members of the FER Government
Far Eastern Republic
–
Flag
Far Eastern Republic
–
Territory of the Far Eastern Republic in 1922.
14.
Kiev Governorate
–
Kiev Governorate was an administrative division of the Russian Empire and Ukraine in 1796 until the Soviet administrative reform of the 1920s. It was considered to be a Little Russian governorate due to majority of speaking in Little Russian dialect. The Kiev Governorate on the bank of Dnieper was officially established by Emperor Paul Is edict of November 30,1796. However it was not until 1800 when there was appointed the first governor, three existing Left-bank Ukraine viceroyalties were merged into one Little Russia Governorate centered on Chernigov, while the Kiev Governorate was now comprised on Right-bank Ukraine. The edict took effect on August 29,1797, bringing the number of uyezds to twelve. On January 22,1832, the Kiev Governorate, along with the Volhynia, at the time, Vasily Levashov was appointed the Military Governor of Kiev as well as the General Governor of Podolia and Volhynia. In 1845, the population of the Governorate was 1,704,661, by the 1897 Russian Census, there were 3,559,229 people in the guberniya making it the most populous one in the whole Russian Empire. There were 459,253 people living in cities, including about 248,000 in Kiev, by faith,2,983,736 census respondents were Orthodox Christians,433,728 were Jews and 106,733 were of the Roman Catholic Church. Kiev Governorate remained a constituent unit of the larger Governorate General with Kiev being the capital of both well into the 20th century, in 1915, the General Governorate was disbanded while the guberniya continued to exist. After the last Imperial governor, Alexey Ignatyev until March 6,1917, in the course of the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929 the Kiev Guberniya was transformed into six okruhas in 1923, and, since 1932, Kiev Oblast at the territory
Kiev Governorate
–
Kiev Governorate in 1812
Kiev Governorate
–
Ukrainian okruhas in 1927
Kiev Governorate
–
Kiev Governorate as of 1896.
Kiev Governorate
–
Kiev Governorate as of c. 1900
15.
Guberniya
–
A governorate, or a guberniya, was a major and principal administrative subdivision of the Russian Empire and the early Russian SFSR. The term is translated as government, governorate, or province. A governorate was ruled by a governor, a word borrowed from Latin gubernator, sometimes the term guberniya was informally used to refer to the office of a governor. Selected governorates were united under a governor general such as Grand Duchy of Finland, Tsardom of Poland, Russian Turkestan. There also were military governors such as Kronshtadt, Vladivostok, aside of governorates, other types of divisions were oblasts and okrugs. This subdivision type was created by the edict of Peter the Great on December 18,1708 On the establishment of the gubernias and cities assigned to them, in 1719, guberniyas were further subdivided into provinces. Later the number of guberniyas was increased to 23, the term guberniya, however, still remained in use. These viceroyalties were governed by namestniki or governors general, correspondingly, the term governorate general was in use to refer to the actual territory being governed. The office of general had more administrative power and was in a higher position than the previous office of governor. Sometimes a governor general ruled several guberniyas, for the guberniya as subdivisions of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland, see Administrative division of Congress Poland and Governorates of the Grand Duchy of Finland. For the guberniya as subdivisions of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the Ukrainian SSR, after the February Revolution, the Russian Provisional Government renamed governors into guberniya commissars. The October Revolution left the subdivision in place, but the apparatus was replaced by guberniya soviets. Actual subdivisions of the Soviet Union into particular territorial units was subject to numerous changes, eventually, in 1929, the subdivision was replaced by the notions of oblast, okrug, and raion. In post-Soviet republics such as Russia and Ukraine, the term Guberniya is obsolete, there is another archaic meaning of the word as the word denoted a type of estate in former Lithuania of the Russian Empire till 1917. History of the division of Russia List of governorates of the Russian Empire Governorate-General GOELRO plan Ignatov. History of state administration of Russia
Guberniya
–
Division of Russia into eight guberniyas in 1708
16.
Ukrainian SSR
–
The Ukrainian SSR was a founding member of the United Nations, although it was legally represented by the All-Union state in its affairs with countries outside of the Soviet Union. From the start, the city of Kharkiv served as the republics capital. However, in 1934, the seat of government was moved to the city of Kyiv. Geographically, the Ukrainian SSR was situated in Eastern Europe to the north of the Black Sea, bordered by the Soviet republics of Moldavia, Byelorussia, the Ukrainian SSRs border with Czechoslovakia formed the Soviet Unions western-most border point. According to the Soviet Census of 1989 the republic had a population of 51,706,746 inhabitants, the name Ukraine, derived from the Slavic word kraj, meaning land or border. It was first used to part of the territory of Kievan Rus in the 12th century. The name has been used in a variety of ways since the twelfth century, after the abdication of the tsar and the start of the process of the destruction of the Russian Empire many people in Ukraine wished to establish a Ukrainian Republic. During a period of war from 1917-23 many factions claiming themselves governments of the newly born republic were formed, each with supporters. The two most prominent of them were the government in Kyiv and the government in Kharkiv, the former being the Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the latter the Ukrainian Soviet Republic. This government of the Soviet Ukrainian Republic was founded on 24–25 December 1917, in its publications it names itself either the Republic of Soviets of Workers, Soldiers, and Peasants Deputies or the Ukrainian Peoples Republic of Soviets. The last session of the government took place in the city of Taganrog, in July 1918 the former members of the government formed the Communist Party of Ukraine, the constituent assembly of which took place in Moscow. On 10 March 1919, according to the 3rd Congress of Soviets in Ukraine the name of the state was changed to the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. After the ratification of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, the names of all Soviet republics were changed, transposing the second, during its existence, the Ukrainian SSR was commonly referred to as Ukraine or the Ukraine. On 24 August 1991, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic declared independence, since the adoption of the Constitution of Ukraine in June 1996, the country became known simply as Ukraine, which is the name used to this day. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, several factions sought to create an independent Ukrainian state, the most popular faction was initially the local Socialist Revolutionary Party that composed the local government together with Federalists and Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks boycotted any government initiatives most of the time, instigating several armed riots in order to establish the Soviet power without any intent for consensus, immediately after the October Revolution in Petrograd, Bolsheviks instigated the Kiev Bolshevik Uprising to support the Revolution and secure Kyiv. Due to a lack of support from the local population and anti-revolutionary Central Rada, however. Most moved to Kharkiv and received the support of the eastern Ukrainian cities, later, this move was regarded as a mistake by some of the Peoples Commissars
Ukrainian SSR
–
Territories claimed by the
Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920).
Ukrainian SSR
–
Flag
Ukrainian SSR
–
Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the
Dnieper during the
Battle of the Dnieper (1943). The sign reads "To Kiev!".
Ukrainian SSR
–
"Eternally Together": a Soviet poster made for the 300th anniversary of the
Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1954.
17.
Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine
–
The Communist Party of Ukraine, known as the Communist Party of Ukraine until 1952, was the Ukrainian branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Communist Party of Ukraine was created in July 1918 in Moscow, after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Bolshevik faction Social-Democracy of Ukraine was forced to dissolve as all Bolsheviks were forced out of Ukraine. On October 13,1952 the party officially was renamed as the Communist Party of Ukraine, on August 26,1991 the Communist Party was outlawed in Ukraine. Different sectors reconstituted themselves in different parties, the remaining members either changed political direction or created their own left-wing parties such as the Vitrenko bloc, Social-Democratic party, and others. Beside full members there also were candidate to the committee, the initial composition included Yan Hamarnik, Dmitriy Lebed, Mikhail Mayorov, Mykola Skrypnyk, Petro Slynko, Yakov Yakovlev. On September 9,1918 Mayorov and Slynko replaced Kertvelishvili and Farbman as full members, during World War II on October 2,1942 there was created the Illegal Central Committee of the Party consisting of 17 members. The committee was dissolved on June 29,1943, among the members of the committee were such personalities as Sydir Kovpak, Leonid Korniets, Oleksiy Fedorov, and others. The party had its own Politburo created on March 6,1919, on September 25,1952 the committee was renamed into the Bureau of the Central Committee of CPU, and in October the same year as the Bureau of the CC CPU. On October 10,1952 it became the Presidium of the CC CPU, on June 26,1966 again the bureau was finally left with its original name as the Politburo of the CC CPU. At first it consisted of five members and later one was added. The first Politburo included Andriy Bubnov, Emanuel Kviring, Volodymyr Mescheriakov, Heorhiy Pyatakov, Christian Rakovsky, from March 23 until April 15,1920 there was elected a Provisional Bureau which the next day was ratified by the Russian Communist Party. Along with Politburo the party like its Russian counterpart had its own Orgburo that was created the day as Politburo. The party was headed by its secretary, the position was highly influential and often was considered to be more important than the head of state. The following list is composed of the secretary of the Central Committee of the party who were the leaders of the Party, the position also was changing names between being called the First Secretary or the General Secretary, depending on a political atmosphere in the Soviet Union. The position was not officially of the head of state, but certainly was very influential, Mykola Oleksiiovych Skrypnyk There were 28 Congresses with the last one consisting out of two stages. There also were three consolidated conferences of the party from 1926 to 1932, at the second stage of the last Congress there were 273 members in the Central Committee. This took place in Moscow and decided to call for preparations for an uprising against the occupying Central Powers forces. There were only 15 members in the Central Committee and six candidates, promoted to members, Mikhail Mayorov and Pyotr Slinko This also took place in Moscow
Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine
–
1922 - 1934
Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine
–
1934 - 1938
Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine
–
1938 - 1941
18.
Kharkiv Oblast
–
Kharkiv Oblast is an oblast in eastern Ukraine. The area of the oblast is 31,400 km², corresponding to 5. 2% of the territory of Ukraine. The oblast is the third most populous province of Ukraine, with a population of 2,857,751 in 2004, more than half of live in the city of Kharkiv. While the Russian language is spoken in the cities of Kharkiv oblast. During the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929, in 1925, the Kharkov Governorate was abolished leaving its five okruhas, Okhtyrka, Izyum, Kupyansk, Sumy, introduced in the Soviet Union in 1923, a similar subdivisions existed in Ukraine back in 1918. In 1930 all okruhas were abolished with raions becoming the first level of subdivision of Ukraine until 1932. The modern Kharkiv oblast is a recent creation, having been established on 27 February 1932. In summer of 1932 some parts of the oblast were included in the newly created Donetsk Oblast originally centered in Artemivsk, in fall of the same year some territories of the Kharkiv Oblast were used in creation of Chernihiv Oblast. More territories became part of Poltava Oblast in fall of 1937, during the Holodomor the population of the Kharkiv Oblast together with Kiev Oblast suffered the most. The region saw major fighting during World War II in several Battles of Kharkov between 1941 and 1943, during the 1991 referendum,86. 33% of votes in Kharkiv Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. A poll by Alexei Navalny also found support for becoming part of Russia. The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine, derzhprom Building Pokrov monastery Skovoroda museum Its population in 2001 was 2,895,800 million. It also has an important agricultural sector with 19,000 square kilometres of arable land, agricultural production grew substantially in 2015. Also in Kharkiv is the Airplane plant for space controlling systems and it is a major center for all branches of engineering, from large-scale manufacture to microelectronics. Also situated in Kharkiv Oblast is a gas field, which is one of the biggest in Ukraine, most of Ukraines oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially called oblast centers. The name of each oblast is an adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective center city. It has a federation within Ukrainian Bandy and Rink bandy Federation. Kharkiv Oblast Facts & Figures Kharkiv Oblast statistics Maps of Kharkiv oblast Cities, Towns and Villages About Kharkiv Oblast Post codes directory of Kharkiv Oblast
Kharkiv Oblast
19.
Trotskyists
–
Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Leon Trotsky. Trotskyists are critical of Stalinism, as they oppose Stalins theory of Socialism in One Country in favor of Trotskys theory of Permanent Revolution, Trotskyists also criticize the bureaucracy that developed in the Soviet Union under Stalin. Vladimir Lenin and Trotsky were close both ideologically and personally during the Russian Revolution and its aftermath, and some call Trotsky its co-leader, Trotsky was the paramount leader of the Soviet Red Army in the direct aftermath of the Revolutionary period. Trotsky originally opposed some aspects of Leninism, later, he concluded that unity between the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks was impossible, and joined the Bolsheviks. Trotsky played a role with Lenin in the revolution. Assessing Trotsky, Lenin wrote, Trotsky long ago said that unification is impossible, Trotsky understood this and from that time on there has been no better Bolshevik. Trotsky was exiled from the USSR to Alma Ata in Kazakhstan on 31 January 1928 under Stalins orders, almost all of the Partys Trotskyists were executed in the Great Purges of 1937–1938 effectively removing all of Trotskys internal influence on the USSR. In contemporary English language usage, an advocate of Trotskys ideas is called a Trotskyist. In the 1920s they called themselves the Left Opposition, although todays left communism is distinct, the terminological disagreement can be confusing because different versions of a left-right political spectrum are used. Anti-revisionists consider themselves the ultimate leftists on a spectrum from communism on the left to imperialist capitalism on the right, but given that Stalinism is often labeled rightist within the communist spectrum and left communism leftist, Anti-revisionists idea of left is very different from that of left communism. Trotsky was extremely critical of the Stalinist USSR for suppressing democracy, in 1905, Trotsky formulated a theory that became known as the theory of Permanent Revolution. It is one of the characteristics of Trotskyism. Until 1905, Marxism only claimed that a revolution in a European capitalist society would lead to a socialist one, according to the original theory it was impossible for such to occur in more backward countries such as early 20th century Russia. Russia in 1905 was widely considered to have not yet established a capitalist society, the theory of Permanent Revolution addressed the question of how such feudal regimes were to be overthrown, and how socialism could be established given the lack of economic prerequisites. Trotsky argued that in Russia only the class could overthrow feudalism. Furthermore, he argued that the Russian working class would not stop there and they would win its own revolution against the weak capitalist class, establish a workers state in Russia, and appeal to the working class in the advanced capitalist countries around the world. As a result, the working class would come to Russias aid. Revolutions in Britain in the 17th century and in France in 1789 abolished feudalism, Trotsky argued that these revolutions would not be repeated in Russia
Trotskyists
–
The leaders of the Trotskyist
Left Opposition in Moscow, 1927. Sitting:
Leonid Serebryakov,
Karl Radek,
Leon Trotsky, Mikhail Boguslavsky, and
Yevgeni Preobrazhensky. Standing:
Christian Rakovsky, Yakov Drobnis, Alexander Beloborodov, and Lev Sosnovsky.
Trotskyists
–
Trotsky (raising hand) with troops at the Polish front, during the
Polish-Soviet War, 1919.
Trotskyists
–
Leon Trotsky in exile in Siberia 1900
20.
Industrialization
–
As industrial workers incomes rise, markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth. Later commentators have called this the First Industrial Revolution, the invention of the assembly line gave this phase a boost. Coal mines, steelworks, and textile factories replaced homes as the place of work, by the end of the 20th century, East Asia had become one of the most recently industrialised regions of the world. The BRICS states are undergoing the process of industrialisation, there is considerable literature on the factors facilitating industrial modernisation and enterprise development. The concentration of labour into factories has increased urbanisation and the size of settlements, to serve, workers have to either leave their families or bring them along in order to work in the towns and cities where these industries are found. The family structure changes with industrialisation, the sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that in pre-industrial societies there is an extended family structure spanning many generations who probably remained in the same location for generations. In industrialised societies the nuclear family, consisting of parents and their growing children. Families and children reaching adulthood are more mobile and tend to relocate to where jobs exist, extended family bonds become more tenuous. Currently the international development community endorses development policies like water purification or primary education and Co-Operation amongst third world communities, the relationships among economic growth, employment, and poverty reduction are complex. Higher productivity is argued to be leading to lower employment, division of labour Newly industrialised country Idea of Progress Chandler Jr. Alfred D. The Visible Hand, The Management Revolution in American Business, belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Hewitt, T. Johnson, H. and Wield, D. industrialisation and Development, Oxford University Press, hobsbawm, Eric, The Age of Revolution. Kemp, Tom Historical Patterns of Industrialisation, Longman, London, ISBN 0-582-09547-6 Kiely, R industrialisation and Development, A comparative analysis, UCL Press, London. The Unbound Prometheus, Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present, Cambridge, New York, Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Pomeranz, Ken The Great Divergence, China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy by Tilly, industrialization as an Historical Process, European History Online, Mainz, Institute of European History,2010, retrieved,29 February 2011
Industrialization
–
The effect of Industrialisation shown by rising income levels since 1500. The graph shows the
gross domestic product (at
purchasing power parity)
per capita between 1500 and 1950 in
1990 International dollars for selected nations.
21.
Collectivization
–
Collective farming and communal farming are various types of agricultural production in which multiple farmers run their holdings as a joint enterprise. This type of collective is often an agricultural cooperative in which member-owners engage jointly in farming activities, the process by which farmland is aggregated is called collectivization. In some countries, there have been state-run and cooperative-run variants, for example, the Soviet Union had both kolkhozy and sovkhozy, often denoted in English as collective farms and state farms, respectively. In general, collective farming is contrasted with family farming and with arrangements in which land was owned by landlords or aristocrats. Notable examples of collective farming include the kolkhozy that dominated Soviet agriculture between 1930 and 1991 and the Israeli kibbutzim, both are collective farms based on common ownership of resources and on pooling of labour and income in accordance with the theoretical principles of cooperative organizations. They differ radically, however, in the application of the cooperative principles relative to freedom of choice, a small group of farming or herding families living together on a jointly-managed piece of land is surely one of the most common living arrangements in all of human history. This has co-existed with, and competed with, more forms of ownership. Private ownership came to predominate in much of the Western world, the process by which Western Europes communal land became private is a fundamental question behind views of property, is it the legacy of historical injustices and crimes. Karl Marx believed that what he called primitive communism was ended by exploitative means he called primitive accumulation, by contrast Libertarian thinkers say that by the homestead principle, whoever is first to work on the land is the rightful owner. A calpulli consisted of a number of extended families with a presumed common ancestor. Each calpulli owned the land and granted the individual families the right to farm parts of it, the Huron had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described the fundamentals, the Huron had as much land as they need. As a result, the Huron could give families their own land, any Huron was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct. He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate, once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. The Iroquois had a communal system of land distribution. The tribe owned all lands but gave out tracts to the different clans for further distribution among households for cultivation, the land would be redistributed among the households every few years, and a clan could request a redistribution of tracts when the Clan Mothers Council gathered. Those clans that abused their allocated land or otherwise did not take care of it would be warned, land property was really only the concern of the women, since it was the womens job to cultivate food and not the mens. The Clan Mothers Council also reserved certain areas of land to be worked by the women of all the different clans, food from such lands, called kěndiǔgwǎge hodiyěntho, would be used at festivals and large council gatherings
Collectivization
–
Latter-day Iroquois longhouse housing several hundred people.
22.
Lazar Kaganovich
–
Lazar Moiseyevich Kaganovich was a Soviet politician and administrator and one of the main associates of Joseph Stalin. At his death in 1991, he was the last surviving Old Bolshevik, the Soviet Union itself outlived him by a mere five months. Kaganovich was born in 1893 to Jewish parents in the village of Kabany, Radomyshl uyezd, Kiev Governorate, early in his political career, in 1915, Kaganovich became a Communist organizer at a shoe-factory where he worked. Circa 1911 he entered the Bolshevik party, in 1915 Kaganovich was arrested and sent back to Kabany. During March–April 1917 he served as the Chairman of the Tanners Union, in May 1917 he became the leader of the military organization of Bolsheviks in Saratov, and in August 1917, he became the leader of the Polessky Committee of the Bolshevik party in Belarus. During the October Revolution of 1917 he led the revolt in Gomel, in 1918 Kaganovich acted as Commissar of the propaganda department of the Red Army. From May 1918 to August 1919 he was the Chairman of the Ispolkom of the Nizhny Novgorod gubernia, in 1919–1920, he served as governor of the Voronezh gubernia. In May 1922, Stalin became the General Secretary of the Communist Party and this department was responsible for all assignments within the apparatus of the Communist Party. Working there, Kaganovich helped to place Stalins supporters in important jobs within the Communist Party bureaucracy, in this position he became noted for his great work capacity and for his personal loyalty to Stalin. He stated publicly that he would execute any order from Stalin. In 1924 Kaganovich became a member of the Central Committee, from 1925 to 1928, Kaganovich was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Ukrainian SSR. He was given the task of ukrainizatsiya - meaning at that time the building up of Ukrainian communist popular cadres and he also had the duty of implementing collectivization and the policy of economic suppression of the kulaks. He opposed the more moderate policy of Nikolai Bukharin, who argued in favor of the integration of kulaks into socialism. As Secretary, he endorsed Stalins struggle against the so-called Left and Right Oppositions within the Communist Party, in 1934, at the XVII Congress of the Communist Party, Kaganovich chaired the Counting Committee. He falsified voting for positions in the Central Committee, deleting 290 votes opposing the Stalin candidacy and his actions resulted in Stalins being re-elected as the General Secretary instead of Sergey Kirov. By the rules, the candidate receiving fewer opposing votes should become the General Secretary, before Kaganovichs falsification, Stalin received 292 opposing votes and Kirov only three. However, the result saw Stalin with just two opposing votes. In 1930 Kaganovich became a member of the Soviet Politburo and the First Secretary of the Moscow Obkom of the Communist Party and he later headed the Moscow Gorkom of the Communist Party
Lazar Kaganovich
–
Kaganovich on the tribune
Lazar Kaganovich
–
From left to right: Kaganovich,
Stalin,
Postyshev,
Voroshilov
Lazar Kaganovich
–
May Day Parade 1957. Left to right:
Georgy Zhukov,
Nikita Khrushchev,
Nikolai Bulganin, Kaganovich,
Georgy Malenkov,
Vyacheslav Molotov and
Anastas Mikoyan
Lazar Kaganovich
–
Kaganovich and his wife M. Privorotskaya during WW1
23.
Joseph Stalin
–
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin was one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and he managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin by suppressing Lenins criticisms and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained General Secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, the economic changes coincided with the imprisonment of millions of people in Gulag labour camps. The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–33, major figures in the Communist Party and government, and many Red Army high commanders, were arrested and shot after being convicted of treason in show trials. Stalins invasion of Bukovina in 1940 violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with the Axis, Germany ended the pact when Hitler launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Despite heavy human and territorial losses, Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after the decisive Battles of Moscow, after defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red Army captured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the war in Europe for the Allies. The Soviet Union subsequently emerged as one of two recognized world superpowers, the other being the United States, Communist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were established in most countries freed from German occupation by the Red Army, which later constituted the Eastern Bloc. Stalin also had relations with Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea. On February 9,1946, Stalin delivered a public speech in which he explained the fundamental incompatibility of communism and capitalism. He stressed that the system needed war for raw materials. The Second World War was but the latest in a chain of conflicts which could be broken only when the economy made the transformation into communism. Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War, Stalin remains a controversial figure today, with many regarding him as a tyrant. However, popular opinion within the Russian Federation is mixed, the exact number of deaths caused by Stalins regime is still a subject of debate, but it is widely agreed to be in the order of millions. Joseph Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, the Russian-language version of his birth name is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili. Ioseb was born on 18 December 1878 in the town of Gori, Georgia and his father was Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, while his mother was Ekaterine Keke Geladze, a housemaid. As a child, Ioseb was plagued with health issues
Joseph Stalin
–
Stalin at the
Tehran Conference in 1943.
Joseph Stalin
–
Prior to the revolution of 1917, Stalin played an active role in fighting the Russian government. Here he is shown on a 1911 information card from the files of the Russian police in Saint Petersburg.
Joseph Stalin
–
A group of participants in the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party, 1919. In the middle are Stalin,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Mikhail Kalinin.
24.
Kliment Voroshilov
–
Kliment Yefremovich Voroshilov, popularly known as Klim Voroshilov, was a prominent Soviet military officer and politician during the Stalin era. Voroshilov was born in the settlement of Verkhnye, Bakhmut district, Yekaterinoslav Governorate, in the Russian Empire, however, according to the Soviet Major General Pyotr Grigorenko, Voroshilov himself alluded to his Ukrainian heritage and to the previous family name of Voroshilo. Voroshilov joined the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1905, following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Voroshilov became a member of the Ukrainian Council of Peoples Commissars and Commissar for Internal Affairs along with Vasiliy Averin. He was well known for aiding Joseph Stalin in the Military Council, Voroshilov was active as a commander of the Southern Front during the Russian Civil War and the Polish–Soviet War while with the 1st Cavalry Army. As Political Commissar serving co-equally with Stalin, Voroshilov was responsible for the morale of the 1st Cavalry Army, Voroshilovs efforts as Commissar did not prevent a resounding Polish victory at the Battle of Komarów or regular outbreaks of murderous anti-Semitic violence within the Cavalry armys ranks. Voroshilov headed the Petrograd Police during 1917 and 1918, Voroshilov served as a member of the Central Committee from his election in 1921 until 1961. Frunzes political position adhered to that of the Troika, but Stalin preferred to have a close, Frunze was urged by a group of Stalins hand-picked doctors to have surgery to treat an old stomach ulcer, despite previous doctors recommendations to avoid surgery and Frunzes own unwillingness. He died on the table of a massive overdose of chloroform. Voroshilov became a member of the newly formed Politburo in 1926. Voroshilov was appointed Peoples Commissar for Defence in 1934 and a Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1935 and he played a central role in Stalins Great Purge of the 1930s, denouncing many of his own military colleagues and subordinates when asked to do so by Stalin. Voroshilov personally signed 185 documented execution lists, fourth among the Soviet leadership after Molotov, Stalin, during World War II, Voroshilov was a member of the State Defense Committee. Voroshilov followed this retort by smashing a platter of roast suckling pig on the table, nikita Khrushchev said it was the only time he ever witnessed such an outburst. Voroshilov was nonetheless made the scapegoat for the failures in Finland. He was later replaced as Defense Commissar by Semyon Timoshenko, Voroshilov was then made Deputy Premier responsible for cultural matters. Voroshilov initially argued that thousands of Polish army officers captured in September 1939 should be released, after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Voroshilov became commander of the short-lived Northwestern Direction, controlling several fronts. In September 1941 he commanded the Leningrad Front, Stalin had a political need for popular wartime leaders, however, and Voroshilov remained as an important figurehead. In 1945–1947 Voroshilov supervised the establishment of the communist regime in postwar Hungary, in 1952, Voroshilov was appointed a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee. Stalins death on 5 March 1953 prompted major changes in the Soviet leadership, Voroshilov, Malenkov, and Khrushchev brought about the 26 June 1953 arrest of Lavrenty Beria after Stalins death
Kliment Voroshilov
–
Voroshilov in his cabinet. Portrait by
Isaak Brodsky.
Kliment Voroshilov
–
From left to right Kaganovich, Stalin,
Postyshev, Voroshilov.
Kliment Voroshilov
–
With the
Turkish leader
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk at the celebration ceremony for the tenth anniversary of the Turkish Republic in 1933
Kliment Voroshilov
–
President Voroshilov with
J.K. Paasikivi in
Helsinki
25.
Kharkiv
–
Kharkiv or Kharkov is the second-largest city in Ukraine. In the northeast of the country, it is the largest city of the Slobozhanshchyna historical region, the city has a population of about 1.5 million people. Kharkiv is the centre of Kharkiv Oblast and of the surrounding Kharkiv district. The city was founded in 1654 and after a humble beginning as a small fortress grew to be a centre of Ukrainian industry, trade. Kharkiv was the first capital of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, from December 1919 to January 1934 and its industry specializes primarily in machinery and in electronics. There are hundreds of companies in the city, including the Morozov Design Bureau and the Malyshev Tank Factory, Khartron, the Turboatom. Some sources indicate that the city may have named after the Hunnic name for swan. Other sources offer that the city was named after its near-legendary founder, archeological evidence discovered in the area of present-day Kharkiv indicates that a population has existed in that area since the second millennium BC. Cultural artifacts date back to the Bronze Age, as well as those of later Scythian and Sarmatian settlers, there is also evidence that the Chernyakhov culture flourished in the area from the second to the sixth centuries. The city was founded by re-settlers who were running away from the war that engulfed Right-bank Ukraine in 1654, the years before the region was a sparsely populated part of the Cossack Hetmanate. The group of people came onto the banks of Lopan and Kharkiv rivers where a settlement stood. According to archive documents, the leader of the re-settlers was otaman Ivan Kryvoshlyk, at first the settlement was self-governed under the jurisdiction of a voivode from Chuhuiv that is 40 kilometres to the east. The first appointed voivode from Moscow was Voyin Selifontov in 1656 who started to build a local ostrog, at that time the population of Kharkiv was just over 1000, half of whom were local cossacks, while Selifontov brought along a Moscow garrison of another 70 servicemen. The first Kharkiv voivode was replaced in two years after constantly complaining that locals refused to cooperate in building the fort, Kharkiv also became the centre of the local Sloboda cossack regiment as the area surrounding the Belgorod fortress was being heavily militarized. By 1657 the Kharkiv settlement had a fortress with underground passageways, in 1658 Ivan Ofrosimov was appointed as the new voivode, who worked on forcing locals to kiss the cross to show loyalty to the Moscow tsar. The locals led by their otaman Ivan Kryvoshlyk refused, however, with the election of the new otaman Tymish Lavrynov the community sent a request to the tsar to establish a local Assumption market, signed by deans of Kharkiv churches. Relationships with the neighboring Chuhuiv sometimes were non-friendly and often their arguments were pacified by force, with the appointment of the third voivode Vasiliy Sukhotin was completely finished the construction of the city fort. Meanwhile, Kharkiv had become the centre of Sloboda Ukraine, the Kharkiv Fortress was erected around the Assumption Cathedral and its castle was at University Hill
Kharkiv
–
Top left:
Derzhprom, Top right:
Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute, Middle left:
Freedom Square, Middle centre:
Annunciation Cathedral, Middle right:
Assumption Cathedral, Bottom left:
Kharkiv Oblast administration building, Bottom centre:
Choral Synagogue, Bottom right:
Taras Shevchenko Monument
Kharkiv
–
Logo
Kharkiv
–
Kharkiv and vicinities, LandSat-5 satellite image, near natural colors, 2011-06-18
Kharkiv
–
19th-century view of Kharkiv, with the
Assumption Cathedral belltower dominating the skyline.
26.
Kiev Oblast
–
Kiev Oblast or Kyiv Oblast is an oblast in central Ukraine. The administrative center of the oblast is the city of Kiev, despite being located in the center of the Kiev Oblast, and hosting the governing bodies of the oblast, Kiev itself is a self-governing city with special status and not under oblast jurisdiction. Kiev Oblast neither corresponds to nor is limited to the unofficially designated Kiev metropolitan area although it is dependent on the urban economy. The largest city in the oblast is Bila Tserkva, Kiev Oblast has a total area of 28,100 km2 and is located in north-central Ukraine. The oblast is equally split between the banks of Dnieper River north and south of Kiev. Other significant rivers in the oblast are the Dniepers tributaries, Pripyat, Desna, Teteriv, Irpin, Ros, the length of the Dnipro River within the boundaries of the oblast totals 246 km. The oblast has a number of 177 rivers intersecting the region,13 reservoirs, over 2000 ponds. The climate of Kiev Oblast is characteristic of the Polesia area, the oblast has a moderately continental climate with relatively mild winters and warm summers. The temperatures range from −6.1 °C in January to 19.2 °C degrees in July, Kiev Oblast has small mountains and slopes on the right bank of the Dnieper River. This entire area is surrounded by a belt by greenery. The oblasts green area covers 436 km2, characterized by 250 different sorts of trees and bushes, Kiev Oblast was officially created as part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic on February 27,1932. The northern part of the oblast belongs to the region of Polesia. In Kiev region, there was a specific folk icon-painting style much influenced by the Kiev Pechersk Lavra painting school. Saints were depicted on the purple or black background, their clothes dark, their haloes dark blue, dark green or even black. The Kiev regions icons collection is the part of the exhibition of the Museum of Ukrainian home icons in the Historical and cultural complex The Radomysl Castle, the current borders of the oblast were last set following the Chernobyl accident in 1986. Administrative oversight of the new city of Slavutych, which was constructed as part of the Chernihiv Oblast, was transferred to the Kiev Oblast. The following historic-cultural sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine and it consists of 26 cities,30 towns, and more than 1,000 villages. As with other oblasts of Ukraine, the head of the Kiev Oblast State Administration is appointed by the President of Ukraine, local self-government body is the popularly elected Kiev Oblast Rada, chaired by a Speaker
Kiev Oblast
–
View of the historical
landscape park "Alexandria" in the city of
Bila Tserkva.
Kiev Oblast
Kiev Oblast
–
Aerial view of
Boryspil, home of the
Boryspil Airport from an airplane.
27.
Stanislav Kosior
–
Stanisław Vikentyevich Kosior, sometimes spelled Kossior was one of three Kosior brothers, ethnically Polish Soviet politicians. He was General Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party, deputy minister of the USSR. According to the Ukrainian government, he is considered one of the architects of the Ukrainian famine of 1932 to 1933. He was executed during the Great Purge, stanisław Kosior was born in 1889 in Węgrów in the Siedlce Governorate of the Russian Empire, in the Polish region of Podlaskie, to a Polish family of humble factory workers. Because of poverty, he emigrated to Yuzovka, where he worked at a steel mill, in 1907 he joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party and quickly became the head of the local branch of the party. He was arrested and sacked from his job in the party later that year, and he used connections to get re-appointed at the Sulin factory in 1909, but was soon arrested again and deported to the Pavlovsk mine. In 1913 he was transferred to Moscow and then to Kiev and Kharkiv, in 1915 he was arrested by the Okhrana and exiled to Siberia. After the February Revolution Kosior moved to Petrograd, where he headed the branch of the Bolsheviks. After the October Revolution Kosior moved to the German-controlled areas of the Ober-Ost and Ukraine, after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, he moved back to Russia, where in 1920 he became Secretary of the CPSU. In 1922 he became head of the Siberian branch of the CPSU, from 1925 to 1928 he was Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. From 1919, Kosior was for some time a member of Ukraines Politburo, in 1928 he became General Secretary of the Ukrainian SSR Communist Party. Among his tasks was the forcible collectivization of agriculture in Ukraine, in 1930 Kosior was admitted to the Politburo of the CPSU. In 1935 he was awarded the Order of Lenin for remarkable success in the field of agriculture, in January 1938 he also became head of the Soviet Control Office and deputy prime minister of the USSR. This was the peak of his political success, on 3 May 1938, during the Great Purge, Kosior was stripped of all Party posts and arrested by the NKVD. Stanislav Kosior withstood brutal tortures but cracked when his daughter was brought into the room. On 26 February 1939 he was sentenced to death by shooting, other Politburo members purged in this period were Jānis Rudzutaks, Roberts Eihe, Vlas Chubar and Pavel Postyshev. After Stalins death, Kosior was rehabilitated by the Soviet government on 14 March 1956
Stanislav Kosior
–
Stanislav Kosior Станіслав Вікентійович Косіор
28.
Ukrainization
–
The term is also used to describe a process by which non-Ukrainians or Russified Ukrainians come to accept Ukrainian culture and language as their own. The term is used, most prominently, for the Soviet indigenization policy of the 1920s, aimed at strengthening Soviet power in the territory of Soviet Ukraine, the Law on Education grants Ukrainian families a right to choose their native language for schools and studies. During the aftermath of World War II, in Ukrainian SSR this process had been preceded by expulsion of ethnic minorities, Ukrainization is also used in the context of these acts. In the chaos of World War I and revolutionary changes, a nascent Ukrainian state emerged but, initially, the states very survival was not ensured. As the Central Rada, the body, was trying to assert the control over Ukraine amid the foreign powers and internal struggle. However, for the first time in the history, Ukraine had a government of its own. As the Rada was eventually overthrown in a German-backed coup, the rule of a Hetmanate led by Pavlo Skoropadsky was established, the latter established a Committee on Orthography and Terminology, which initiated a scholarly and methodological research program into Ukrainian terminology. The Hetmanates rule ended with the German evacuation and was replaced by the Directorate government of Symon Petlura, the nation lacked a cohesive government to conduct language and cultural policies. As Bolshevik rule took hold in Ukraine, the early Soviet government had its own reasons to encourage the national movements of the former Russian Empire. Besides, the reversal of the assimilationist policies of the Russian Empire was to help to improve the image of the Soviet government, until the early-1930s, Ukrainian culture enjoyed a widespread revival due to Bolshevik policies known as the policy of Korenization. In these years an impressive Ukrainization program was implemented throughout the republic, the All-Ukrainian Sovnarkoms decree On implementation of the Ukrainization of the educational and cultural institutions is considered to be the onset of the Ukrainization program. Initially, the program was met with resistance by some Ukrainian Communists, the resistance was finally overcome in 1925 through changes in the party leadership under the pressure of Ukrainian representatives in the party. A joint resolution aimed at complete Ukrainization of the Soviet apparatus as well as the party, the Ukrainian Commissariat of Education was charged with overseeing the implementation of the Ukrainization policies. The two figures, therefore, most identified with the policy are Oleksander Shumskyi, the Commissar for Education between 1923 and 1927, and Mykola Skrypnyk, who replaced Shumskyi in 1927, the rapidly developed Ukrainian-language based education system dramatically raised the literacy of the Ukrainophone rural population. By 1929 over 97% of high school students in the republic were obtaining their education in Ukrainian, simultaneously, the newly literate ethnic Ukrainians migrated to the cities, which became rapidly largely Ukrainianized — in both population and education. Between 1923 and 1933 the Ukrainian proportion of the population of Kharkov, at the time the capital of Soviet Ukraine, increased from 38% to 50%. Similar increases occurred in cities, from 27. 1% to 42. 1% in Kiev, from 16% to 48% in Dnipropetrovsk, from 16% to 48% in Odessa. Similarly expansive was an increase in Ukrainian language publishing and the flourishing of Ukrainian cultural life
Ukrainization
–
The 1921 Soviet recruitment to the Military Education poster with the Ukrainization theme. The text reads: "Son! Enroll in the school of
Red commanders, and the defence of
Soviet Ukraine will be ensured." The poster uses traditional Ukrainian imagery with Ukrainian-language text to reach a wider appeal. The School of Red Commanders in
Kharkov was organized to promote the careers of the Ukrainian national cadre in the army.
Ukrainization
–
According to a resolution by
the parliament of Ukraine on 28 February 1989 "Regarding the state-nature and official status of the Ukrainian language in institutions and organizations" we speak
Ukrainian here: an announcement in a
Lviv hospital about the use of the Ukrainian language
Ukrainization
–
Pro-Russian public association activists protest against Ukrainization of a Russian public school in
Chuhuiv (
Kharkiv Oblast, 2005). Banners are written in
Russian language.
29.
Mykola Skrypnyk
–
Mykola Oleksiyovych Skrypnyk was a Ukrainian Bolshevik leader who was a proponent of the Ukrainian Republics independence, and led the cultural Ukrainization effort in Soviet Ukraine. When the policy was reversed and he was removed from his position and he also was the Head of the Ukrainian Peoples Commissariat, the post of the todays Prime-Minister. Skrypnyk was born in the village Yasynuvata of Bakhmut uyezd, Yekaterinoslav Governorate, at first he studied at the Barvinkove elementary school, then realschules of the cities Izium and Kursk. While studying at Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology, he was arrested on charges in 1901. Originally member of the Saint Petersburg Hromada society, Skrypnyk left it, Skrypnyk was eventually excluded from the Institute. He was arrested fifteen times, exiled seven times, and at one point he was sentenced to death, in 1913 Skrypnyk was an editor of the Bolsheviks legal magazine Issues of Insurance and in 1914 was a member of the editorial collegiate of the Pravda newspaper. After the February Revolution Skrypnyk arrived from one of his exiles to Morshansk to Petrograd where he was elected as a secretary of the Central Council of Factories Committees, during the October Revolution Skrypnyk was a member of the MilRevKom of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies. In December 1917, Skrypnyk was elected in absentia to the first Bolshevik government of Ukraine in Kharkiv and he replaced at that assignment Yevgenia Bogdan Bosch, daughter of a German immigrant. But in July, a Moscow congress of Ukrainian Bolsheviks rescinded the resolution, Skrypnyk worked for the Cheka secret police during the winter of 1918–19, then returned to Ukraine as Peoples Commissar of Worker-Peasant Inspection, and Internal Affairs. Having lost this battle, Skrypnyk and other autonomists would turn their attention towards culture, Skrypnyk was Commissar of Justice between 1922 and 1927. Skrypnyk was appointed head of the Ukrainian Commissariat of Education in 1927 and he convinced the Central Committee of the CPU, to introduce the policy of Ukrainization, encouraging Ukrainian culture and literature. He worked for this cause with almost obsessive zeal, and despite a lack of teachers and textbooks and in the face of bureaucratic resistance, Ukrainian language was institutionalized in the schools and society, and literacy rates reached a very high level. Skrypnyk convened an international Orthographic Conference in Kharkiv in 1927, hosting delegates from Soviet, the conference settled on a compromise between Soviet and Galician orthographies, and published the first standardized Ukrainian alphabet accepted in all of Ukraine. The Kharkiv orthography, or Skrypnykivka, was adopted in 1928. In January 1933, Stalin sent Pavel Postyshev to Ukraine, with free rein to centralize the power of Moscow, Skrypnyk was removed as head of Education. In June, he and his nefarious policies were publicly discredited, rather than recant, on 7 July he shot himself at his desk at his apartment in Derzhprom at Dzerzhynsky Square. During the remainder of the 1930s, Skrypnyks forced Ukrainization was reversed, Peoples Secretariat, the first government of the Soviet Ukraine Chernetsky, Vitaly. The NKVD File of Mykhaylo Drai-Khmara, includes a concise biography of Skrypnyk in annotation no.25
Mykola Skrypnyk
–
Mykola Skrypnyk Микола Олексійович Скрипник
Mykola Skrypnyk
–
Front row:
Rykov, Skrypnyk and
Stalin voting at the
15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
30.
Great Purge
–
The Great Purge or the Great Terror was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union which occurred from 1936 to 1938. In Russian historiography, the period of the most intense purge, 1937–1938, is called Yezhovshchina, after Nikolai Yezhov and it has been estimated between 600,000 and 3 million people died at the hands of the Soviet government during the Purge. In the Western world, Robert Conquests 1968 book The Great Terror popularized that phrase, Conquests title was in turn an allusion to the period called the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. The term repression was used to describe the prosecution of people considered counter-revolutionaries and enemies of the people by the leadership of the Soviet Union. The purge was motivated by the desire to remove dissenters from the Communist Party, most public attention was focused on the purge of the leadership of the Communist Party, as well as of government bureaucrats and leaders of the armed forces, most of whom were Party members. The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society, intelligentsia, peasants and especially those branded as too rich for a peasant, a series of NKVD operations affected a number of national minorities, accused of being fifth column communities. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was largely replaced with summary proceedings by NKVD troikas. Hundreds of thousands of victims were accused of political crimes, they were quickly executed by shooting. Many died at the labor camps of starvation, disease, exposure. Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis, one secret policeman, for example, gassed people to death in batches in the back of a specially adapted airtight van. The campaigns were carried out according to the line, and often by direct orders. The threat of war heightened Stalins perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the source of an uprising in case of invasion. He began to plan for the elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical fifth column of wreckers, terrorists. The term purge in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the purge of the Party ranks. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people, but from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution. Stalins opponents on both sides of the political spectrum chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption and these tendencies may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The Ryutin Affair seemed to vindicate Stalins suspicions and he enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending democratic centralism. In the new form of Party organization, the Politburo, and this required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious old guard of revolutionaries
Great Purge
–
Partial view of a plaque with photos of victims of the Great Purge who were shot in the
Butovo firing range near Moscow. The photos were taken after the arrest of each victim.
Great Purge
–
Excerpt of
NKVD Order No. 00447
Great Purge
–
A list from the Great Purge signed by
Stalin,
Molotov,
Kaganovich,
Voroshilov,
Mikoyan, and
Chubar.
Great Purge
–
Leon Trotsky, in 1929, shortly before being driven out of the Soviet Union.
31.
Galicia (Central Europe)
–
Galicia is a historical and geographic region in Central-Eastern Europe, once a small Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine. The area, which is named after the city of Halych, was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in the year 1206 as Galiciæ. The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within the regions of western Ukraine, Lviv, Ternopil. In the 18th century, territories that became part of the modern Polish regions of Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Subcarpathian Voivodeship. There is considerable overlap between Galicia and south-west Ruthenia, especially a cross-border region that is inhabited by various nationalities, Halych-Volhynia cut a swathe as a mighty principality under the reign of Roman the Great in 1170–1205. After the expulsion of the Hungarians in 1221, Ruthenians took back rule of the area, Romans son Daniel of Galicia was crowned king of Halych-Volhynia. He founded Lviv, named in honour of his son Leo I, the Ukrainian name Halych comes from the Khwalis or Kaliz who occupied the area from the time of the Magyars. They were also called Khalisioi in Greek, and Khvalis in Ukrainian, the Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt and Vysotske cultures. Others assert that the name has Slavic origins – from halytsa, meaning a naked hill, the jackdaw was used as a charge in the citys coat of arms and later also in the coat of arms of Galicia. The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may represent canting or simply folk etymology, although the Hungarians were driven out from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to add Galicia et Lodomeria to their official titles. In 1527, the Habsburgs inherited those titles, together with the Hungarian crown, in 1772, Empress Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, decided to use those historical claims to justify her participation in the first partition of Poland. In fact, the territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia, Volhynia, including the city of Volodymyr-Volynskyi – after which Lodomeria was named – was taken by Russia, not Austria. On the other hand, much of Lesser Poland – Nowy Sącz and Przemyśl, Zamość, Lublin, the full official name of the new Austrian province was Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator. After the incorporation of the Free City of Kraków in 1846, it was extended to Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, each of those entities was formally separate, they were listed as such in the Austrian emperors titles, each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed a single province, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator were small historical principalities west of Kraków, on the border with Prussian Silesia. Lodomeria, under the name Volhynia, was not ruled by Austria, dale Dwellers, Krakowiacy, Mazury, Grębowiacy, Głuchoniemcy, Bełżanie, Bużanie, Opolanie, Wołyniacy, Pobereżcy or Nistrowianie. During the Great Migration period of Europe, a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area, overall, Slavs came to dominate the Celtic-German population. In the 12th century, a Rurikid Principality of Halych formed there, Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separate Rurikid principalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty
Galicia (Central Europe)
–
Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, 1914]]
Galicia (Central Europe)
–
The legislative
Sejm of the Land was located in the capital city, Lviv
Galicia (Central Europe)
–
Reconstruction of the historic border (1772-1918) between Austrian Galicia and Austrian Silesia in Bielsko-Biała
Galicia (Central Europe)
–
Siege of Przemyśl in 1915
32.
Lev Mekhlis
–
Lev Zakharovich Mekhlis was a Soviet politician. Born in Odessa, Mekhlis finished six classes of Jewish commercial school and he worked as a schoolteacher in 1904-1911. In 1907–1910 he was a member of the Zionist workers movement Poale Zion, in 1911, he joined the Russian Army, where he served in the second grenadier artillery brigade. In 1912, he obtained the rank of bombardier and he served in the artillery in the First World War. In 1918 he joined the Communist Party and until 1920 he did work in the Red Army. In 1921–1922, he was the manager of administrative inspection in the Peoples commissariat of worker-peasant inspection, in 1922–1926, he was the assistant to the secretary and the manager of the bureau of the secretariat of the Central Committee, in effect Stalins personal secretary. In 1926–1930 he took courses at the Communist Academy and in the Institute of Red Professors, from 1930 he was the head of the press corps Central Committee, and simultaneously a member of the editorial board, and then the editor in chief of the newspaper Pravda. In 1937–1940, he was the deputy of the Peoples Commissar of Defense, from 1939 he was the member of Central Committee the CPSU, in 1938–1952 he was a member of the Orgburo of the Central Committee, in 1940–1941 Peoples Commissar of State Control. In June 1941 he was assigned by the chief of main political administration. Mekhlis was named army commissar of the 1st rank, which corresponded to the title of General of the Army, in 1942 he was the representative of the Stavka of supreme commander-in-chief at the Crimean Front, where he constantly disputed with General Dmitry Timofeyevich Kozlov. The leaders of the staff of the Front did not know whose orders to carry out – the commanders or Mekhlis’s. The commander of the North-Caucasian Front, Marshal Semyon Budyonny, also could not control Mekhlis, Mekhlis, during a stay at the post of the representative of Stavka, was occupied by the fact that he wrote sufficiently critical reports to senior officers. So he attempted through the Stavka to replace the front commander, Kozlov, at the same time in reports to Stalin he attempted to distance himself from the failures which the Crimean Front suffered, and to lay the entire responsibility on the front commander. In regard to this, Stalin sent a telegram to Mekhlis, in which he subjected to his criticism for similar behavior, Crimean front. Mekhlis, Your code message #254 received and your position of a detached observer who is not accountable for the events at the Crimean Front is puzzling. Your position may sound convenient, but it positively stinks and you, along with the commanding officers, will answer for failing to reinforce the left flank of the Front. It seems that you still have not figured out that we sent you to the Crimean Front not as a government auditor and you demand that Kozlov be replaced, that even Hindenburg would be an improvement. Yet you know well that Soviet reserves do not have anyone named Hindenburg
Lev Mekhlis
–
Lev Mekhlis Лев Ме́хлис
33.
Kuibyshev Oblast
–
Samara Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Samara, as of the 2010 Census, the population of the oblast was 3,215,532. It was suppressed by an expedition of Cossacks and gendarmes led by the vice-governor of the gubernia. Middle Volga Oblast was established on May 14,1928, on October 20,1929, it was transformed into Middle Volga Krai, which was renamed Kuybyshev Krai on January 27,1935. On December 5,1936, Kuybyshev Krai was transformed into Kuybyshev Oblast upon the adoption of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, on January 25,1991, the oblast was renamed Samara Oblast. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group, since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament. The Charter of Samara Oblast is the law of the oblast. The Legislative Assembly of Samara Oblast is the provinces standing legislative body, the Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. In addition, 30% of the population declares to be spiritual but not religious, 13% is atheist, győr-Moson-Sopron County, Hungary Самарская Губернская Дума. Закон №22-ГД от13 октября1998 г, «О государственных символах Самарской области», в ред. Закона №146-ГД от31 декабря2014 г, «О внесении изменения в статью2 Закона Самарской области О государственных символах Самарской области». Вступил в силу с момента опубликования, Опубликован, Волжская коммуна, №186,17 октября1998 г. Закона №6-ГД от11 января2016 г, «О внесении изменений в Устав Самарской области». Вступил в силу1 января2007 г, Опубликован, Волжская коммуна, №237,20 декабря2006 г. Указ №526-1 от25 января1991 г, «О переименовании города Куйбышева в город Самару и Куйбышевской области в Самарскую область». Media related to Samara Oblast at Wikimedia Commons Official website of Samara Oblast Central Eurasian Information Resource, Images of Samara Oblast, University of Washington Digital Collection
Kuibyshev Oblast
–
LDPR meeting in front of the Oblast administration building
Kuibyshev Oblast
–
Flag
34.
New Year tree
–
New Year trees are decorated trees similar to Christmas trees that are displayed to specifically celebrate the New Year. They should not be confused with the practice of leaving up a Christmas tree until after New Years Day, New Year trees are common in various cultures and nations, chiefly the former Soviet Union, Turkey, and Vietnam. Russian and Turkish New Year trees are of the varieties as those used for Christmas trees. The decorations are the same as for Christmas trees, while Russian and Turkish North Americans purchasing a tree after Christmas when prices have plummeted might enjoy notable savings, most do not wait beyond Christmas to buy their trees. The tradition of installing and decorating a Ёлка for Christmas dates back to the 17th century when Peter the Great imported the practice as a result of his travels in Europe. However, in Imperial Russia Yolka were banned beginning in 1916 by the Synod as a tradition originating in Germany, with the Christmas tree being prohibited in accordance with Soviet anti-religious legislation, people supplanted the former Christmas custom with New Years trees. In his letter, Postyshev wrote, In the pre-revolutionary era the bourgeoisie, children of the working classes looked on with envy through the windows at the gleaming tree adorned with colored lights and the children of the rich playing around it. Why do our schools, orphanages, nurseries, children’s clubs, because some “left-leaning” exaggerators decried this pastime as a bourgeois childrens indulgence. It is time to put an end to this condemnation of the tree. The Young Pioneer scout leaders are called upon to organize holiday celebrations for the children that feature New Year trees, in schools, orphanages, clubs, cinemas, and theaters – children’s New Year trees should be everywhere. There should not be a village or community farm where the local board, along with members of the Komsomol. City councils, chairmen of district executive committees, village councils and our children will be grateful to us for giving them back the New Year tree. Im sure the Komsomolians will take an active part in this enterprise. So, lets organize a New Year celebration for kids and arrange a good Soviet New Year tree in all our cities and rural villages. ”In 1937, an invitation to the Yolka at the Palace of Unions became a matter of honour for Soviet children. After the dissolution of the USSR, religious freedom was allowed, a Turkish New Year tree, in Turkish Yılbaşı Ağacı, looks the same as a Christmas tree with Christmas ornaments. It is called a New Year tree because it is specific to the New Year and, with about 95% of Turkeys population Muslim, most Turks do not celebrate Christmas. After the modernisation of Turkey, the Islamic calendar and the calendar were replaced by the Gregorian calendar. The celebrations became popular in Turkey and Christmas trees were brought into the country as New Year trees, since then, the custom of setting up a tree for the New Year is a traditional event in Turkey
New Year tree
–
Large public New Year trees are common in
Moscow,
Russia.
New Year tree
–
A 1931 edition of the Soviet magazine
Bezbozhnik, distributed by the
League of Militant Atheists, depicting an Orthodox Christian priest being forbidden to cut down a tree for Christmas
New Year tree
–
New year decorations in a Turkish home
New Year tree
–
A small hoa mai tree decorated for Vietnamese
Tết
35.
Samara, Russia
–
Samara, known from 1935 to 1991 as Kuybyshev, is the sixth largest city in Russia and the administrative center of Samara Oblast. It is situated in the part of European Russia at the confluence of the Volga. The Volga acts as the western boundary, across the river are the Zhiguli Mountains. The northern boundary is formed by the Sokolyi Hills and by the steppes in the south, the land within the city boundaries covers 46,597 hectares. The metropolitan area of Samara-Tolyatti-Syzran within Samara Oblast contains a population of three million. Formerly a closed city, Samara is now a large and important social, political, economic, industrial and it has a continental climate characterised by hot summers and cold winters. Samaras riverfront is considered one of the recreation places both for local citizens and tourists. After the Soviet novelist Vasily Aksyonov visited Samara, he remarked, I am not sure where in the West one can find such a long, ahmad ibn Fadlan visited the area that is now Samara around the year 921 AD while on his journey up the Volga. The Volga port of Samara appears on Italian maps of the 14th century, before 1586, the Samara Bend was a pirate nest. Lookouts would spot a boat and quickly cross to the other side of the peninsula where the pirates would organize an attack. Officially, Samara started with a built in 1586 at the confluence of the Volga. This fortress was a frontier post protecting the then easternmost boundaries of Russia from forays of nomads, a local customs office was established in 1600. As more and more pulled into Samaras port, the town turned into a center for diplomatic and economic links between Russia and the East. Samara also opened its gates to peasant war rebels headed by Stepan Razin and Yemelyan Pugachyov, welcoming them with traditional bread, the town was visited by Peter the Great and later Tsars. In 1780, Samara was turned into a town of Simbirsk Governorate overseen by the local Governor-General, and Uyezd and Zemstvo Courts of Justice. On January 1,1851, Samara became the center of Samara Governorate with a population of 20,000. This gave a stimulus to the development of the economic, political and cultural life of the community, in 1877, during the Russian-Turkish War, a mission from the Samara city government Duma led by Pyotr V. The quick growth of Samaras economy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was determined by the scope of the bread trade and flour milling business
Samara, Russia
–
Samara views
Samara, Russia
–
Location of Samara Oblast in Russia
Samara, Russia
–
Sobornaya Street and horse tram in 1905
Samara, Russia
–
Ladya apartment complex
36.
Nikita Khrushchev
–
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was a politician who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, Khrushchevs party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier. Khrushchev was born in the village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar, with the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalins purges, and approved thousands of arrests, in 1938, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was again a commissar, Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalins close advisers, in the power struggle triggered by Stalins death in 1953, Khrushchev, after several years, emerged victorious. On 25 February 1956, at the 20th Party Congress, he delivered the Secret Speech, denouncing Stalins purges and his domestic policies, aimed at bettering the lives of ordinary citizens, were often ineffective, especially in agriculture. Hoping eventually to rely on missiles for defense, Khrushchev ordered major cuts in conventional forces. Despite the cuts, Khrushchevs rule saw the most tense years of the Cold War, flaws in Khrushchevs policies eroded his popularity and emboldened potential opponents, who quietly rose in strength and deposed the premier in October 1964. However, he did not suffer the fate of previous losers of Soviet power struggles, and was pensioned off with an apartment in Moscow. His lengthy memoirs were smuggled to the West and published in part in 1970, Khrushchev died in 1971 of heart disease. Khrushchev was born on 15 April 1894, in Kalinovka, a village in what is now Russias Kursk Oblast and his parents, Sergei Khrushchev and Ksenia Khrushcheva, were poor peasants of Russian origin, and had a daughter two years Nikitas junior, Irina. Sergei Khrushchev was employed in a number of positions in the Donbas area of far eastern Ukraine, working as a railwayman, as a miner, and laboring in a brick factory. Wages were much higher in the Donbas than in the Kursk region, Kalinovka was a peasant village, Khrushchevs teacher, Lydia Shevchenko, later stated that she had never seen a village as poor as Kalinovka had been. Nikita worked as a herdsboy from an early age and he was schooled for a total of four years, part in the village parochial school and part under Shevchenkos tutelage in Kalinovkas state school. She urged Nikita to seek education, but family finances did not permit this. In 1908, Sergei Khrushchev moved to the Donbas city of Yuzovka, fourteen-year-old Nikita followed later that year, while Ksenia Khrushcheva and her daughter came after
Nikita Khrushchev
–
Khrushchev in
East Berlin, 1963
Nikita Khrushchev
–
Khrushchev in 1916
Nikita Khrushchev
–
NKVD chief
Genrikh Yagoda (middle) inspecting the construction of the
Moscow-Volga canal, 1935. Khrushchev is left behind Yagoda.
Nikita Khrushchev
–
Nestor Lakoba, Khrushchev,
Lavrenti Beria and
Aghasi Khanjian during opening of the
Moscow Metro
37.
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
Molotov served as Chairman of the Council of Peoples Commissars from 1930 to 1941, and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956. He served as First Deputy Premier from 1942 to 1957, when he was dismissed from the Presidium of the Central Committee by Nikita Khrushchev, Molotov retired in 1961 after several years of obscurity. He was aware of the Katyn massacre committed by the Soviet authorities during this period, after World War II, Molotov was involved in negotiations with the Western allies, in which he became noted for his diplomatic skills. He retained his place as a leading Soviet diplomat and politician until March 1949, Molotovs relationship with Stalin deteriorated further, with Stalin criticising Molotov in a speech to the 19th Party Congress. However, after Stalins death in 1953, Molotov was staunchly opposed to Khrushchevs de-Stalinisation policy, Molotov defended Stalins policies and legacy until his death in 1986, and harshly criticised Stalins successors, especially Khrushchev. Molotov was born Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Skryabin in the village of Kukarka, Yaransk Uyezd, Vyatka Governorate, contrary to a commonly repeated error, he was not related to the composer Alexander Scriabin. Throughout his teen years, he was described as shy and quiet and he was educated at a secondary school in Kazan, and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1906, soon gravitating toward that organisations radical Bolshevik faction, headed by V. I. Skryabin took the pseudonym Molotov, derived from the Russian word молот molot for his political work owing to the names vaguely industrial ring and he was arrested in 1909 and spent two years in exile in Vologda. In 1911 he enrolled at St Petersburg Polytechnic, Molotov joined the editorial staff of a new underground Bolshevik newspaper called Pravda, meeting Joseph Stalin for the first time in association with the project. This first association between the two future Soviet leaders proved to be brief, however, and did not lead to a close political association. Molotov worked as a professional revolutionary for the next several years, writing for the party press. He moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1914 at the time of the outbreak of World War I and it was in Moscow the following year that Molotov was again arrested for his party activity, this time being deported to Irkutsk in eastern Siberia. In 1916 he escaped from his Siberian exile and returned to the city, now called Petrograd by the Tsarist regime. Molotov became a member of the Bolshevik Partys committee in Petrograd in 1916, when the February Revolution occurred in 1917, he was one of the few Bolsheviks of any standing in the capital. Under his direction Pravda took to the left to oppose the Provisional Government formed after the revolution, when Joseph Stalin returned to the capital, he reversed Molotovs line, but when the party leader Lenin arrived, he overruled Stalin. Despite this, Molotov became a protégé of and close adherent to Stalin, Molotov became a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee which planned the October Revolution, which effectively brought the Bolsheviks to power. In 1918, Molotov was sent to Ukraine to take part in the war then breaking out. Since he was not a man, he took no part in the fighting
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
Vyacheslav Molotov Вячеслав Молотов
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
Molotov in his youth
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
Molotov's birth house in
Sovetsk, Kirov Oblast
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
A list from the
Great Purge signed by Molotov, Stalin,
Voroshilov,
Kaganovich and
Zhdanov
38.
Nikolai Yezhov
–
Nikolai Ivanovich Yezhov or Ezhov was a Soviet secret police official under Joseph Stalin. He was head of the NKVD from 1936 to 1938, during the most deadly period of Stalins Great Purge and his time in office is known as the Yezhovshchina, a term coined during the de-Stalinization campaign of the 1950s. After presiding over mass arrests and executions during the Great Purge and he was arrested, confessed under torture to a range of anti-Soviet activity, and was executed in 1940. By the beginning of World War II, his status within the Soviet Union became that of a political unperson, Yezhov was born either in Saint Petersburg, according to his official Soviet biography, or in Suwałki Governorate. In a form filled out in 1921, Yezhov claimed some ability to speak Polish and he completed only his elementary education. From 1909 to 1915, he worked as a tailors assistant, from 1915 until 1917, Yezhov served in the Imperial Russian Army. He joined the Bolsheviks on May 5,1917 in Vitebsk, during the Russian Civil War, 1919–1921, he fought in the Red Army. After February 1922, he worked in the system, mostly as a secretary of various regional committees of the Communist Party. In 1927, he was transferred to the Accounting and Distribution Department of the Party where he worked as an instructor, from 1929 to 1930, he was the Deputy Peoples Commissar for Agriculture. In November 1930, he was appointed to the Head of several departments of the Communist Party, department of special affairs, department of personnel and department of industry. In 1934, he was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party, from February 1935 to March 1939, he was also the Chairman of the Central Commission for Party Control. I do not doubt that in his childhood Yezhov amused himself in just such a manner, physically, Yezhov was short in stature, standing five feet, and that, combined with his sadistic personality, led to his nickname The Poison Dwarf or The Bloody Dwarf. Yezhov married the educated and sincere Marxist Antonia Titova in 1919, Yezhov and Feigenburg had an adopted daughter, Natalia, an orphan from a childrens home. After the death of Nikolai Yezhov, Natalia was sent back to an orphanage and was forced to relinquish the Yezhov surname. Subsequently, she was known by the name Natalia Khayutina, the turning point in Yezhovs life was the response by Stalin to the murder of the Bolshevik chief of Leningrad, Sergey Kirov. Stalin used the murder as a pretext for further purges, he chose Yezhov for this task, Yezhov oversaw falsified accusations in the Kirov murder case against opposition leaders Kamenev, Zinoviev and their supporters. Yezhovs success in this led to his further promotion. He became Peoples Commissar for Internal Affairs and a member of the Central Committee on September 26,1936, following the dismissal of Genrikh Yagoda
Nikolai Yezhov
–
Yezhov wife Yevgenia with their adopted daughter
Nikolai Yezhov
–
Nikolai Yezhov
Russian: Николай Иванович Ежов
Nikolai Yezhov
–
Yezhov (left) and Stalin
Nikolai Yezhov
–
In the original version of this photo (top), Yezhov is clearly visible on the right of the photograph. The later version (bottom) was altered by censors, removing all trace of his presence.
39.
Pravda
–
The newspaper began publication on 5 May 1912 in the Russian Empire, but was already extant abroad in January 1911. It emerged as a newspaper of the Soviet Union after the October Revolution. The newspaper was an organ of the Central Committee of the CPSU between 1912 and 1991, in 1996 there was an internal dispute between the owners of Pravda International and some of the Pravda journalists which led to Pravda splitting into different entities. After a legal dispute between the parties, the Russian court of arbitration stipulated that both entities would be allowed to continue using the Pravda name. Though Pravda officially began publication on 5 May 1912, the anniversary of Karl Marxs birth, its origins back to 1903 when it was founded in Moscow by a wealthy railway engineer. Pravda had started publishing in the light of the Russian Revolution of 1905, during its earliest days, Pravda had no political orientation. Kozhevnikov started it as a journal of arts, literature and social life, Kozhevnikov was soon able to form up a team of young writers including A. A. Bogdanov, N. A Rozhkov, M. N Pokrovsky, I. I Skvortsov-Stepanov, P. P Rumyantsev, lunts, who were active contributors on social life section of Pravda. Later they became the board of the journal and in the near future also became the active members of the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. Because of certain quarrels between Kozhevnikov and the board, he had asked them to leave and the Menshevik faction of the RSDLP took over as Editorial Board. But the relationship between them and Kozhevnikov was also a bitter one, the Ukrainian political party Spilka, which was also a splinter group of the RSDLP, took over the journal as its organ. Leon Trotsky was invited to edit the paper in 1908 and the paper was moved to Vienna in 1909. By then, the board of Pravda consisted of hard-line Bolsheviks who sidelined the Spilka leadership soon after it shifted to Vienna. Trotsky had introduced a format to the newspaper and distanced itself from the intra-party struggles inside the RSDLP. During those days, Pravda gained an audience among Russian workers. By 1910 the Central Committee of the RSDLP suggested making Pravda its official organ, finally, at the sixth conference of the RSDLP held in Prague in January 1912, the Menshevik faction was expelled from the party. The party under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin decided to make Pravda its official mouthpiece, the paper was shifted from Vienna to St. Petersburg and the first issue under Lenins leadership was published on 5 May 1912. It was the first time that Pravda was published as a political newspaper
Pravda
–
The front page of Pravda on
June 23, 1941, including a printed radio speech by
Molotov
Pravda
–
Vladimir Lenin in his study inside the Kremlin, reading Pravda. Circa 1918.
Pravda
–
A delegate at
17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) holding Pravda newspaper (1934)
Pravda
–
A soldier reading Pravda during WWII. October -December 1941-RIAN
40.
Young Pioneer Palace
–
Young Pioneer Palaces originated in the Soviet Union. After the collapse of the Soviet Bloc and the Soviet Union itself, the first Young Pioneer Palace was established in Kharkov in the former House of the Assembly of Nobility on 6 September 1935. In 1971 there were more than 3,500 Young Pioneer Palaces in the country, the early ones were organized at re-equipped palaces and personal residences of aristocrats of the Russian Empire, and were nationalized shortly after Soviet power was established in 1922. The former Anichkov Palace, for example, became the Zhdanov Palace of Young Pioneers in Leningrad, the Zhdanov Palace was one of the best-known Young Pioneer Palaces of the Soviet Union. Newly built ones were constructed in the style of ancient palaces until the late 1950s. Two of the largest Young Pioneer Palaces were built in the new style, the Moscow Palace of Young Pioneers, built in 1959-1963, there were some essential differences between Soviet secondary schools and Young Pioneer Palaces. The latter consisted of specialized groups and sections. Attendance was not mandatory for schoolchildren, and educational programs in Young Pioneer Palace hobby groups were designed so that they didnt duplicate school programs. However, there were some similarities, hobby groups were organized by childrens ages, similar to school classes. Educational work at the Palaces was designed to cultivate childrens interests in labour, knowledge, development of abilities, professional orientation. There were various sports, cultural and educational, technical, political, artistic, tourist, one of the main stated principles of educational work in hobby groups was, Having been taught, now teach your comrade. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, most of the Young Pioneer Palaces were closed, some reopened as youth centers, but admittance ceased to be free of charge. Many Young Pioneer Palaces were built in Eastern Bloc countries and other Soviet allies during the existence of the Soviet Union, chinese Young Pioneer Palaces have mostly either been converted for other uses or are privatized and run for profit. Education in the Soviet Union Young Pioneer camp Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union Palace of Culture Great Soviet Encyclopedia, information on Hanoi Young Pioneer Palace
Young Pioneer Palace
–
Young Pioneer Palace in
Sevastopol
Young Pioneer Palace
–
Young Pioneer Palace in city
Tolyatti
Young Pioneer Palace
–
The former Pioneers' Palace in
Sormovo, now renamed "Children's Creative Activity Center"
41.
Josef Stalin
–
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin was one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and he managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin by suppressing Lenins criticisms and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained General Secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, the economic changes coincided with the imprisonment of millions of people in Gulag labour camps. The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–33, major figures in the Communist Party and government, and many Red Army high commanders, were arrested and shot after being convicted of treason in show trials. Stalins invasion of Bukovina in 1940 violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with the Axis, Germany ended the pact when Hitler launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Despite heavy human and territorial losses, Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after the decisive Battles of Moscow, after defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red Army captured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the war in Europe for the Allies. The Soviet Union subsequently emerged as one of two recognized world superpowers, the other being the United States, Communist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were established in most countries freed from German occupation by the Red Army, which later constituted the Eastern Bloc. Stalin also had relations with Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea. On February 9,1946, Stalin delivered a public speech in which he explained the fundamental incompatibility of communism and capitalism. He stressed that the system needed war for raw materials. The Second World War was but the latest in a chain of conflicts which could be broken only when the economy made the transformation into communism. Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War, Stalin remains a controversial figure today, with many regarding him as a tyrant. However, popular opinion within the Russian Federation is mixed, the exact number of deaths caused by Stalins regime is still a subject of debate, but it is widely agreed to be in the order of millions. Joseph Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, the Russian-language version of his birth name is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili. Ioseb was born on 18 December 1878 in the town of Gori, Georgia and his father was Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, while his mother was Ekaterine Keke Geladze, a housemaid. As a child, Ioseb was plagued with health issues
Josef Stalin
–
Stalin at the
Tehran Conference in 1943.
Josef Stalin
–
Prior to the revolution of 1917, Stalin played an active role in fighting the Russian government. Here he is shown on a 1911 information card from the files of the Russian police in Saint Petersburg.
Josef Stalin
–
A group of participants in the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party, 1919. In the middle are Stalin,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Mikhail Kalinin.
42.
Magocsi, Paul Robert
–
Paul Robert Magocsi is an American professor of history, political science, and Chair of Ukrainian Studies at the University of Toronto. He has been with the university since 1980, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1996 and he currently acts as Honorary Chairman of the World Congress of Rusyns, and has authored many books on Rusyn history. Born in Englewood, New Jersey, Magocsi is of Hungarian and Ruthenian descent and he completed his undergraduate studies at Rutgers University B. A. in 1966, M. A.1967, Princeton University in M. A.1969, Ph. D.1972. He then went to Harvard University, where he was a member of the Society of Fellows between 1973 and 1976, in 2013 he was awarded doctor honoris causa by the University of Presov in Slovakia. Magocsi has taught at Harvard University and the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, in 1996 he was appointed permanent fellow of the Royal Society of Canada - Canadian Academies of Arts, Humanities and Sciences. Among his over 675 publications are 30 books including,1978, The Shaping of a National Identity, Subcarpathian Rus’, 1848–1948, Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-80579-81983, Galicia, A Historical Survey and Bibliographic Guide 1993, Historic Atlas of East Central/Central Europe 1993, Magocsi, a History of East Central Europe
Magocsi, Paul Robert
–
Paul Robert Magocsi in 2013
43.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
44.
Kyiv Post
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The Kyiv Post is Ukraines oldest English language newspaper. American Jed Sunden founded the Kyiv Post weekly newspaper on Oct.18,1995, the newspaper, which went online in 2002, serves Ukrainian and expatriate readers with a general interest mix of political, business and entertainment coverage. The staff is a team of mainly Ukrainian journalists, numbering 23 editorial team members as of December 2016, historically, the editorial policy has supported democracy, Western integration and free markets for Ukraine. The Kyiv Post has had two owners in its existence, Sunden and Mohammad Zahoor, Sundens KP Media sold the newspaper to British citizen Zahoor on July 28,2009. Zahoor owns the ISTIL Group and is a native of Pakistan, Zahoor publishes the newspaper through his Public Media company. In an interview with the Kyiv Post published on August 6,2009, Zahoor pledged to revive the newspaper, the first 16-page issue was put out by an editorial staff of two people. Sunden built the newspaper into an enterprise, one that served the needs of the expatriate community that then regarded Ukraine as a potential hotspot for investment. During Sundens tenure, he held to libertarian and anti-Communist views on the editorial and opinion pages and he said the policy is good for business and news. Sunden was controversial for allowing paid massage advertisements from women engaging in prostitution, after Zahoor bought the newspaper, he retained the entire editorial team. One of his first acts as publisher, however, was to eliminate the paid massage advertisements, Zahoor sustained the policy of editorial independence, with limited exceptions. While the newspaper was free to any candidate for the election. The Kyiv Post lost advertising and cut costs, but still ended the year in the black, in the last months under Sunden in 2009, the newspapers editorial staff shrunk to 12 members, its page count to 16 and its print distribution to 11,000 copies. Zahoor invested in journalists, increased distribution and improved newsprint and he boosted the page count—to 32 pages through much of 2010-2011, dropping back to 24 pages again through much of 2012-2013 and then to 16 pages for most of the last three years. The start of an affiliated organization, the Media Development Foundation. The Kyiv Post has had at least 15 chief editors since its first edition on October 18,1995, the longest-serving chief editor is Brian Bonner, an American citizen who became the editor in the summer of 1999 and returned on June 9,2008. Bonners tenure was interrupted briefly twice, the front-page story was published on April 15,2011. Bonners firing lasted only five days, after the staff went on strike in support of his decision to publish the article. On April 18 in Kyiv, a group of visiting U. S, the incident garnered international attention as a barometer of the state of freedom of the press in Ukraine
Kyiv Post
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Web address
45.
Paul Robert Magocsi
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Paul Robert Magocsi is an American professor of history, political science, and Chair of Ukrainian Studies at the University of Toronto. He has been with the university since 1980, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1996 and he currently acts as Honorary Chairman of the World Congress of Rusyns, and has authored many books on Rusyn history. Born in Englewood, New Jersey, Magocsi is of Hungarian and Ruthenian descent and he completed his undergraduate studies at Rutgers University B. A. in 1966, M. A.1967, Princeton University in M. A.1969, Ph. D.1972. He then went to Harvard University, where he was a member of the Society of Fellows between 1973 and 1976, in 2013 he was awarded doctor honoris causa by the University of Presov in Slovakia. Magocsi has taught at Harvard University and the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, in 1996 he was appointed permanent fellow of the Royal Society of Canada - Canadian Academies of Arts, Humanities and Sciences. Among his over 675 publications are 30 books including,1978, The Shaping of a National Identity, Subcarpathian Rus’, 1848–1948, Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-80579-81983, Galicia, A Historical Survey and Bibliographic Guide 1993, Historic Atlas of East Central/Central Europe 1993, Magocsi, a History of East Central Europe
Paul Robert Magocsi
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Paul Robert Magocsi in 2013
46.
YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. As of February 2017, there are more than 400 hours of content uploaded to YouTube each minute, as of April 2017, the website is ranked as the second most popular site in the world by Alexa Internet, a web traffic analysis company. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day
YouTube
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From left to right:
Chad Hurley,
Steve Chen, and
Jawed Karim
YouTube
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Screenshot of YouTube's homepage
YouTube
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YouTube's headquarters as of 2010 in
San Bruno, California.
47.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012
48.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
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GND screenshot
