1.
Pietro Rotari
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Pietro Antonio Rotari was an Italian painter of the Baroque period. Born in Verona, he led a career, and died in St Petersburg. His portraits of women are quite famous, and very beautiful. But his art consisted of mainly royal positions held by emperors and he was initially a pupil of Antonio Balestra, but moved and lived in Venice from 1725 to 1727. He then joined the studio of Francesco Trevisani in Rome, between 1731 and 1734, he worked with Francesco Solimena in Naples. He then returned then to Verona, where he started a studio, in 1750, he had moved to Vienna. In 1756, he was invited to Russia by the court of the Tsarina Elizabetta Petrovna, from there he moved to Dresden and to work with the court of Augustus III of Poland. He returned to St Petersburg to work with the court of Catherine II and he was much in demand as a portraitist, and painted royal families in Dresden and Saint Petersburg. He also painted the altarpieces of the Four Martyrs for the church of the Ospedale di San Giacomo in Verona. Ralph Nicholson Wornum, ed. Biographical catalogue of the principal Italian painters, woodfall & Kinder, Angel Court, Skinner Street, London, Digitized by Googlebooks from Oxford University copy on Jun 27,2006
2.
Repentance (Christianity)
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Repentance is a theological term that describes a stage in Christian salvation where the believer turns away from sin. In Roman Catholic theology repentance is part of the theological concept of penance. Generally in the Old Testament the term comes from the Hebrew word group that means turn away from. Sometimes this word group is employed to request a turning from sinful activity, in the New Testament the μετανοέω/metanoeo word group can mean remorse but is generally translated as a turning away from sin. Theologically repentance, the turning away from sin is linked to a turn to faith in God
3.
Christian views on sin
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The doctrine of sin is central to Christianity, since its basic message is about redemption in Christ. Christian hamartiology describes sin as an act of offence against God by despising his persons and Christian biblical law, in Christian views it was an evil human act, which violates the rational nature of man as well as Gods nature and his eternal law. According to the definition of St. Augustine of Hippo sin is a word, deed. As with the definition of sin, this definition also affects the understanding of Christian grace and salvation. The first reference to sin as a noun is of sin is crouching at your door, it desires to have you, but you must rule over it” waiting to be mastered by Cain, a form of literary theriomorphism. The first use of the verb is God appears to Abimelech in the dream, “Yes, I know you did this with a clear conscience, and so I have kept you from sinning against me. That is why I did not let you touch her. ”Isaiah announced the consequences, But your iniquities have separated you from your God, your sins have hidden his face from you, for your hands are stained with blood, your fingers with guilt. Your lips have spoken falsely, and your tongue mutters wicked things — a separation between God and man, and unrequited worshipping, the concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyon in his controversy with certain dualist Gnostics. Other church fathers such as Augustine also developed the doctrine, seeing it as based on the New Testament teaching of Paul the Apostle, tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Ambrosiaster considered that humanity shares in Adams sin, transmitted by human generation. The Jansenist movement, which the Catholic Church declared to be heretical, the way Thomas Aquinas viewed sin and vices was radically different from later approaches, especially that of 17th century moral theology. He presented sin and vices as contraries of virtues and he discusses the subject in his Summa Theologica part Ia-IIae qq. 71-89. In one of his definitions of sin Thomas quotes Augustine of Hippos description of sin as a thought, words and deed against the Eternal Law. Now there are two rules of the human will, one is proximate and homogeneous, viz. the human reason, the other is the first rule, viz. the eternal law, which is Gods reason, so to speak. To recognise the possibilities of sin in man is equal to acknowledge his human nature, his control, sin is a motion to the goal, it is judged by the object to which it is directed. The field of sin is the same as the field of virtue, there are three major fields, relationship with God, with oneself and with the neighbour. Thomas distinguished between mortal and venial sins, mortal sin is when a person has irreparably destroyed the very principle of his/her order to the goal of life. According to Aquinas the gravity of sin depends also on some disposition of the agent, sin, venial by reason of its object, may become mortal. It happens when person fixes his/her ultimate happiness, the last end of life in the object of that venial sin
4.
Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
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Oriental Orthodoxy
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Oriental Orthodoxy has approximately 84 million adherents worldwide. Oriental Orthodox Churches uphold their own ancient ecclesiastic traditions of apostolic succession and these Churches rejected the definition of the two natures of Christ, known as the Chalcedonian Definition, which was issued by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Eastern Orthodox maintain numerous theological and ecclesiological similarities with the Oriental Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox Churches are in full communion with each other, but not with the Eastern Orthodox Church, despite the similar name. The schism between Oriental Orthodoxy and the Great Church was based on differences in Christology, the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, declared that Jesus Christ is God, that is to say, consubstantial with the Father. Later, the ecumenical council, the Council of Ephesus, declared that Jesus Christ, though divine as well as human, is only one being. Thus, the Council of Ephesus explicitly rejected Nestorianism, the Christological doctrine that Christ was two distinct beings, one divine and one human, who happened to inhabit the same body. The Churches that later became Oriental Orthodoxy were firmly anti-Nestorian, and those who opposed Chalcedon saw this as a concession to Nestorianism, or even as a conspiracy to convert the Church to Nestorianism by stealth. As a result, over the decades, they gradually separated from communion with the Great Church. Monophysitism was condemned as heretical alongside Nestorianism, and to accuse a church of being Monophysite is to accuse it of falling into the opposite extreme from Nestorianism, however, the Oriental Orthodox themselves reject this description as inaccurate, having officially condemned the teachings of both Nestorius and Eutyches. They define themselves as Miaphysite instead, holding that Christ has one nature, the schism between the Oriental Orthodox and the rest of Christendom occurred in the 5th century. They would accept only of or from two natures but not in two natures and it is not entirely clear that Nestorius himself was a Nestorian. The Oriental Orthodox churches were often called Monophysite, although they reject this label, as it is associated with Eutychian Monophysitism. It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor, Justin I, Justin ordered the replacement of all non-Chalcedonian bishops, including the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria. The extent of the influence of the Bishop of Rome in this demand has been a matter of debate, Justinian I also attempted to bring those monks who still rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon into communion with the greater church. The exact time of event is unknown, but it is believed to have been between 535 and 548. St Abraham of Farshut was summoned to Constantinople and he chose to bring with him four monks, upon arrival, Justinian summoned them and informed them that they would either accept the decision of the Council or lose their positions. Abraham refused to entertain the idea, theodora tried to persuade Justinian to change his mind, seemingly to no avail. Abraham himself stated in a letter to his monks that he preferred to remain in exile rather than subscribe to a faith which he believed to be contrary to that of Athanasius of Alexandria
6.
Sacrament
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A sacrament is a Christian rite recognised as of particular importance and significance. There are various views on the existence and meaning of such rites, many Christians consider the sacraments to be a visible symbol of the reality of God, as well as a means by which God enacts his grace. Sacraments signify Gods grace in a way that is observable to the participant. The Catholic Church recognises seven sacraments, Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Reconciliation, Anointing of the Sick, Marriage, many Protestant denominations, such as those within the Reformed tradition, identify two sacraments instituted by Christ, the Eucharist and Baptism. The Lutheran sacraments include these two, often adding Confession as a third sacrament, the English word sacrament is derived indirectly from the Ecclesiastical Latin sacrāmentum, from Latin sacrō, from sacer. This in turn is derived from the Greek New Testament word mysterion and these seven sacraments were codified in the documents of the Council of Trent, which stated, CANON I. During the Middle Ages, sacraments were recorded in Latin, even after the Reformation, many ecclesiastical leaders continued using this practice into the 20th century. On occasion, Protestant ministers followed the same practice, since W was not part of the Latin alphabet, scribes only used it when dealing with names or places. In addition, names were modified to fit a Latin mold, for instance, the name Joseph would be rendered as Iosephus or Josephus. The Catholic Church indicates that the sacraments are necessary for salvation, the Church applies this teaching even to the sacrament of baptism, the gateway to the other sacraments. It states that Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed, catechumens and all those who, even without knowing Christ and the Church, still sincerely seek God and strive to do his will can also be saved without Baptism. The Church in her liturgy entrusts children who die without Baptism to the mercy of God, in the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the sacraments are efficacious signs of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us. The visible rites by which the sacraments are celebrated signify and make present the proper to each sacrament. They bear fruit in those who receive them with the required dispositions, the Church teaches that the effect of the sacraments comes ex opere operato, by the very fact of being administered, regardless of the personal holiness of the minister administering it. The sacraments presuppose faith and through their words and ritual elements, nourish, strengthen, through each of them, Christ bestows that sacraments particular grace, such as incorporation into Christ and the Church, forgiveness of sins, or consecration for a particular service. The Eastern Orthodox tradition does not limit the number of sacraments to seven, however it recognizes these seven as the major sacraments, which are completed by many other blessings and special services. Some lists of the sacraments taken from the Church Fathers include the consecration of a church, monastic tonsure, more specifically, for the Eastern Orthodox the term sacrament is a term which seeks to classify something that may, according to Orthodox thought, be impossible to classify. According to Orthodox thinking God touches mankind through material means such as water, wine, bread, oil, incense, candles, altars, icons, how God does this is a mystery
7.
Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
8.
Methodism
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Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
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Rite
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A rite or ritual is an established, ceremonial, usually religious, act. Within Christianity, rite often refers to what is called a sacrament. In Roman Catholicism, for example, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is one of the three that are referred to as the last rites, because they are administered to someone who was dying. The other two are Penance and Eucharist, since the Second Vatican Council, Anointing of the Sick is administered to those who are seriously ill but not necessarily in immediate danger of death. The term rite became widely used after the Second Vatican Council when the traditional sacraments were done away with, while rite is often used synonymously with sacrament, it is technically incorrect to say that one received a rite because the sacrament is what is received. The ritual consists of the prayers and actions that the minister of the sacrament performs when administering a sacrament. Therefore, it is incorrect to say one has received the last rites as that person has really received the last sacraments by a minister following a ritual that has performed the sacramental rite. The word rite is often applied to what are sometimes known as the five lesser sacraments, confirmation, reconciliation, matrimony, holy orders. The term rite refers to a body of liturgical tradition usually emanating from a specific center. Examples include the Roman Rite, the Byzantine Rite, and the Sarum Rite, such rites may include various sub-rites. For example, the Byzantine Rite has Greek, Russian, for a full list of Christian liturgical rites, see Christian liturgy. Of these, the largest is the Latin Rite or Western Church, there are also several Eastern Catholic Churches or Rites. For a full list of Catholic liturgical rites, see List of Catholic rites and churches, in North America, Freemasons have the option of joining the Scottish Rite and/or the York Rite, two appendant bodies that offer additional degrees to those who have taken the basic three. Ambrosian Rite Ceremony Chaldean rite Process Art Rites, a Confucian philosophical concept Ritual Primitive Scottish Rite Rite of Spring
10.
Old French
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Old French was the Gallo-Romance dialect continuum spoken from the 9th century to the 14th century. In the 14th century, these came to be collectively known as the langues doïl. The mid-14th century is taken as the period to Middle French. The areal of Old French in contemporary terms corresponded to the parts of the Kingdom of France, Upper Burgundy. As part of the emerging Gallo-Romance dialect continuum, the langues doïl were contrasted with the langue doc, in these examples, we notice a clear consequence of bilingualism, that sometimes even changed the first syllable of the Latin words. Pope estimated that perhaps still 15% of the vocabulary of modern French derives from Germanic sources, at the third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language, since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. The second-oldest document in Old French is the Eulalia sequence, which is important for reconstruction of Old French pronunciation due to its consistent spelling. The Capetians langue doïl, the forerunner of modern standard French, did not begin to become the common speech of all of France, however, until after the French Revolution. In the Late Middle Ages, the Old French dialects diverged into a number of distinct langues doïl, during the Early Modern period, French now becomes established as the official language of the Kingdom of France throughout the realm, also including the langue doc-speaking territories in the south. Old French gives way to Middle French in the mid-14th century, the earliest extant French literary texts date from the ninth century, but very few texts before the 11th century have survived. The first literary works written in Old French were saints lives, the Canticle of Saint Eulalie, written in the second half of the 9th century, is generally accepted as the first such text. The first of these is the area of the chansons de geste. More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in three hundred manuscripts. The oldest and most celebrated of the chansons de geste is The Song of Roland, a fourth grouping, not listed by Bertrand, is the Crusade cycle, dealing with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath. Jean Bodels other two categories—the Matter of Rome and the Matter of Britain—concern the French romance or roman, around a hundred verse romances survive from the period 1150–1220. From around 1200 on, the tendency was increasingly to write the romances in prose, the most important romance of the 13th century is the Romance of the Rose which breaks considerably from the conventions of the chivalric adventure story. The Occitan or Provençal poets were called troubadours, from the word trobar to find, lyric poets in Old French are called trouvères. By the late 13th century, the tradition in France had begun to develop in ways that differed significantly from the troubadour poets
11.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
12.
Forgiveness
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Forgiveness is different from condoning, excusing, forgetting, pardoning, and reconciliation. In certain contexts, forgiveness is a term for absolving or giving up all claims on account of debt, loan, obligation. As a psychological concept and virtue, the benefits of forgiveness have been explored in religious thought, in most contexts, forgiveness is granted without any expectation of restorative justice, and without any response on the part of the offender. Social and political dimensions of forgiveness Is the question of forgiveness restricted to the strictly private, the notion of forgiveness is generally considered unusual in the political field. However, Hannah Arendt considers that the faculty of forgiveness has its place in public affairs, the philosopher believes that forgiveness can liberate resources both individually and collectively in the face of the irreparable. Most world religions include teachings on the nature of forgiveness, and many of these provide an underlying basis for many varying modern day traditions. Dr. Robert Enright from the University of Wisconsin–Madison founded the International Forgiveness Institute and is considered the initiator of forgiveness studies and he developed a 20-Step Process Model of Forgiveness. Recent work has focused on what kind of person is likely to be forgiving. A longitudinal study showed that people who were generally more neurotic, angry, specifically, these people were more likely to still avoid their transgressor and want to enact revenge upon them two and a half years after the transgression. Studies show that people who forgive are happier and healthier than those who hold resentments, another study at the University of Wisconsin found the more forgiving people were, the less they suffered from a wide range of illnesses. The less forgiving people reported a number of health problems. His studies show a reduction in experience of stress, physical manifestations of stress, on the contrary, one should be easily pacified and find it difficult to become angry. When asked by an offender for forgiveness, one should forgive with a sincere mind, Forgiveness is natural to the seed of Israel. In Judaism, one must go to those he has harmed in order to be entitled to forgiveness and this means that in Judaism a person cannot obtain forgiveness from God for wrongs the person has done to other people. This pains my heart within me, because wrongs between humans and their fellow are not atoned by Yom Kippur, until the one is appeased. Because of this, my heart breaks within me, and my bones tremble, Therefore I prostrate and beg before You, to have mercy on me, and grant me grace, compassion, and mercy in Your eyes and in the eyes of all people. For behold, I forgive with a final and resolved forgiveness anyone who has wronged me, whether in person or property, even if they slandered me, or spread falsehoods against me. So I release anyone who has injured me either in person or in property, except for these two, I fully and finally forgive everyone, may no one be punished because of me
13.
Contrition
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In Christian theology, contrition or contriteness is repentance for sins one has committed. The remorseful person is said to be contrite, a central concept in much of Christianity, contrition is regarded as the first step, through Christ, towards reconciliation with God. It consists of repentance for all sins, a desire for God over sin. It is widely referred to throughout The Bible, e. g. Ezekiel 33,11, Psalms 6, 7ff, Psalm 51, 1-12, Luke 13,5, Luke 18, 9-13, and the well-known parable of the prodigal son. The Council of Trent defined contrition as sorrow of soul, and this hatred of sin may arise from various motives, may be prompted by various causes. It is also known as animi cruciatus and compunctio cordis, the word contrition implies a breaking of something that has become hardened. The early Christian writers in speaking of the nature of contrition sometimes insist on the feeling of sorrow, augustine includes both when writing, Compunctus corde non solet dici nisi stimulus peccatorum in dolore pœnitendi. Nearly all the medieval theologians hold that contrition is based principally on the detestation of sin and this detestation presupposes a knowledge of the heinousness of sin, and this knowledge begets sorrow and pain of soul. A sin is committed by the consent, so it is blotted out by the dissent of the rational will, hence contrition is essentially sorrow. But it should be noted that sorrow has a twofold signification--dissent of the will and the consequent feeling, the former is of the essence of contrition, the latter is its effect. The formal doctrine of the Church, announced through the Council of Trent, contrition is the first and indispensable condition for pardon. While it is possible for one to receive pardon where confession is impossible, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Catholic writers have always insisted that such necessity arises from the very nature of repentance as well as from the positive command of God. 32, Do penance in full, give proof of the sorrow that comes from a grieving and lamenting soul and they who do away with repentance for sin, close the door to satisfaction. The Council of Trent, mindful of the tradition of the ages, the positive command of God is also clear in the premises. The Baptist sounded the note of preparation for the coming of the Messiah, Make straight his paths, the Fathers followed up with like exhortation. Perfect contrition, is a repentance for sin that is motivated by faith and it contrasts with imperfect contrition, which arises from a less pure motive, such as common decency, or fear of Hell. The two types of contrition are distinguished by a motive for repentance, rather than the intensity of ones feelings or emotions. It is possible for perfect and imperfect contrition to be experienced simultaneously, in perfect contrition its motive is founded on Gods own goodness and not merely his goodness to the sinner or to humanity
14.
Faith in Christianity
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Faith in Christianity is a central notion taught by Jesus himself in reference to the gospel. Since the Protestant Reformation the meaning of this term has been an object of theological disagreement in Western Christianity. The differences have been overcome in the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification. Some of the definitions in the history of Christian theology have followed the formulation in Hebrews 11,1, the assurance of things hoped for. Christianity differs from other Abrahamic religions in that it focuses on the teachings of Jesus and it also includes a belief in the New Covenant. According to most Christian traditions, Christian faith requires a belief in Jesus resurrection from the dead, the precise understanding of the term faith differs among the various Christian traditions. Despite these differences, Christians generally agree that faith in Jesus lies at the core of the Christian tradition, the verb form of pistis is pisteuo, which is often translated into English versions of the New Testament as believe. The adjectival form, pistos, is almost always translated as faithful, the New Testament writers, following the translators of the Septuagint rendered words in the Hebrew scriptures that concerned faithfulness using pistis-group words. The pistis-group words are most appropriately translated into English by a range of words, the appropriate English translation is often evident from the relationship between the two entities connected by pistis. The pistis-group words in the New Testament can thus be interpreted as relating to ideas of faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, commitment, trust, belief, in the Protestant tradition, faith is generally understood to be closely associated with ideas of belief, trust, and reliance. This understanding is founded in the statements of the Reformers. One of their confessional statements explains, the acts of saving faith are accepting, receiving, and resting upon Christ alone for justification, sanctification. The Reformers contrasted faith with human efforts to do good works as a means of justification and this understanding of saving faith has remained within the Protestant tradition. Saving faith is generally understood in terms of a belief of, trust in, in a more everyday sense, faith is often discussed in terms of believing Gods promises, trusting in his faithfulness, and relying on Gods character and faithfulness to act. Hence, having faith in Jesus is generally understood to lead to changes in how one thinks. In recent decades, scholars have researched what pistis meant in the context of the New Testament writers. Such an understanding of faith can be integrated well with the moral theory of atonement. Hebrews 11,1, Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for and this passage concerning the function of faith in relation to the covenant of God is often used as a definition of faith
15.
Augsburg Confession
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The Augsburg Confession was written in both German and Latin and was presented by a number of German rulers and free-cities at the Diet of Augsburg on 25 June 1530. It is the document contained in the Lutheran Book of Concord. On 21 January 1530, Emperor Charles V issued letters from Bologna, although the writ of invitation was couched in very peaceful language, it was received with suspicion by some of the Protestants. This summary has received the name of the Torgau Articles, on 3 April, the elector and reformers started from Torgau, and reached Coburg on 23 April. There, Luther was left behind because he was an outlaw according to the Diet of Worms, the rest reached Augsburg on 2 May. On the journey, Melanchthon worked on an apology, using the Torgau articles, and sent his draft to Luther at Coburg on 11 May, during the diet, the cities of Weißenburg in Bayern, Heilbronn, Kempten, and Windesheim also expressed their concurrence with the confession. The Protestant princes, however, declared that they would not part with the confession until its reading should be allowed, the 25th was then fixed for the day of its presentation. In order to exclude the people, the chapel of the episcopal palace was appointed in place of the spacious city hall. The reading of the German version of the text by Christian Beyer lasted two hours and was so distinct that every word could be heard outside, the reading being over, the copies were handed to the emperor. The German he gave to the chancellor, the Elector of Mainz. Neither of the copies is now extant, the first official publication was edited by Philipp Melanchthon, a professor at the University of Wittenberg and a close colleague and friend of Martin Luther. That in doctrine and ceremonies nothing has been received on our part against Scripture or the Church Catholic, signatures of several secular leaders in Saxony. The Augsburg Confession became the confessional document for the Lutheran movement. Following the public reading of the Augsburg Confession in June 1530, the response by Charles V. However, in September, Charles V declared the response to be sufficient and gave the Lutheran princes until 15 April 1531, in response, Phillipp Melancthon wrote a lengthy and sustained argument both supporting the Augsburg Confession and refuting the arguments made in the Confutation. This document became known as the Apology of the Augsburg Confession and was translated into German and was widely distributed. The Lutheran princes at the diet concurrently agreed to an alliance in the event of action by Charles V known as the Schmalkaldic League. By 1535, the League admitted any city or state to the alliance that gave official assent to the Augsburg Confession and the Apology
16.
Law and Gospel
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In Protestant Christianity, the relationship between Law and Gospel—Gods Law and the Gospel of Jesus Christ—is a major topic in Lutheran and Reformed theology. It is used as a principle of biblical interpretation and a guiding principle in homiletics. It is the supersession of the Old Covenant by the New Covenant, sometimes the issue is discussed under the headings of Law and Grace, Sin and Grace, Spirit and Letter, and ministry of death/condemnation and ministry of the Spirit/righteousness. Martin Luther wrote, Hence, whoever knows well this art of distinguishing between Law and Gospel, him place at the head and call him a doctor of Holy Scripture, throughout the Lutheran Age of Orthodoxy this hermeneutical discipline was considered foundational and important by Lutheran theologians. This distinction was the first article in Patricks Places by Patrick Hamilton, the Formula of Concord distinguished three uses, or purposes, in the Law in Article VI. It states, he Law was given to men for three reasons and that thereby outward discipline might be maintained against wild, disobedient men that men thereby may be led to the knowledge of their sins that after they are regenerate. Confessional Lutheranism teaches that the Law cannot be used to deny the Gospel, the three uses of the Law are, Curb - Through fear of punishment, the Law keeps the sinful nature of both Christians and non-Christians under check. This does not stop sin, since the sin is committed when the heart desires to do what is wrong. Mirror - The Law serves as a reflection of what God created the human heart. It shows anyone who compares his/her life to Gods requirement for perfection that he/she is sinful, guide - This use of the law that applies only to Christians. The law becomes the believers helper, empowered by the gospel truth of forgiveness and righteousness in Christ, the believers new self eagerly desires to live to please the Triune God. The distinction between law and gospel is a standard formulation in Reformed theology, though in recent years some have characterized it as distinctively Lutheran, zacharias Ursinus sharply contrasted the law and gospel as the chief and general divisions of the holy scriptures in his commentary on the Heidelberg Catechism. Louis Berkhof called the law and the gospel the two parts of the Word of God as a means of grace, Law and Gospel are found in both testaments. In his Institutes of the Christian Religion, the Reformer John Calvin distinguished three uses in the Law, Calvin wrote the following, o make the whole matter clearer, let us survey briefly the function and use of what is called the moral law. Now, so far as I understand it, it consists of three parts and it warns, informs, convicts, and lastly condemns, every man of his own unrighteousness. It functions by fear of punishment to restrain certain men who are untouched by any care for what is just and it admonishes believers and urges them on in well-doing. This scheme is the same as the Formula of Concord, with the exception that the first, in later Reformed scholasticism the order is the same as for Lutherans. The three uses are called, The usus politicus sive civilis, the political or civil use, is a restraint on sin and it is part of Gods general revelation or common grace for unbelievers as well as believers
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Absolution
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Absolution is a traditional theological term for the forgiveness experienced in the Sacrament of Penance. This concept is found in the Roman Catholic Church, as well as the Eastern Orthodox churches, Absolution is an integral part of the Sacrament of Penance, in Roman Catholicism. The penitent makes a confession of all mortal sins to a priest. The priest then assigns a penance and imparts absolution in the name of the Trinity, on behalf of Christ Himself, using a fixed sacramental formula. The traditional formula is, Dominus noster Jesus Christus te absolvat, deinde, ego te absolvo a peccatis tuis in nomine Patris, et Filii, + et Spiritus Sancti. May our Lord Jesus Christ absolve you, and by His authority I absolve you from every bond of excommunication and interdict, so far as my power allows and your needs require. Thereupon, I absolve you from your sins in the name of the Father, et ego te absolvo a peccatis tuis in nomine Patris, et Filii, + et Spiritus Sancti. The essential part of the formula are, I absolve you and this formula is preceded by other short prayers similar to those used at Mass after the Confiteor. Suspension, in the context of the formula for absolution, refers to a penalty which can be incurred only by clerics, therefore. This prayer shows the concepts of merit and the Communion of Saints in the context of grace as understood in Catholic theology. The diocesan bishop must give permission before general absolution may be given under this circumstance. It is important to note that the occurrence of a number of penitents. The second circumstance is thus envisaged more for mission territories where priests may visit certain villages only a few times a year, anyone receiving general absolution is also required to make a complete, individual confession to a priest as soon as possible before receiving general absolution again. An historical example is the absolution given by Fr, william Corby to the Irish Brigade during the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. The French form absoute is used in English for the absolution of the dead, the absolution of the dead does not forgive sins or confer the sacramental absolution of the Sacrament of Penance. Rather, it is a series of prayers to God that the soul will not have to suffer the temporal punishment in Purgatory due for sins which were forgiven during the persons life. The absolution of the dead is performed in context of the Tridentine Mass. Eastern Orthodoxy is made up of a confederacy of Christian churches in the Eastern tradition
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Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
19.
Calvinism
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Calvinism is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians. The term Calvinism can be misleading, because the tradition which it denotes has always been diverse. The movement was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, early influential Reformed theologians include Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B, Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, and Gordon Clark were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians include J. I, sproul, Timothy J. Keller, John Piper, David Wells, and Michael Horton. Reformed churches may exercise several forms of polity, most are presbyterian or congregationalist. Calvinism is largely represented by Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist traditions, the biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. There are more conservative Reformed federations such as the World Reformed Fellowship, Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552 and it was a common practice of the Catholic Church to name what they perceived to be heresy after its founder. Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles, Calvin denounced the designation himself, They could attach us no greater insult than this word, Calvinism. It is not hard to guess where such a deadly hatred comes from that they hold against me, despite its negative connotation, this designation became increasingly popular in order to distinguish Calvinists from Lutherans and from newer Protestant branches that emerged later. Moreover, these churches claim to be—in accordance with John Calvins own words—renewed accordingly with the order of gospel. Since the Arminian controversy, the Reformed tradition—as a branch of Protestantism distinguished from Lutheranism—divided into two groups, Arminians and Calvinists. However, it is now rare to call Arminians a part of the Reformed tradition, some have also argued that Calvinism as a whole stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things including salvation. First-generation Reformed theologians include Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, John Oecolampadius, scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lords Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace. Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the presence of Christ in the Lords supper. Each of these also understood salvation to be by grace alone. Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, the doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther
20.
Theology of Huldrych Zwingli
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He also recognised the human element within the inspiration noting the differences in the canonical gospels. Zwinglianism is the Reformed confession based on the Second Helvetic Confession promulgated by Zwinglis successor Heinrich Bullinger in the 1560s, Zwinglis views on baptism were largely a response to Anabaptism, a movement which attacked the practice of infant baptism. He defended the baptism of children by describing it as a sign of a Christians covenant with disciples and he developed the symbolic view of the Eucharist. Zwinglis differences of opinion on this with Martin Luther resulted in the failure of the Marburg Colloquy to bring unity between the two Protestant leaders, Zwingli believed that the state governed with divine sanction. He believed that both the church and the state are placed under the rule of God. Christians were obliged to obey the government, but civil disobedience was allowed if the authorities acted against the will of God and he described a preference for an aristocracy over monarchic or democratic rule. The Bible is central in Zwinglis work as a reformer and is crucial in the development of his theology, Zwingli appealed to scripture constantly in his writings. This is strongly evident in his writings such as Archeteles. He believed that man is a liar and only God is the truth, for him scripture, as Gods word, brings light when there is only darkness of error. Zwingli initially appealed to scripture against Catholic opponents in order to counter their appeal to the church—which included the councils, the fathers, the schoolmen. To him, these authorities were based on man and liable to error and he noted that the fathers must yield to the word of God and not the word of God to the fathers. His insistence of using the word of God did not preclude him from using the councils or the fathers in his arguments. He gave them no independent authority, but he used them to show that the views he held were not simply his own, the inspiration of scripture, the concept that God or the Holy Spirit is the author, was taken for granted by Zwingli. His view of inspiration was not mechanical and he recognized the human element in his commentaries as he noted the differences in the canonical gospels and he did not recognize the apocryphal books as canonical. Like Martin Luther, Zwingli did not regard the Revelation of St John highly, and also did not accept a canon within the canon, but he did accept scripture as a whole. His major works on the subject include Baptism, Rebaptism, and Infant Baptism, A Reply to Hubmaier, A Refutation, in Baptism, Rebaptism, and Infant Baptism, Zwingli outlined his disagreements with both the Catholic and the Anabaptist positions. He accused the Anabaptists of adding to the word of God and he challenged Catholics by denying that the water of baptism can have the power to wash away sin. He argued against their view that those that received the Spirit and were able to live without sin were the only qualified to partake in baptism
21.
Nathan (prophet)
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For other biblical people with this name, see Nathan. Nathan is a person in the Hebrew Bible and his actions are described in the Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. According to 2 Samuel, he was a prophet who lived in the time of King David. According to Chronicles, Nathan wrote histories of the reigns of both David and Solomon, and was involved in the music of the temple. In 1 Kings 1, 8-45 it is Nathan who tells the dying David of the plot of Adonijah to become king, resulting in Solomon being proclaimed king instead, Nathan presides at the anointing of King Solomon, and his name appears in the coronation anthem Zadok the Priest. The feast day of Nathan the Prophet is on 24 October, in the Eastern Orthodox Church, and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, he is commemorated as a saint on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers. Book of Nathan the Prophet and History of Nathan the Prophet Nathan Sunday of the Holy Fathers Orthodox synaxarion synaxarion
22.
David
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David was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah, reigning in c. He is described as a man after Gods own heart in 1 Samuel 13,14 and Acts 13,22. The Hebrew prophets regarded him as the ancestor of the future messiah, the New Testament says he was an ancestor of Jesus. God is angered when Saul, Israels king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice and later disobeys a divine instruction to not only all of the Amalekites. Consequently, he sends the prophet Samuel to anoint David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul. Sauls courtiers recommend that he send for David, a man skillful on the lyre, wise in speech, and brave in battle. So David enters Sauls service as one of the royal armour-bearers, and plays the lyre to soothe the king, war comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat. David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Sauls army, refusing the kings offer of the royal armour, he kills Goliath with his sling. Saul inquires the name of the heros father. Saul sets David over his army, all Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him. Saul plots his death, but Sauls son Jonathan, one of those who loves David, warns him of his fathers schemes and David flees. He becomes a vassal of the Philistine king Achish of Gath, but Achishs nobles question his loyalty, Jonathan and Saul are killed, and David is anointed king over Judah. In the north, Sauls son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, with the death of Sauls son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all Israel. He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital. He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city, intending to build a temple for God, Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David, Your throne shall be established forever. David wins more victories over the Philistines, while the Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites, during a battle to conquer the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David seduces Bathsheba and causes the death of her husband Uriah the Hittite. In response, Nathan prophesies the punishment that shall fall upon him, in fulfillment of these words Davids son Absalom rebels. The rebellion ends at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, Absaloms forces are routed, and Absalom is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree, and killed by Joab, contrary to Davids order. Joab was the commander of Davids army, David laments the death of his favourite son, O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom
23.
Paris Psalter
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Together with Basil Is Homilies of St Gregory Nazianzus, the Paris Psalter is considered a key monument of the so-called Macedonian Renaissance in Byzantine art during the 10th century. Miniatures Castelseprio Macedonian Renaissance Macedonian art Leo Bible Kaya, İlkgül, Sanat ve Estetikte Asal Değerler, Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Sanat Tarihi Bölümü, Ankara 2015. Walther, Ingo F. and Norbert Wolf, codices Illustres, The worlds most famous illuminated manuscripts,400 to 1600. Steven H. Wander, “The Paris Psalter and the Antiquitates Judaicae of Flavius Josephus, ” Word & Image,30,2, pp. 90–103 The digitization of the Paris Psalter by the Bibliothèque nationale de France
24.
Lent
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Lent is a solemn religious observance in the Christian liturgical calendar that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends approximately six weeks later, before Easter Sunday. The purpose of Lent is the preparation of the believer through prayer, doing penance, mortifying the flesh, repentance of sins, almsgiving and this event is observed in the Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Methodist, and Roman Catholic Churches. Some Anabaptist and evangelical churches also observe the Lenten season, in Lent, many Christians commit to fasting, as well as giving up certain luxuries in order to replicate the sacrifice of Jesus Christ’s journey into the desert for 40 days. Many Christians also add a Lenten spiritual discipline, such as reading a daily devotional or praying through a Lenten calendar, the Stations of the Cross, a devotional commemoration of Christs carrying the Cross and of his execution, are often observed. Throughout Christendom, some adherents mark the season with the abstention from the consumption of meat. The English word Lent is a form of the Old English word lenten, meaning spring season. A dated term in German, lenz, is also related, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the shorter form seems to be a derivative of *laŋgo- long. And may possibly have reference to the lengthening of the days as characterizing the season of spring. The origin of the -en element is clear, it may simply be a suffix, or lencten may originally have been a compound of *laŋgo- long. In languages spoken where Christianity was earlier established, such as Greek and Latin, in modern, Greek the term is Σαρακοστή, derived from the earlier Τεσσαρακοστή, meaning fortieth. In other languages, the name used refers to the activity associated with the season, thus it is called fasting period in Czech, German, and Norwegian, and it is called great fast in Polish and Russian. The terms used in Filipino are kuwaresma and Mahál na Araw, various Christian denominations calculate the 40 days of Lent differently. The way they observe Lent also differs, in the Roman Rite, the definition of Lent varies according to different documents. Lent ends on either Holy Thursday or Good Friday, though some sources try to reconcile this with the phrase forty days by excluding Sundays and extending Lent through Holy Saturday no official documents support this interpretation. The day for beginning the Lenten fast is the following Monday, the special Ash Wednesday fast is transferred to the first Friday of the Ambrosian Lent. The period of Lent observed in the Eastern Catholic Churches corresponds to that in churches of Eastern Christianity that have similar traditions. In the Byzantine Rite, i. e. the Eastern Orthodox Great Lent is the most important fasting season in the church year, Great Lent is broken only after the Paschal Divine Liturgy. The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the traditional Churchs teaching on fasting, the rules for lenten fasting are the monastic rules
25.
Holy Week
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Holy Week in Christianity is the week just before Easter. In the West, it is also the last week of Lent, and includes Palm Sunday, Holy Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday. It does not include Easter Sunday, although traditions observing the Easter Triduum may overlap or displace part of Holy Week or Easter itself within that additional liturgical period, Holy Week in the Christian year is the week immediately before Easter. In this text, abstinence from flesh is commanded for all the days, dionysius Alexandrinus in his canonical epistle, refers to the 91 fasting days implying that the observance of them had already become an established usage in his time. The Codex Theodosianus, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions at law should cease, of the particular days of the great week the earliest to emerge into special prominence was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum Magnum with its vigil, which in the church was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday. Other writings that refer to related traditions of the early Church include, most notably, The Pilgrimage of Etheria, today, in the Western Christian Church, among Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, the liturgies used for Holy Week are nearly identical. Holy Week begins with Palm Sunday, which may also be known as Passion Sunday in some denominations, traditionally, Palm Sunday commemorates the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, one of the few events described in all four canonical gospels. As described in the accounts, Jesuss entry into Jerusalem was noted by the present who shouted praises. In the Roman Rite, before 1955 it was simply as Palm Sunday. From 1955 to 1971 it was called Second Sunday in Passiontide or Palm Sunday, among Lutherans and Anglicans, the day is known as the Sunday of the Passion, Palm Sunday. In many liturgical denominations, to commemorate the Messiahs entry into Jerusalem to accomplish his paschal mystery, immediately following this great time of celebration over the entrance of Jesus into Jerusalem, he begins his journey to the cross. The blessing is followed by a procession or solemn entrance into the church. The Mass or service of worship includes a reading of the Passion. The palms were then blessed with five prayers, and a procession went out of the church and on its return included a ceremony for the reopening of the doors, after this the normal Mass was celebrated. The days between Palm Sunday and Holy Thursday are known as Holy Monday, Holy Tuesday, and Holy Wednesday. Among them On Monday, some observe the anointing of Jesus at Bethany, other events which the Gospels tell of which may have occurred on this day include cursing the fig tree and the Cleansing of the Temple. On Tuesday, some observe Jesus predictions of his own death, as described in, on Wednesday, some observe the story of Judas arranging his betrayal of Jesus with the high priests
26.
Passion of Jesus
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Those parts of the four Gospels that describe these events, as well as the non-canonical Gospel of Peter, are known as the Passion narratives. In the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church, the Passion is commemorated in Holy Week, beginning on Friday of Sorrows, the Palm Sunday and culminating on his death on Good Friday. The word passion has taken on a more general application and now may also apply to accounts of the suffering and death of Christian martyrs. The accounts of the Passion are found in the four gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke. Three of these, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, known as the Synoptic Gospels, the Gospel of John accounts varies slightly. The events include, The conspiracy against Jesus by the Jewish Sanhedrin priests, triumphal entry into Jerusalem, his anger and outburst at the Cleansing of the Temple A meal a few days before Passover. He says that for this she always be remembered. In Jerusalem, the Last Supper shared by Jesus and his disciples, Jesus gives final instructions, predicts his betrayal, and tells them all to remember him. On the path to Gethsemane after the meal, Jesus tells them they will all fall away that night, after Peter protests he will not, Jesus says Peter will deny him three times before the cock crows. Gethsemane, later that night, Jesus prays, meanwhile, the disciples rest, during the arrest in Gethsemane, someone takes a sword and cuts off the ear of the high priests servant, Malchus. The high priests palace, later that night, According to Matthews Gospel, the court then spat in his face and struck him with their fists. They then send him to Pontius Pilate, According to the synoptic gospels, the high priest who examines Jesus is Caiaphas, in John, Jesus is also interrogated by Annas, Caiaiphas father-in-law. The courtyard outside the high palace, the same time. Peter has followed Jesus and joined the mob awaiting Jesus’ fate, they suspect he is a sympathizer, suddenly, the cock crows and Peter remembers what Jesus had said. Pilate, the Roman governor, examines Jesus, decides he is innocent, the Jewish leaders and the crowd demand Jesus’ death, Pilate gives them the choice of saving Barabbas, in response to the screaming mob Pilate sends Jesus out to be crucified. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Judas, the betrayer, is filled with remorse, when the high priests say that that is his affair, Judas throws the money into the temple, goes off, and hangs himself. Golgotha, a hill outside Jerusalem, later morning through mid afternoon, the Gospel of Luke states that Pilate sends Jesus to be judged by Herod Antipas because as a Galilean he is under his jurisdiction. Herod is excited at first to see Jesus and hopes Jesus will perform a miracle for him, he asks Jesus several questions, Herod then mocks him and sends him back to Pilate after giving him an elegant robe to wear
27.
Flagellantism
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Flagellants are practitioners of an extreme form of mortification of their own flesh by whipping it with various instruments. Flagellantism was a 13th and 14th centuries movement, consisting of radicals in the Catholic Church and it began as a militant pilgrimage and was later condemned by the Catholic Church as heretical. The followers were noted for including public flagellation in their rituals, flagellation was quite a common practice amongst the more fervently religious. Various religions, like the cult of Isis in Egypt and the Dionysian cult of Greece, in ancient Rome, eunuch priests of the Phrygian goddess Cybele, the Galli, flogged themselves until they bled during the annual festival called Dies sanguinis. Women were flogged during the Roman Lupercalia to ensure fertility, particularly following the example of the Benedictine monk Peter Damian in the 11th century, flagellation became a form of penance in the Catholic Church and its monastic orders. The 11th-century zealot Dominicus Loricatus repeated the entire Psalter twenty times in one week, the distinction of the Flagellants was to take this self-mortification into the cities and other public spaces as a demonstration of piety. As well as flagellation, the rituals were built around processions, hymns, distinct gestures, uniforms, and discipline. It was also said that when singing a hymn and upon reaching the part about the passion of the Christ, one must drop to the ground, also one mustnt move if the ground has something on it that may cause an inconvenience. The movement did not have a doctrine or overall leaders. The first recorded incident was in Perugia in 1259, the year after severe crop damage and it spread from there across Northern Italy and thence into Austria. Other incidents are recorded in 1296, 1333-34, notably at the time of the Black Death, the nature of the movement grew from a popular interest in religion combined with dissatisfaction with the Churchs control. The prime cause of the Perugia episode is unclear, but it followed an outbreak of an epidemic, thousands of citizens gathered in great processions, singing and with crosses and banners, they marched throughout the city whipping themselves. It is reported that acts of charity and repentance accompanied the marchers. However, one noted that anyone who did not join in the flagellation was accused of being in league with the devil. They also killed Jews and priests who opposed them, marvin Harris links them to the Messianic preaching of Gioacchino da Fiore. The movement spread across Northern Italy, up to 10,000 strong groups processing in Modena, Bologna, Reggio, however enthusiasm for the movement diminished as suddenly as it arose. When they preached that mere participation in their processions cleaned sins, as the movement lost momentum in Italy, it crossed into Austria and then Germany where the same pattern occurred. The peak of the activity was during the Black Death, then called the Great Death, spontaneously Flagellant groups arose across Northern and Central Europe in 1349, including in England
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Crucifixion
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It is principally known from classical antiquity, but remains in occasional use in some countries. The crucifixion of Jesus is a narrative in Christianity. Ancient Greek has two verbs for crucify, ana-stauro, from stauros, stake, and apo-tumpanizo crucify on a plank, in earlier pre-Roman Greek texts anastauro usually means impale. New Testament Greek uses four verbs, three of them based upon stauros, usually translated cross, prospegnumi, to fix or fasten to, impale, crucify occurs only once at the Acts of the Apostles 2,23. The English term cross derives from the Latin word crux, the Latin term crux classically referred to a tree or any construction of wood used to hang criminals as a form of execution. The term later came to specifically to a cross. The English term crucifix derives from the Latin crucifixus or cruci fixus, past participle passive of crucifigere or cruci figere, Crucifixion was often performed in order to terrorize and dissuade its witnesses from perpetrating particularly heinous crimes. Victims were left on display after death as warnings to others who might attempt dissent, Crucifixion was usually intended to provide a death that was particularly slow, painful, gruesome, humiliating, and public, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and time period, in some cases, the condemned was forced to carry the crossbeam to the place of execution. A whole cross would weigh well over 135 kg, but the crossbeam would not be quite as burdensome, weighing around 45 kg. Upright posts would presumably be fixed permanently in place. Objects used in the crucifixion of criminals, such as nails, were sought as amulets with perceived medicinal qualities, while a crucifixion was an execution, it was also a humiliation, by making the condemned as vulnerable as possible. Although artists have depicted the figure on a cross with a loin cloth or a covering of the genitals. Writings by Seneca the Younger state some victims suffered a stick forced upwards through their groin, despite its frequent use by the Romans, the horrors of crucifixion did not escape mention by some of their eminent orators. Frequently, the legs of the executed were broken or shattered with an iron club, an act called crurifragium. This act hastened the death of the person but was meant to deter those who observed the crucifixion from committing offenses. The gibbet on which crucifixion was carried out could be of many shapes, at times the gibbet was only one vertical stake, called in Latin crux simplex. This was the simplest available construction for torturing and killing the condemned, frequently, however, there was a cross-piece attached either at the top to give the shape of a T or just below the top, as in the form most familiar in Christian symbolism
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Advent
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Advent is a season observed in many Western Christian churches as a time of expectant waiting and preparation for the celebration of the Nativity of Jesus at Christmas. The term is a version of the Latin word meaning coming, Latin adventus is the translation of the Greek word parousia, commonly used to refer to the Second Coming of Christ. For Christians, the season of Advent anticipates the coming of Christ from three different perspectives. Since the time of Bernard of Clairvaux Christians have spoken of the three comings of Christ, in the flesh in Bethlehem, in our hearts daily, and in glory at the end of time. The season offers the opportunity to share in the ancient longing for the coming of the Messiah, in the Ambrosian Rite and the Mozarabic Rite of the Catholic Church, Advent begins on the sixth Sunday before Christmas, the Sunday after St. Martins Day. The equivalent of Advent in Eastern Christianity is called the Nativity Fast, but it differs in length and observances, the Eastern Nativity Fast does not use the equivalent parousia in its preparatory services. This has led to the conclusion that it is impossible to claim with confidence a credible explanation of the origin of Advent, associated with Advent was a period of fasting, known also as the Nativity Fast or the Fast of December. The theme of readings and teachings during Advent is often the preparation for the Second Coming, the usual liturgical color in Western Christianity for Advent is violet. The violet or purple color is used for hangings around the church, the vestments of the clergy. In addition, the blue is also used in the Mozarabic Rite. This color is referred to as Sarum blue. Proponents of this new liturgical trend argue that purple is associated with solemnity and somberness. The Roman Catholic Church retains the traditional violet, blue is not generally used in Latin Catholicism, and where it does regionally, it has nothing to do with Advent specifically, but with veneration of the Blessed Virgin. However, on occasions that are heavily associated with Advent, such as the Rorate Mass. During the Nativity Fast, red is used by Eastern Christianity, many churches also hold special musical events, such as Nine Lessons and Carols and singing of Handels Messiah oratorio. Also, the Advent Prose, an antiphonal plainsong, may be sung, the Late Advent Weekdays, 17–24 December, mark the singing of the Great Advent O antiphons. These are the antiphons for the Magnificat at Vespers, or Evening Prayer and Evensong in Anglican churches each day and they form the basis for each verse of the popular Advent hymn, O come, O come, Emmanuel. German songs for Advent include Es kommt ein Schiff, geladen from the 15th century and O Heiland, reiß die Himmel auf, during Advent, the Gloria of the Mass is omitted, so that the return of the angels song at Christmas has an effect of novelty
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Fasting
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Fasting is a willing abstinence or reduction from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. An absolute fast is normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a period, usually a period of 24 hours. Water fasting allows drinking water but nothing else, other fasts may be partially restrictive, limiting only particular foods or substances. A fast may also be intermittent in nature, Fasting practices may preclude intercourse and other activities as well as food. In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the status of a person who has not eaten overnight. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting, and some tests are used to determine a fasting state. For example, a person is assumed to be fasting after 8–12 hours from their last meal, metabolic changes toward the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal, post-absorptive state is synonymous with this usage, in contrast to the postprandial state of ongoing digestion. A diagnostic fast refers to prolonged fasting conducted under observation for investigation of a problem, many people may also fast as part of a medical procedure or check-up such as a colonoscopy. Fasting is also a part of religious observances. Fasting is often practiced prior to surgery or other procedures that require general anesthetics because of the risk of aspiration of gastric contents after induction of anesthesia. Additionally, certain tests, such as cholesterol testing or certain blood glucose measurements require fasting for several hours so that a baseline can be established. In the case of a panel, failure to fast for a full 12 hours will guarantee an elevated triglyceride measurement. Fasting is of no help in preventing or treating cancer. Fasting can help alleviate symptoms of depression. However the psychological effects may include anxiety and depression. Fasting will lead to weight loss, using fasting for weight loss is considered dangerous. It has been argued that fasting makes one better appreciate food, Fasting is often used as a tool to make a political statement, to protest, or to bring awareness to a cause. A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt, a spiritual fast incorporates personal spiritual beliefs with the desire to express personal principles, sometimes in the context of a social injustice
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Cilice
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A cilice /ˈsɪlᵻs/, also known as a sackcloth, was originally a garment or undergarment made of coarse cloth or animal hair worn close to the skin. Cilices were originally made from sackcloth or coarse animal hair so they would irritate the skin, other features were added to make cilices more uncomfortable, such as thin wires or twigs. In modern religious circles, cilices are simply any device worn for the same purposes, the word derives from the Latin cilicium, a covering made of goats hair from Cilicia, a Roman province in south-east Asia Minor. The reputed first Scriptural use of this term is in the original Latin Vulgate of Psalm 35,13, Ego autem, cum mihi molesti essent. This is translated as hair-cloth in the Douay Bible, and as sackcloth in the King James Version, Sackcloth is often mentioned in the Bible as a symbol of mourning and penance, and probably was a form of hairshirt. However, sackcloth in the Bible was usually made of coarse, there is some evidence, based on analyses of both clothing represented in art and preserved skin imprint patterns at Çatalhöyük in Turkey, that the usage of the cilice predates written history. This finding has been mirrored at Göbekli Tepe, another Anatolian site, ian Hodder has argued that self-injuring clothing was an essential component of the Catalhöyük culturoritual entanglement, representing cleansing and lightness. In the Christian Bible, the prophets Elijah and John the Baptist wore sackcloth woven from the hair of horses, such garments or adornments have been worn at various times in the history of the Christian faith, to mortify the flesh or as penance for adorning oneself. Being made of cloth, generally woven from goats hair. Thomas Becket was wearing a hairshirt when he was martyred, St, prince Henry the Navigator was found to be wearing a hairshirt at the time of his death in 1460. They have been used for centuries in the Catholic Church as a form of bodily penance. St. Francis of Assisi, St. Ignatius Loyola and St. Therese of Lisieux are known to have used them, in modern times they have been used by Mother Teresa, St. Padre Pio, and Pope Paul VI. According to John Allen, an American Catholic writer, its practice in the Catholic Church is more widespread than many observers imagine, some high church Anglicans, including Edward Bouverie Pusey, wear hair shirts as a part of their spirituality. In the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, influenced by the revival, penitents were dressed in sackcloth and called in front of the chancel. In some Methodist churches, on Ash Wednesday, communicants, along with receiving ashes, also receive a piece of sackcloth as a reminder of our own sinful ways, there is no blood, no injury, nothing to harm a persons health, nothing traumatic. If it caused any harm, the Church would not allow it. In Molières play, Tartuffe, the character is shown to be a religious hypocrite when he wears a hair shirt with the hair lining facing outward, so that it can be seen. In Gustave Flauberts The Legend of St. Julian the Hospitaler, in Flannery OConnors novel Wise Blood, the protagonist Hazel Motes is discovered by his landlady to be wearing a barbed wire cilice around his torso after he has blinded himself
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Mortification of the flesh
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Mortification of the flesh is an act by which an individual or group seeks to mortify, or put to death, their sinful nature, as a part of the process of sanctification. In Christianity, common forms of mortification that are practiced to this day include fasting, abstinence, also common among Christian religious orders in the past were the wearing of sackcloth, as well as flagellation in imitation of Jesus of Nazareths suffering and death by crucifixion. Christian theology holds that the Holy Spirit helps believers in the mortification of the sins of the flesh, some forms unique to various Asian cultures are carrying heavy loads and immersion in water. According to Christian exegesis, deeds of the body and what is earthly, refer to the nature of man or his concupiscence. The Apostle Paul, who authored Romans, expected believers to put to death the deeds of the flesh and it can also be practiced by choosing a simple or even impoverished lifestyle, this is often one reason many monks of various religions take vows of poverty. Among votarists, traditional forms of mortification are the cilice. In some of its more severe forms, it can mean using a discipline to flagellate oneself, in Christianity, the Rev. Michael Geisler, a Catholic priest of the Opus Dei Prelature in St. Louis, wrote two articles explaining the theological purpose behind corporal mortification. Self-denial helps a person overcome both psychological and physical weakness, gives him energy, helps him grow in virtue and ultimately leads to salvation and it conquers the insidious demons of softness, pessimism and lukewarm faith that dominate the lives of so many today. Some theologians explain that the value of pain makes pain lovable in its effects. Pain is temporal and limited, thus to undergo it is worthwhile to gain the real benefits, for those with this viewpoint, pain is seen as a means to an end. Thus, a modern Catholic saint, Josemaria Escriva said, while consoling a dying woman who was suffering in a hospital, Blessed be pain. The root of the modern-day perplexity over mortification, according to some theologians, is the denial of God. Some Christians note that the cross carried by Jesus is the crossbar or patibulum, a tree trunk. Christ also fasted for 40 days and 40 nights, an example of submission to the first person of the Trinity, God the Father, the early Christians mortified the flesh through martyrdom and through what has been called confession of the faith, accepting torture in a joyful way. Saint Jerome, a Western church father and biblical scholar who translated the Bible into Latin, was famous for his severe penances in the desert, some canonized Catholic saints and founders of Roman Catholic religious organizations practiced mortification in order to imitate Christ. This is the true, earnest, and unfeigned mortification, to wit, to be exercised with divers afflictions, and such external discipline ought to be urged at all times, not only on a few and set days. So Christ commands, Luke 21,34, Take heed lest your hearts be overcharged with surfeiting,17,21, This kind goeth not out but by prayer and fasting. 9,27, I keep under my body and bring it into subjection, in The Ninety-Five Theses, Martin Luther stated that inner repentance is worthless unless it produces various outward mortification of the flesh
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Early Christianity
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Early Christianity is the period of Christianity preceding the First Council of Nicaea in 325. It is typically divided into the Apostolic Age and the Ante-Nicene Period, the early Gospel message was spread orally, probably in Aramaic, but almost immediately also in Greek. After the conversion of Paul the Apostle, he claimed the title of Apostle to the Gentiles, Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other New Testament author. As the New Testament canon developed, the Pauline epistles, the canonical gospels, Early Christians demonstrated a wide range of beliefs and practices, many of which were later denounced as heretical. The earliest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic, Second Temple Jewish sect, the first part of the period, during the lifetimes of the Twelve Apostles, is called the Apostolic Age. The relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed although Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament author and they think the Christians the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited. The first action taken against Christians by the order of an emperor occurred half a century earlier under Nero after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. During the Ante-Nicene Period following the Apostolic Age, a diversity of views emerged simultaneously with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. Part of the trend was an increasingly harsh anti-Judaism and rejection of Judaizers. Early Christianity gradually grew apart from Judaism during the first two centuries and established itself as a predominantly gentile religion in the Roman Empire. From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs, Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr described these practices. Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings and it seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesuss disciples practised baptism, which became integral to nearly every manifestation of the religion of the Jews. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Many of the interpretations that would later become Orthodox Christian beliefs concerning baptism can be traced to such as Paul. On the basis of this description, it was supposed by some modern theologians that the early Christians practised baptism by submersion and this interpretation is debated between those Christian denominations who advocate immersion baptism exclusively and those who practice baptism by affusion or aspersion as well as by immersion. Yet the Didache, one of the earliest Christian writings on liturgical practices, the Orthodox Church continues this practice, submerging the baptized and then pouring water on the head in that formula. Infant baptism was practised at least by the 3rd century. Others believe that infants were excluded from the baptism of households, citing verses of the Bible that describe the baptized households as believing, in the 2nd century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it
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Reinforcement
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In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organisms future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a frequency of behavior, longer duration, greater magnitude. Reinforcement does not require an individual to perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior, however, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus. An ibuprofen is a reinforcer because it takes away pain. Kennedy or of the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks, Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning. B. F. Skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the constructs of reinforcement. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength rather than to more subjective criteria, accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing. If the frequency of cookie-requesting behavior increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing cookie-requesting behavior, If however, cookie-requesting behavior does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer, the study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinners conclusions, the term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response, the experimenter waits for the response to occur, Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning - see punishment, Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases. A positive reinforcer is an event for which the animal will work in order to acquire it. Verbal and physical reward is very useful positive reinforcement Example, Whenever a rat presses a button, If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior. Example, A father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys, If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer. Example, A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the number of items sold, the prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase sales
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Russian Orthodox Church
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The Russian Orthodox Church, alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate, is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates. The Primate of the ROC is the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus and it also exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the autonomous Church of Japan and the Orthodox Christians resident in the Peoples Republic of China. The ROC branches in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Moldova and Ukraine since the 1990s enjoy various degrees of self-government, in Ukraine, ROC has tensions with schismatic groups supported by the current government, while it enjoys the position of numerically dominant religious organisation. The ROC should also not be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, headquartered in New York, New York, the two Churches reconciled on May 17,2007, the ROCOR is now a self-governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church. According to one of the legends, Andrew reached the location of Kiev. The spot where he erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrews Cathedral. By the end of the first millennium AD, eastern Slavic lands started to come under the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatios, by the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Byzantine Greek priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus′ to convert to Christianity and her grandson, Vladimir of Kiev, made Rus officially a Christian state. The Kievan church was a metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch appointed the metropolitan, who usually was a Greek. The Metropolitans residence was located in Kiev itself, the capital of the medieval Rus state. Following the tribulations of the Mongol invasion, the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival, despite the politically motivated murders of Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver, the Mongols were generally tolerant and even granted tax exemption to the Church. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tatar oppression, the Trinity monastery founded by Sergius of Radonezh became the setting for the flourishing of spiritual art, exemplified by the work of Andrey Rublev, among others. The followers of Sergius founded four hundred monasteries, thus extending the geographical extent of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. However, the Moscow Prince Vasili II rejected the act of the Council of Florence brought to Moscow by Isidore in March 1441, Isidore was in the same year removed from his position as an apostate and expelled from Moscow. The Russian metropolitanate remained effectively vacant for the few years due largely to the dominance of Uniates in Constantinople then. In December 1448, Jonas, a Russian bishop, was installed by the Council of Russian bishops in Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia without the consent from Constantinople. Subsequently, there developed a theory in Moscow that saw Moscow as the Third Rome, the successor to Constantinople
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Divine Liturgy
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Divine Liturgy is the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine Rite which is the Rite of the The Great Church of Christ and was developed from the Antiochene Rite of Christian liturgy. As such, it is used in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Armenian Christians, both of the Armenian Apostolic Church and of the Armenian Catholic Church, use the same term. Some Oriental Orthodox employ the term holy offering for their Eucharistic liturgies instead, the term is sometimes applied also to Roman Rite Eucharistic liturgies, though the term Mass is more commonly used there. In Eastern traditions, those of the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Divine Liturgy is seen as transcending time, all believers are believed to be united in worship in the Kingdom of God along with departed Saints and the celestial Angels. To this end, everything in the Liturgy is seen as symbolic, yet also not just merely symbolic, according to Eastern tradition and belief, the Liturgys roots go back to Jewish worship and the adaptation of Jewish worship by Early Christians. This can be seen in the first parts of the Liturgy termed the Liturgy of the Catechumens that includes reading of scriptures and, the latter half was added based on the Last Supper and the first Eucharistic celebrations by Early Christians. Each Liturgy has its differences from others, but most are similar to each other with adaptations based on tradition, purpose, culture. The Divine Liturgy of St. Basil the Great, used on the 5 Sundays of Great Lent, on the eves of the Nativity and Theophany, and on Holy Thursday and Holy Saturday, it is celebrated as a vesperal liturgy. In some traditions, Saint Basils Liturgy is also celebrated on the Exaltation of the Life-giving Cross on September 14, all together, St. Basils liturgy is celebrated 10 times out of the liturgical year. The Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, is used during Great Lent on Wednesdays, Fridays, and a handful of other occasions, and also on the first three days of Holy Week. Nowadays it is celebrated as a vesperal liturgy, the Liturgy of the Faithful has no Anaphora. It is traditionally attributed to St. Gregory the Dialogist, although some believe it originated with Patriarch Severus of Antioch. The Liturgy of Saint Mark was also observed in the Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria on at least that Saints day until recent times. As numbers in a diocese increased dramatically the bishop as presiding over the Eucharistic assembly appointed presbyters as celebrant in the local community, still, the Church is understood in Eastern Orthodoxy not in terms of the presbyter, but the diocesan bishop. When the latter is present, he is chief celebrant, phrases and hymns are also added. The hierarch commemorates his hierarch demonstrating unity with the greater Orthodox community, note, Psalms are numbered according to the Greek Septuagint. For the Hebrew Masoretic numbering that is familiar in the West. The format of Divine Liturgy is fixed, although the specific readings and hymns vary with season, in modern times, this restriction applies only to Holy Communion — reception of the sacrament of holy communion
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Sacred mysteries
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Sacred mysteries are the areas of supernatural phenomena associated with a divinity or a religious ideology. Beliefs of the religion which are public knowledge but cannot be explained by normal rational or scientific means. Mysticism may be defined as an area of philosophical or religious thought which focuses on mysteries in the first sense above, a mystagogue or hierophant is a holder and teacher of secret knowledge in the second sense above. In some, parts of the doctrine were apparently known to priests. They included the Eleusinian Mysteries, Mithraism, the Cult of Isis, the Cult of Sol Invictus, Mystery traditions were popular in ancient Greece and during the height of the Roman Empire, and as discussed below, parts of Early Christianity used secrecy in the same way. Although the term is not used equally by all Christian traditions, to name but a few key examples, these include the nature of the Trinity, the Virgin Birth of Jesus, and the Resurrection of Jesus. These are mysteries in the sense that they cannot be explained or apprehended by reason alone, the word mysterion is used 27 times in the New Testament. It denotes not so much the meaning of the modern English term mystery, in the biblical Greek, the term refers to that which awaits disclosure or interpretation. The position, if not the terminology, of other Christian churches is essentially the same, as the Age of Persecution ended, the secrecy was gradually relaxed. But the term continued to be used, and the word is used in the Eastern Orthodox churches to describe mysteries. Hence Pope Paul VIs papal encyclical of 3 September 1965 on the Eucharist was titled, from its opening words, in the Roman Rite Catholic Mass within or immediately after the formula of consecration of the wine, the celebrant says Let us proclaim the mystery of faith. The term is used in Eastern Christianity to refer to what the Western Church currently calls Sacraments and Sacramentals, thus, for instance, the Council of Trent declared there to be exactly seven sacraments. The Eastern Churches, in contrast, have never defined the Mysteries in such precise terms, and, though the Western Church teaches that the consecrated bread and wine of the Eucharist are one Sacrament, the Divine Liturgy refers to the Eucharist as the Mysteries, in the plural. Orthodox Christians have always received Holy Communion in both species, and even reserve both in the tabernacle, the Sacred Mysteries can be defined as those holy acts through which the Holy Spirit mysteriously and invisibly confers Grace upon man. Christian life is centered in the Mystery of the Incarnation of Christ, however, the redemption of man is not considered to have taken place only in the past, but continues to this day through theosis. The Sacraments, or Sacred Mysteries are the most important means by which the faithful may obtain union with God, Christians believe that God is present everywhere and fills all things by his Divine grace, and that all of creation is, in some sense, a sacrament. However, they believe that He is more specifically and intensively present in particular and reliable manners which He Himself has established, in several other religions, knowledge of some esoteric parts of the doctrine or teachings is reserved only for certain members. This has been a feature of Tantric Buddhism, Hinduism, Catharism, some parts of Shia Islam, in traditional Judaism, study of much of the mystical tradition of Kabbalah is reserved for scholars
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Icon
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An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and certain Eastern Catholic churches. The most common subjects include Christ, Mary, saints and/or angels, icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, painted on wood, done in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, etc. Comparable images from Western Christianity are generally not described as icons, Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that the creation of Christian images dates back to the very early days of Christianity, and there is has been a continuous tradition since then. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, there was enormous destruction of images during the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 726-842, although this did settle for good the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then icons have had a continuity of style and subject. At the same time there has been change and development, Christian tradition dating from the 8th century identifies Luke the Evangelist as the first icon painter. Aside from the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ and he relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness. In this version there is no image, further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the 10th century, when it was taken to Constantinople. It went missing in 1204 when Crusaders sacked Constantinople, but by then numerous copies had firmly established its iconic type. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the manner of the Gentiles. And he called him and said, Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait, can it be one of thy gods that is painted here. For I see that you are living in heathen fashion. Later in the passage John says, But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect, at least some of the hierarchy of the Christian churches still strictly opposed icons in the early 4th century. At the Spanish non-ecumenical Synod of Elvira bishops concluded, Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration. to our religion. After the emperor Constantine I extended official toleration of Christianity within the Roman Empire in 313 and this period of Christianization probably saw the use of Christian images became very widespread among the faithful, though with great differences from pagan habits. Robin Lane Fox states By the early century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saints shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, when Constantine himself apparently converted to Christianity, the majority of his subjects remained pagans
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Acheiropoieta
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Acheiropoieta — also called Icons Made Without Hands — are Christian icons which are said to have come into existence miraculously, not created by a human. Invariably these are images of Jesus or the Virgin Mary, the term is also used of icons that are only regarded as normal human copies of a miraculously created original archetype. Although the most famous acheiropoieta today are mostly icons in paint on panel, they have been in several other types of technique, such as mosaics, painted tile. The belief in such images becomes prominent only in the 6th century, the pilgrim Antoninus of Piacenza was shown a relic of the Veil of Veronica type in Memphis, Egypt in the 570s. Such images functioned as powerful relics as well as icons, like other icon types believed to be painted from the live subject, such as the Hodegetria, they therefore acted as important references for other images in the tradition. The apostles were also said to have very active as patrons, commissioning cycles in illuminated manuscripts. Many famous images, including the Image of Edessa and Hodegetria, were described in versions of their stories as this type of image, such icons were seen as powerful arguments against iconoclasm. The Image of Edessa, described as still at Edessa,2, the image of the Virgin at Lod, Israel, which was said to have miraculously appeared imprinted on a column of a church built by the apostles Peter and John,3. Another image of the Virgin, three high, at Lod in Israel, which was said to have miraculously appeared in another church. The nine other miracles listed deal with the rather than creation of icons. This list seems to have had a bias, as other then-famous images are not mentioned, such as the Image of Camuliana. Another example, and the one which indisputably still exists, is a mosaic of the young Christ from the sixth century in the church of Latomos Monastery in Thessaloniki. This was apparently covered by plaster during the Iconoclastic period, towards the end of which an earthquake caused the plaster to fall down, however, this was only a subsidiary miracle, according to the account we have. According to legend, Abgar V wrote to Jesus, asking him to cure him of an illness. Abgar received a letter from Jesus, declining the invitation. Along with the letter went a likeness of Jesus and this legend was first recorded in the early fourth century by Eusebius, who said that he had transcribed and translated the actual letter in the Syriac chancery documents of the king of Edessa. Instead, Thaddeus of Edessa, one of the seventy disciples, is said to have come to Edessa, bearing the words of Jesus, the image was moved to Constantinople in the 10th century. The cloth disappeared from Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 and it finally disappeared in the French Revolution
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Analogion
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An analogion is a lectern or slanted stand on which icons or the Gospel Book are placed for veneration by the faithful in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches. It may also be used as a lectern to read from liturgical books during the divine services, the analogion is normally slanted slightly, to make it easier for the one standing in front of it to see the icon or book laid on it. The analogion may have four legs or only one in the center and it is often covered with rich cloth which either partially or completely covers the analogion on all sides. Some analogia are made so they fold for easy portability, some are intricately carved of fine wood and they are normally light enough to be moved without too much difficulty. There is also a type of analogion which is used in the kliros by the chanters and this often has two or three sides and turns to allow the singers to more easily use the numerous liturgical texts required during the services. There is an older Greek design for this type of analogion that is octagonal with a flat top instead of slanted and this style is still found in use on Mount Athos and at other ancient monasteries throughout the world. Sometimes this type of analogion is intricately inlaid with mother of pearl or other semi-precious materials. A similar piece of furniture is called the tetrapodion, which is a table which can be set in the center of the church, usually covered with a cloth, and upon which objects are placed to be blessed. Analogia are used for the veneration of icons, usually with a candlestand beside or behind it, the candlestand may hold one candle and be used to shine light on the icon, or it may have places for the faithful to offer candles as they venerate the icon. During the Divine Liturgy an analogion is placed in front of the Holy Doors for the reading of the Gospel and altar servers will stand to either side with processional candles. If a deacon is reading the Gospel, the analogion will be set so that he faces East as he reads, if a priest is reading, the analogion will be set so that he faces West. When a priest or bishop hears Confession, he will do so standing beside an analogion on which has placed a Gospel Book. Credence table Prie-dieu Parry, Ken, David Melling, the Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity. The Analogion of the Protopsalte Patriarchal Church of St George, Istanbul
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Gospel Book
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The Gospel Book, Evangelion, or Book of the Gospels is a codex or bound volume containing one or more of the four Gospels of the Christian New Testament — normally all four. Liturgical use in churches of a distinct Gospel book remains normal, often compulsory, in Eastern Christianity, protestant churches normally just use a complete Bible. In the early Middle Ages, the production of copies of the Bible in its entirety was rare, individual books or collections of books were produced for specific purposes. From the 4th century Gospel Books were produced for use, as well as private study. The Codex Washingtonianus is an example of a book containing only the four gospels, in Greek. By the 7th century particular gospel texts were allocated to days in the liturgical calendar, in the East they remained a significant subject for illumination until the arrival of printing. The Evangelist portrait was a feature of their decoration. Most of the masterpieces of both Insular and Ottonian illumination are Gospel Books, and there are very many Byzantine and Carolingian examples, but most Gospel Books were never illuminated at all, or only with decorated initials and other touches. They often contained, in addition to the text of the Gospels themselves, supporting texts including Canon Tables, summaries, glossaries, however, use of the Book of the Gospels is not mandatory, and the gospel readings are also included in the standard Lectionary. The Book of the Gospels, if used, is brought to the altar in the entrance procession, when carried in procession, the Book of the Gospels is held slightly elevated, though not over the head. It is particularly proper for the deacon to carry the Book of the Gospels in procession, when there is no deacon, the Book may be carried by a lector. Upon reaching the altar, the deacon or lector bows in veneration of the altar, then places the Book upon the altar, where it remains until the Alleluia. During the singing of the Alleluia, the deacon, or in his absence, if incense is used, the Book of the Gospels is censed by the deacon before the reading or chanting. An altar server or acolyte will swing the censer slowly during the reading or chanting, if the Rite of Dismissal of catechumens is celebrated, the Book of the Gospels is carried in procession in front of the catechumens as they leave the church. Following this several publishers have produced gospel books for use in the Episcopal Church, afterward, it may be returned to the altar or placed on a side table or a stand. Among Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholics the Gospel Book is very important liturgically and it is considered to be an icon of Christ, and is venerated in the same manner as an icon. The Gospel Book contains the readings that are used at Matins, the Divine Liturgy, Molebens, occasionally it will contain pre-arranged texts of the more complex composite readings, such as the Twelve Gospels read at Matins on Good Friday. Traditionally, the Orthodox will never cover the Gospel Book in leather—the skin of a dead animal—because the words of Christ are considered to be life-giving, animal skins are also reminiscent of the Fall of Man, when God fashioned garments of skin for Adam and Eve after their disobedience
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Crucifix
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A crucifix is an image of Jesus on the cross, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the corpus, the crucifix is a principal symbol for many groups of Christians, and one of the most common forms of the Crucifixion in the arts. The symbol is less common in churches of other Protestant denominations, the crucifix emphasizes Jesus sacrifice — his death by crucifixion, which Christians believe brought about the redemption of mankind. Most crucifixes portray Jesus on a Latin cross, rather than any other shape, Western crucifixes usually have a three-dimensional corpus, but in Eastern Orthodoxy Jesus body is normally painted on the cross, or in low relief. Strictly speaking, to be a crucifix, the cross must be three-dimensional, an entire painting of the Crucifixion of Jesus including a landscape background and other figures is not a crucifix either. Large crucifixes high across the axis of a church are known by the Old English term rood. By the late Middle Ages these were a feature of Western churches. The standard, four-pointed Latin crucifix consists of an upright post or stipes, there may also be a short projecting nameplate, showing the letters INRI. The corpus of Eastern crucifixes is normally a two-dimensional or low relief icon that shows Jesus as already dead, his face peaceful, more sculptural small crucifixes in metal relief are also used in Orthodoxy, including as pectoral crosses and blessing crosses. Western crucifixes may show Christ dead or alive, the presence of the wound in his ribs traditionally indicating that he is dead. In either case his face very often shows his suffering, in Orthodoxy he has normally been shown as dead since around the end of the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Eastern crucifixes have Jesus two feet nailed side by side, rather than crossed one above the other, as Western crucifixes have shown them since around the 13th century. The crown of thorns is also absent in Eastern crucifixes, since the emphasis is not on Christs suffering. The S-shaped position of Jesus body on the cross is a Byzantine innovation of the late 10th century, probably more from Byzantine influence, it spread elsewhere in the West, especially to Italy, by the Romanesque period, though it was more usual in painting than sculpted crucifixes. Its in Italy that the emphasis was put on Jesus suffering and realistic details, during the 13th century the suffering Italian model triumphed over the traditional Byzantine one anywhere in Europe also due to the works of artists such as Giunta Pisano and Cimabue. Since the Renaissance the S-shape is generally less pronounced. He may be robed as a prophet, crowned as a king, on some crucifixes a skull and crossbones are shown below the corpus, referring to Golgotha, the site at which Jesus was crucified, which the Gospels say means in Hebrew the place of the skull. Very large crucifixes have been built, the largest being the Cross in the Woods in Michigan, prayer in front of a crucifix, which is seen as a sacramental, is often part of devotion for Christians, especially those worshipping in a church, and also privately
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Trisagion Prayers
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The Trisagion, sometimes called by its opening line Agios O Theos, is a standard hymn of the Divine Liturgy in most of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches. In churches which use the Byzantine Rite, the Trisagion is chanted immediately before the Prokeimenon and it is also included in a set of prayers named for it, called the Trisagion Prayers, which forms part of numerous services. It is popular also in the Latin Church, where it is a part of the supplication, the Chaplet of Divine Mercy, for other languages, please see the section below The Trisagion prayer is an ancient prayer in Christianity. It may be that the prayer was originally an expansion of the angelic cry recorded in Isaiah ch 6, v 3 or the one at Revelation 4,8 In Greek, Ἅγιος ὁ Θεός, Ἅγιος ἰσχυρός, Ἅγιος ἀθάνατος, ἐλέησον ἡμᾶς. Agios o Theos, Agios ischyros, Agios athanatos, eleison imas, in English, Holy God, Holy Strong, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us. Or more commonly, Holy God, Holy Mighty One, Holy Immortal One, have mercy on us, in Latin, Sanctus Deus, Sanctus Fortis, Sanctus Immortális, miserére nobis. The Greek phrase Trisagion translates as Thrice Holy - as in this hymn God is described as holy in three different qualities, Agios o Theos means Holy God. The hymn is of great antiquity, and perhaps much older than the event assigned by the Greek Menology as connected to its origin. The child was seen to descend again to the earth. After giving this exhortation, the child died, some believe it is extremely ancient perhaps of apostolic-era origin. However this goes against the Tradition in regards to the hymn, the Coptic Orthodox Church believes that the Trisagion originated from Nicodemus. While taking the body of Christ off the cross with Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus saw Jesus Christs eyes open and then shouted Holy God, Holy Mighty, traditionally, it is also considered proof that his Divinity did not part from his humanity. Benedict XIV thought that the Greek formula was joined with the Latin in allusion to the voice heard at Constantinople. But the explanation seems hardly necessary, in view of the retention of Kyrie eleison in the Roman Liturgy, as well as such Hebrew words as Amen, Alleluia, Hosanna, Sabaoth. Various additions or modifications made to the Trisagion at certain points in history have been the subject of considerable controversy. According to Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor, the phrase who wast crucified for us was added to it by Eustathius of Antioch to combat the Arians and it was more likely written during the time of Peter the Fuller who enforced its use as a sort of test of orthodoxy against Nestorianism. Those who understood the hymn as being addressed to the trinity, emperor Anastasius Is attempt to adopt the addition in 512 at Constantinople resulted in a riot. But in light of widespread adoption of the hymn with the addition, Calandion, Bishop of Antioch, sought to allay the controversy surrounding it by prefixing the words Christ
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Psalm 51
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Psalm 51, traditionally referred to as the Miserere, its Latin incipit, is one of the Penitential Psalms. It begins, Have mercy on me, O God, the psalms opening words in Latin, Miserere mei, Deus, have led to its being called the Miserere mei or just Miserere. It is often known by name in musical settings. The psalm is used in various liturgical traditions because of its spirit of humility. Many psalms include introductory text in the manuscript attributing it to a particular author, the New King James Version of the Bible introduces it, To the choirmaster. A Psalm of David, when Nathan the prophet came to him, the superscription in the Septuagint reads, For the End, A Psalm of David, When Nathan the Prophet Came unto Him, When He Went in unto Bersabee the Wife of Urias. Robert Alter has Do not fling me from Your presence, commenting, as elsewhere, Verse 13, Cast me not away from thy presence. Forms a central part of the Selihot services Verse 17, O Lord, is recited as a preface to the Amida, the central prayer in Jewish services. Verse 20, Do good in thy will unto Zion. is recited in the liturgy as the Torah is removed from the Ark before being read on Sabbath. The psalm is recited along with Parashat Para, the Torah portion describing the ritual of the red heifer that is read in preparation for Passover, in the Daily Office it is recited in each of three aggregates. In the Divine Liturgy it is recited by the deacon while he censing the church at the conclusion of the Proskomedie. It is also a part of many sacraments and other services, notably, as a penitential psalm, in the Agpeya, Coptic Churchs book of hours, it is recited at every office throughout the day as a prayer of confession and repentance. In Western Christianity, Psalm 51 is also used liturgically, in the Roman Catholic Church this psalm may be assigned by a priest to a penitent as a penance after Confession. Verse 7 of the psalm is sung as the priest sprinkles holy water over the congregation before Mass, in a rite known as the Asperges me. This reference lends a striking significance to the Mass as Sacrifice, in the Divine Office, it was traditionally said at Lauds on all ferias, the 1911 reform restricted this use to the ferias of Advent and Lent. It is otherwise said as part of the cycle on Wednesday at Matins. In the Liturgy of the Hours, it is prayed during Lauds every Friday, Psalm 51 was recited by Lady Jane Grey before her beheading at the Tower of London in 1554. A section of verse 17 is often used as the invitatory antiphon the Liturgy of the Hours, parts of Psalm 51 are used as a responsorial psalm in both the Revised Common Lectionary and the Roman Catholic Lectionary on Ash Wednesday and on other days
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Septuagint
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The Septuagint is a Koine Greek translation of an Hebraic textual tradition that included certain texts which were later included in the canonical Hebrew Bible and other related texts which were not. As the primary Greek translation of the Old Testament, it is called the Greek Old Testament. This translation is quoted a number of times in the New Testament, particularly in Pauline epistles, the title and its Roman numeral LXX refer to the legendary seventy Jewish scholars who solely translated the Five Books of Moses into Koine Greek as early as the 3rd century BCE. Separated from the Hebrew canon of the Jewish Bible in Rabbinic Judaism, the traditional story is that Ptolemy II sponsored the translation of the Torah. The Septuagint should not be confused with the seven or more other Greek versions of the Old Testament, of these, the most important are those by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. However, it was not until the time of Augustine of Hippo that the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures came to be called by the Latin term Septuaginta. This narrative is found in the pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas to his brother Philocrates, the story is also found in the Tractate Megillah of the Babylonian Talmud, King Ptolemy once gathered 72 Elders. He placed them in 72 chambers, each of them in a separate one and he entered each ones room and said, Write for me the Torah of Moshe, your teacher. God put it in the heart of one to translate identically as all the others did. Philo of Alexandria, who relied extensively on the Septuagint, says that the number of scholars was chosen by selecting six scholars from each of the tribes of Israel. After the Torah, other books were translated over the two to three centuries. It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where, some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, the quality and style of the different translators also varied considerably from book to book, from the literal to paraphrasing to interpretative. The translation of the Septuagint itself began in the 3rd century BCE and was completed by 132 BCE, initially in Alexandria, the Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament. Some sections of the Septuagint may show Semiticisms, or idioms and phrases based on Semitic languages like Hebrew, other books, such as Daniel and Proverbs, show Greek influence more strongly. The Septuagint may also elucidate pronunciation of pre-Masoretic Hebrew, many nouns are spelled out with Greek vowels in the LXX. However, it is unlikely that all ancient Hebrew sounds had precise Greek equivalents. As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Greek Bible expanded, the Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon, but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Jewish Neviim, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some books were included in the Septuagint
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King James Version
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The King James Version, also known as Authorized Version or simply King James Bible, is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, a section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha. It was first printed by the Kings Printer Robert Barker and was the translation into English approved by the English Church authorities. The first had been the Great Bible, commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII, the translation is noted for its majesty of style, and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin. In the Book of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings, over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English-speaking scholars. Today the unqualified title King James Version usually indicates that this Oxford standard text is meant, the title page carries the words Appointed to be read in Churches, and F. F. For many years it was not to give the translation any specific name. In his Leviathan of 1651, Thomas Hobbes referred to it as the English Translation made in the beginning of the Reign of King James. Similarly, a History of England, whose edition was published in 1775, writes merely that new translation of the Bible, viz. that now in Use, was begun in 1607. King Jamess Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation in Charles Butlers Horae Biblicae and this name was also found as King James Bible, for example in a book review from 1811. The phrase King Jamess Bible is used as far back as 1715, the use of Authorized Version or Authorised Version, capitalized and used as a name, is found as early as 1814. For some time before this, descriptive phrases such as our present, and only publicly authorised version, our Authorised version, the Oxford English Dictionary records a usage in 1824. In Britain, the 1611 translation is known as the Authorised Version today. As early as 1814, we find King James version, evidently a descriptive phrase, the King James Version is found, unequivocally used as a name, in a letter from 1855. The next year King James Bible, with no possessive, appears as a name in a Scottish source, in the United States, the 1611 translation is generally known as the King James Version today. The followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 14th century and these translations were banned in 1409 due to their association with the Lollards
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Penance". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 84.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
