1.
Lincoln, England
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Lincoln is a cathedral city and the county town of Lincolnshire, within the East Midlands of England. The non-metropolitan district of Lincoln has a 2012 population of 94,600, the 2011 census gave the entire urban area of Lincoln a population of 130,200. Lincoln developed from the Roman town of Lindum Colonia, which developed from an Iron Age settlement, Lincolns major landmarks are Lincoln Cathedral, a famous example of English Gothic architecture, and Lincoln Castle, an 11th-century Norman castle. The city is home to the University of Lincoln and Bishop Grosseteste University. See Lincoln City F. C. for Lincoln City Football Club, the earliest origins of Lincoln can be traced to the remains of an Iron Age settlement of round wooden dwellings that have been dated to the 1st century BC. This settlement was built by a pool in the River Witham at the foot of a large hill. The extent of original settlement is unknown as its remains are now buried deep beneath the later Roman and medieval ruins. The Celtic name Lindon was subsequently Latinised to Lindum and given the title Colonia when it was converted into a settlement for army veterans, the conversion to a colonia was made when the legion moved on to York in AD71. It became a flourishing settlement, accessible from the sea both through the River Trent and through the River Witham. Subsequently, however, the town and its waterways fell into decline, by the close of the 5th century the city was largely deserted, although some occupation continued under a Praefectus Civitatis, for Saint Paulinus visited a man of this office in Lincoln in AD629. During this period the Latin name Lindum Colonia was shortened in Old English to become first Lindocolina, after the first destructive Viking raids, the city once again rose to some importance, with overseas trading connections. After the establishment of the Danelaw in 886, Lincoln became one of the Five Boroughs in the East Midlands, excavations at Flaxengate reveal that this area, deserted since Roman times, received new timber-framed buildings fronting a new street system in about 900. Lincoln experienced an explosion in its economy with the settlement of the Danes. By 950, however, the banks of the Witham were newly developed with the Lower City being resettled and the suburb of Wigford quickly emerging as a major trading centre. In 1068, two years after the Norman conquest, William I ordered Lincoln Castle to be built on the site of the former Roman settlement, for the strategic reasons. The rebuilt Lincoln Minster, enlarged to the east at each rebuilding, was on a magnificent scale, its crossing tower crowned by a spire reputed to have been 525 ft high, the highest in Europe. When completed the central of the three spires is widely accepted to have succeeded the Great Pyramids of Egypt as the tallest man-made structure in the world, when Magna Carta was drawn up in 1215, one of the witnesses was Hugh of Wells, Bishop of Lincoln. One of only four surviving originals of the document is preserved in Lincoln Castle, theologian William de Montibus was the head of the cathedral school and chancellor until his death in 1213
2.
Offshore (novel)
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Offshore is a novel by Penelope Fitzgerald. It won the Booker Prize for that year and it recalls her time spent on boats on the Thames in Battersea. The novel explores the liminality of people who do not belong to the land or the sea, the epigraph, che mena il vento, e che batte la pioggia, e che sincontran con si aspre lingue comes from Canto XI of Dantes Inferno. When Edward takes a job overseas his wife Nenna stays behind in London, with no job, little income and an absentee husband, she resorts to living in a houseboat on the Thames. There she and her two daughters are surrounded by a group of like-minded boat-dwellers. Their houseboats reflect their personalities, ranging from carefully maintained to nearly derelict, Edward returns to London, but refuses to live with Nenna. Matters become complicated when Williss boat sinks unexpectedly, Laura leaves Richard, Review, The New York Times Book Review Review, The Independent Review, The Guardian
3.
The Blue Flower
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The Blue Flower is a novel by the British author Penelope Fitzgerald. It is a treatment of the early life of Friedrich von Hardenberg who, under the pseudonym Novalis. The novel was the first book published by Mariner Books, then a new imprint of Houghton Mifflin. Mariner Books went on to publish editions of all of Penelope Fitzgeralds books. In 2012 The Observer named The Blue Flower one of the ten best historical novels, the novel is based on the life of Friedrich von Hardenberg before he became famous under the name Novalis. The couple become engaged a year later but never marry as Sophie dies of consumption a few days after her 15th birthday, the blue flower of the novels title is the subject of the first chapter of a story that von Hardenberg is writing. In it, a young man longs to see the flower that lies incessantly at his heart, so that he can imagine. Von Hardenberg reads his draft chapter to Sophie and others, no definitive answer is given within the novel, leaving the reader to provide his or her own interpretation. Fitzgerald first came upon the notion of blue flowers having literary significance in The Fox and she first became interested in Novalis in the early 1960s, after hearing a musical setting of his mystical Hymns to the Night. Later she conducted research on Burne-Jones and his language of flowers, at the end of Fitzgeralds earlier novel The Bookshop a gentian, a blue flower that has faded into colourlessness, is mentioned as having been pressed into one of two books. In another of her novels, The Beginning of Spring, Selwyn rhapsodizes about the stream flowing gently over our heads. In a 2010 introduction to the novel, Frank Kermode called it the finest work of this extraordinarily gifted novelist, the New York Times Book Review opined that There is no better introduction than this novel to the intellectual exaltation of the Romantic era. Writing in The New York Times, Michael Hofmann called it an astonishing book. The novel has attracted attention and has a chapter of its own in Peter Wolfes Understanding Penelope Fitzgerald and in Hermione Lees Penelope Fitzgerald. The Blue Flower won the National Book Critics Circle Award in 1997
4.
Booker Prize
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The Man Booker Prize for Fiction is a literary prize awarded each year for the best original novel, written in the English language and published in the UK. The winner of the Man Booker Prize is generally assured international renown and success, therefore, from its inception, only Commonwealth, Irish, and South African citizens were eligible to receive the prize, in 2014, however, this eligibility was widened to any English-language novel. A high-profile literary award in British culture, the Booker Prize is greeted with great anticipation and it is also a mark of distinction for authors to be selected for inclusion in the shortlist or even to be nominated for the longlist. The foundation is an independent registered charity funded by the profits of Booker Prize Trading Ltd. In 1970, Bernice Rubens became the first woman to win the Booker Prize, the rules of the Booker changed in 1971, previously, it had been awarded retrospectively to books published prior to the year in which the award was given. In 1971 the year of eligibility was changed to the same as the year of the award, in effect, this meant that books published in 1970 were not considered for the Booker in either year. The Booker Prize Foundation announced in January 2010 the creation of an award called the Lost Man Booker Prize. Alice Munro has a place in Booker Prize history, The Beggar Maid is the only short story collection to have been shortlisted. Before 2001, each years longlist of nominees was not publicly revealed, John Sutherland, who was a judge for the 1999 prize, has said, There is a well-established London literary community. Rushdie doesnt get shortlisted now because he has attacked that community and that is not a good game plan if you want to win the Booker. Norman Mailer has found the thing in the US – you have to be a citizen if you want to win prizes. The real scandal is that Amis has never won the prize, in fact, he has only been shortlisted once and that was for Times Arrow, which was not one of his strongest books. He pissed people off with Dead Babies and that lodged in the culture. There is also the feeling that he has looked towards America. In 1972, the winning writer John Berger, known for his Marxist worldview and he blamed Bookers 130 years of sugar production in the Caribbean for the regions modern poverty. Berger donated half of his £5,000 prize to the British Black Panther movement, because they had a socialist, in 1980, Anthony Burgess, writer of Earthly Powers, refused to attend the ceremony unless it was confirmed to him in advance whether he had won. His was one of two books considered likely to win, the other being Rites of Passage by William Golding, the judges decided only 30 minutes before the ceremony, giving the prize to Golding. Both novels had been seen as favourites to win leading up to the prize, 1983s judging produced a draw between J. M. Coetzees Life & Times of Michael K and Salman Rushdies Shame, leaving chair of judges Fay Weldon to choose between the two
5.
National Book Critics Circle Award
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The National Book Critics Circle Awards are a set of annual American literary awards by the National Book Critics Circle to promote the finest books and reviews published in English. The first NBCC awards were announced and presented January 16,1976, There are six awards to books published in the U. S. during the preceding calendar year, in six categories, Fiction, Nonfiction, Poetry, Memoir/Autobiography, Biography, and Criticism. Books previously published in English are not eligible, such as re-issues, nor does the NBC Circle consider cookbooks, self help books, reference books, picture books or childrens books. They do consider translations, short story and essay collections, self published books, winners of the awards are announced each year at the NBCC awards ceremony in conjunction with the yearly membership meeting, which takes place in March. Award for a best first book in any genre, Ivan Sandrof was one founder of the National Book Critics Circle and its first President. The Sandrof Award has also presented as the Ivan Sandrof Award for Lifetime Achievement in Publishing. It honors Nona Balakian, who was one of three NBCC founders, for 43 years, Balakian was an editor on the staff of the New York Times Book Review. Five finalists are announced each year, one of whom is selected as the winner of the citation, the award has been called the most prestigious award for book criticism in the country. Award year is for the publication year, currently January 1 to December 31. The finalists were announced on January 17,2017, the winners were announced March 17,2016 at the New School in New York. J. The winners were announced March 12,2015, lacy M. Johnson, The Other Side Gary Shteyngart, Little Failure Meline Toumani, There Was and There Was Not Biography Ezra Greenspan, William Wells Brown, An African American Life S. C. The winners were announced on March 13,2014, powers Ruth Franklin James Marcus Roxana Robinson Alexandra Schwartz The finalists were announced January 14,2012. The winners were announced on Feb.28,2012, Fiction Laurent Binet, HHhH tr. A. Powell, Useless Landscape, or A Guide for Boys A. E. Stallings, Olives Autobiography Reyna Grande, The Distance Between Us Maureen N. Pugliese, Bitter Spring, A Life of Ignazio Silone Martha A. A, herring, From Colony to Superpower, US Foreign Relations Since 1776. Allan Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, Jane Mayer, The Dark Side, Autobiography Rick Bass, Why I Came West, Helene Cooper, The House on Sugar Beach, Honor Moore, The Bishop’s Daughter, Andrew X. S. Naipaul, Paul J. Giddings, Ida, A Sword Among Lions, complete list of NBCC winners and finalists
6.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
7.
Punch (magazine)
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Punch, or The London Charivari was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire established in 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells. Historically, it was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s, after the 1940s, when its circulation peaked, it went into a long decline, closing in 1992. It was revived in 1996, but closed again in 2002, Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, on an initial investment of £25. It was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon and it was subtitled The London Charivari in homage to Charles Philipons French satirical humour magazine Le Charivari. Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became suggestor in chief until he severed his connection in 1845, the magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 Almanack issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842 due to difficulties the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens, Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the terms widespread use. The illustrator Archibald Henning designed the cover of the magazines first issues, the cover design varied in the early years, though Richard Doyle designed what became the magazines masthead in 1849. Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and this group became known as The Punch Brotherhood, which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week. In the 1860s and 1870s, conservative Punch faced competition from upstart liberal journal Fun, at Evanss café in London, the two journals had Round tables in competition with each other. Punch gave several phrases to the English language, including The Crystal Palace, several British humour classics were first serialised in Punch, such as the Diary of a Nobody and 1066 and All That. Towards the end of the century, the artistic roster included Harry Furniss, Linley Sambourne, Francis Carruthers Gould. Among the outstanding cartoonists of the century were Bernard Partridge, H. M. Bateman, Bernard Hollowood who also edited the magazine from 1957 to 1968, Kenneth Mahood. Circulation broke the 100,000 mark around 1910, and peaked in 1947–1948 at 175,000 to 184,000, sales declined steadily thereafter, ultimately, the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years of publication. Punch was widely emulated worldwide and popular in the colonies, however, the colonial experience, especially in India, also influenced Punch and its iconography. Tenniels Punch cartoons of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny led to a surge in the magazines popularity, colonial India was time and again caricatured in Punch and can be seen as a significant source for producing knowledge about India. Many Punch cartoonists of the late 20th century published collections of their own, Punch magazine ceased publishing in 1992
8.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
9.
Ronald Knox
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Ronald Arbuthnott Knox was an English priest, theologian and author of detective stories. He was also a writer and a broadcaster for BBC Radio. Knox attended Eton College and won several scholarships at Balliol College and he was ordained an Anglican priest in 1912 and was appointed chaplain of Trinity College, Oxford, but he left in 1917 when he was received into the Roman Catholic Church. In 1918 he was ordained a Catholic priest, Knox wrote many books of essays and novels. Directed by his religious superiors, he retranslated the Latin Vulgate Bible into English, using Hebrew and Greek sources, Ronald Knox was born into an Anglican family in Kibworth, Leicestershire, England. His father was Edmund Arbuthnott Knox, who became the Bishop of Manchester, the young Knox was educated at Eton College, where he took the first scholarship in 1900 and Balliol College, Oxford, where again he won the first classics scholarship in 1905. In 1910, he became a fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, here, as a devout Anglo-Catholic, he became a key member of Maurice Childs fashionable set. Knox was ordained an Anglican priest in 1912 and was appointed chaplain of Trinity College, during World War I, he served in military intelligence. Knox was long remembered at Shrewsbury as the dedicated and entertaining form master of Vb. Knox resigned as Anglican chaplain in 1917 when he became a Roman Catholic, in response to Knoxs conversion to Catholicism, his father cut him out of his will. In 1918 Knox was ordained a Catholic priest and in 1919 joined the staff of St Edmunds College, Ware, Hertfordshire and he explained his spiritual journey in two privately printed books, Apologia and A Spiritual Aeneid. Knoxs conversion to the Roman Catholic faith was influenced in part by the English writer G. K. Chesterton, when Chesterton was received into the Catholic Church in 1922, he in turn was influenced by Knox. Knox wrote and broadcast on Christianity and other subjects, while Catholic chaplain at the University of Oxford and after his elevation to a monsignor in 1936, he wrote classic detective stories. In 1929 he codified the rules for detective stories into a decalogue of ten commandments, Knox singlehandedly translated the Latin Vulgate Bible into English. When G. K. Chesterton died in 1936, Knox delivered a panegyric for his mass in Westminster Cathedral. Another of these essays, The Authorship of In Memoriam, purports to prove that Tennysons poem was written by Queen Victoria. In 1953 Knox visited the Oxfords in Zanzibar and the Actons in Rhodesia and it was on this trip that he began his translation of The Imitation of Christ and, upon his return to Mells, his translation of Thérèse of Lisieuxs Autobiography of a Saint. He also began a work of apologetics intended to reach an audience than the student one of his The Belief of Catholics
10.
Wilfred Knox
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Wilfred Lawrence Knox was a Church of England clergyman and theologian. After leaving Oxford with an honours degree in classics, Knox joined the civil service, left to work with the poor of Londons East End. He also wrote books explaining Anglo-Catholicism and others giving advice on how to follow the Christian way of life, Knox was born at Kibworth Beauchamp, Leicestershire, a village in the English Midlands. He was the son and fourth of the six children of the rector of Kibworth. The other sons were Edmund, Dillwyn and Ronald, his sister was Winifred Peck. The rector was ill at ease with the comfortable, conservative way of life of Kibworth, in 1891, when Wilfred was five, the family moved to the parish of Aston-juxta-Birmingham, a poor area of Birmingham. Wilfred and his brother were sent to live with their bachelor uncle, his formidable widowed mother. Two years later Edmund Sr became suffragan Bishop of Coventry, remarried and he was persuaded that the boys should attend public schools. He had little money, but all four boys excelled intellectually, Wilfred had been aware of the plight of the poor at Kibworth, at Aston it was considerably more marked. At an early age he conceived the view that nobody should have to suffer genuine poverty, at Rugby he came under the influence of an older pupil, William Temple, later Archbishop of Canterbury, whose creed combined Christianity and socialism. As well as Temples views, Knox was impressed by the writings of John Ruskin and F D Maurice, all tending in the direction of socialism, from Rugby, Knox won a scholarship to Trinity College, Oxford. He suffered a crisis in his religious faith while there. He threw himself into study and was placed in the first class in classical moderations, on coming down from Oxford he obtained a civil service post as a junior examiner at the Board of Education. His Christian faith no longer in doubt, he moved away from his fathers evangelicalism, Bishop Knox was distressed by his sons doctrinal views, but was in full support of his work among the poor in the East End of London. During the Oxford vacations, and later working as a civil servant, Knox lived at the Trinity Mission in Stratford. His mentors and role models were Temple and George Lansbury, the latter a future leader of the Labour Party, through Lansburys influence Knox became involved with the Workers Educational Association, of which Temple was president. In 1913 Knox resigned from the civil service and he privately made vows of poverty and celibacy. In 1920 Knox moved to Cambridge as a member of the Oratory of the Good Shepherd until 1922 and he then spent two years in parish work at St Saviours, Hoxton, in east London as assistant priest
11.
Wycombe Abbey
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Wycombe Abbey is an independent girls boarding school in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, England. Its present capacity is approximately 615 girls, aged 11 to 18, the school is situated on a 160 acres campus in central High Wycombe. The land includes woods, gardens and a lake, and rises up to 500 feet above sea level in the Chiltern Hills, the freehold is owned by the school, the main house and several buildings at Wycombe Abbey are Grade II* listed. The current headmistress is Rhiannon Wilkinson, the history of the building predates schools acquisition of it. In the thirteenth century, the area, with the church, was part of the holding of the Abbess of Godstow. 600 years later, the priory at Godstowe was also re-founded as a school by Dame Frances Dove, the earl in turn bequeathed the estate to his grandnephew, William Petty. The Shelburnes, though, had a far larger and grander residence at Bowood House in the Savernake Forest, consequently, Lord Shelburne sold his estates in the area. Loakes House was purchased from them at auction by Robert Smith, 1st Baron Carrington and he employed the architect James Wyatt to transform Loakes House into Wycombe Abbey as we see it today. The original house and other parts of the school are listed as Grade II* by English Heritage, as an architect, James Wyatt captured the romantic spirit of his era, creating a gothic ecclesiastical style. It was supposed to resemble the fictitious Castle of Otranto, Fonthill is now demolished which leaves Wycombe Abbey as one of the most important examples of this type of architecture remaining. While a far less ambitious project than Fonthill, Wycombe Abbey is a jewel of the gothic style. The castellated, three-storey central block has turrets on each corner and is seven bays wide, on the ground floor, they are ogee-topped in the ecclesiastical manner. There is a slightly incongruous oriel window in the centre of the second floor, the whole composition is an echo of the houses larger sister at Fonthill. Like Fonthill Abbey, the structure was intended to imitate one of the older country houses genuinely converted from an old abbey or monastery. The final stage of the transformation was the renaming of Loakes House to Wycombe Abbey, the Air Ministry requisitioned Wycombe Abbey School in March 1942 to serve as the headquarters of the United States Eighth Air Force after the entry of the United States into World War II. It was returned to Wycombe Abbey on 9 May 1946, as at most independent schools, the pupils are placed in houses. The houses at Wycombe Abbey are, Airlie, Barry, Butler, Campbell, Cloister, Pitt, Rubens, Shelburne, girls in UVI live in Clarence, while the junior-most girls, UIIIs, live in Junior House. Each girl has her own House Mother, a girl in the year above in the house who looks after her
12.
Somerville College, Oxford
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Somerville College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. Founded in 1879 as Somerville Hall, it was one of the first womens colleges in Oxford, today, around 50% of students are male. The first male students were admitted to the college in 1994, the college is located at the southern end of Woodstock Road, with Little Clarendon Street to the south and Walton Street to the west. Between 2006 and 2016, the endowment rose from £44.5 million to £57.7 million. In June 1878, the Association for the Higher Education of Women was formed, talbot insisted on a specifically Anglican institution, which was unacceptable to most of the other members. The two parties split, and Talbots group founded Lady Margaret Hall. Thus, in 1879, a committee was formed to create a college in which no distinction will be made between students on the ground of their belonging to different religious denominations. This second committee included John Percival, George William Kitchin, A. H. D. Acland, Thomas Hill Green, Mary Ward, William Sidgwick, Henry Nettleship, and A. G. Vernon Harcourt. This new effort resulted in the founding of Somerville Hall, named for the recently deceased Scottish mathematician. During World War I the college was converted into a hospital as Somerville Section of the 3rd Southern General Hospital. For the duration of the war, Somerville students relocated to Oriel College, notable patients who stayed in Somerville include Robert Graves and Siegfried Sassoon, who opens Siegfrieds Progress with a reference to the college. Photographs of the college in this period can be hanging in Hall. When opened, Somerville Hall had twelve students, ranging in age between 17 and 36, in 1891 it became the first womens hall to introduce entrance exams. The hall was renamed Somerville College in 1894, becoming the first of the colleges to adopt this title. In 1920, Oxford University allowed women to matriculate and therefore gain degrees, during the principalship of Janet Vaughan, Somerville, along with the other womens colleges, became a full constituent college of Oxford University. During the 1980s, there was debate as to whether womens colleges should become mixed. In the 1890s Somerville helped fashion the “New Woman”, a century later…. the college has set itself the greater challenge of educating the New Man. The college and its entrance, the Porters Lodge, are located on Woodstock Road
13.
The Isis Magazine
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The Isis Magazine is a student publication at the University of Oxford. The magazine was established at the university in 1892, traditionally a rival to the student newspaper Cherwell, it was finally acquired by the latters publishing house, Oxford Student Publications Limited, in the late 1990s. It now operates as a magazine and website, providing an outlet for features journalism. The two publications are named after the two rivers in Oxford, Isis being the name for the River Thames. Isis magazine has been the springboard for careers in literature, the theatre and television, with its influences in Private Eye. Then in the four issues a term era > George Osborne, Nigella Lawson, Jo Johnson. Exceptionally, Paul Foot and Gyles Brandreth were also presidents of the Oxford Union, the current editors of the Trinity term 2017 edition are Lily Begg and Tj Jordan. The ISIS was founded by Mostyn Turtle Piggott, the first of the student editors, in April 1892. His first editorial is quoted below, “We have no politics and fewer principles, students were given complete independence, as long as the paper they produced was profitable and within good taste. Oxford welcomed the addition to its scene wholeheartedly, and was more prepared to pay the weekly sixpence. The ISIS was a recorder of proceedings in the Oxford Union - enough of a function to maintain sales. The same price lasted into the 1960s, one of the features of the magazine that survives today is the ‘Icons section. Back in the 1890s, being President of OUDS seemed to guarantee an appearance in print. After the beginning of World War I, The ISIS ceased publication for four years, until it was resurrected in 1919 by Beverley Nichols, Waugh was also the first to participate in the rivalry between The ISIS and the freshly established Cherwell by writing for both. The ISIS was disparagingly referred to in The Cherwell as The Was-Was, the 1930s were times of much political turmoil in Europe, yet serene in The ISIS - but then, so were they in the rest of the British press. A couple of articles more flippant than political in tone got The ISIS banned from Germany in 1935, only a year later, the magazine had again to suspend its operations until 1945, to re-emerge with new strength. The H-Bomb was a significant topic for debate in 1958, two of the undergraduate contributors, William Miller and Paul Thompson, were both ex-national service, and wrote about British Intelligence operations on the borders of the Soviet Union. The two men were prosecuted under section 2 of the Official Secrets Act 1911, and sentenced to three months imprisonment
14.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
15.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
16.
Irish Guards
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The Irish Guards recruit in Northern Ireland and the Irish neighbourhoods of major British cities. One way to distinguish between the five regiments of Foot Guards is the spacing of the buttons on their tunics, the Irish Guards have buttons arranged in groups of four as they were the fourth Foot Guards regiment to be founded. They also have a prominent St. Patricks blue plume on the side of their bearskins. The Irish Guards regiment was formed on 1 April 1900 by order of Queen Victoria to commemorate the Irishmen who fought in the Second Boer War for the British Empire. Following the outbreak of the First World War, 1st Battalion, The Irish Guards was deployed to France almost immediately, during the early part of the war, the battalion took part in the Battle of Mons and formed the Allied rearguard during the Great Retreat. The battalion then took part in one of the bloodiest battles of 1914, the First Battle of Ypres, the battle caused major casualties among the old Regular Army. The 1st Battalion was involved in fighting for the duration of First Ypres, at Langemarck, Gheluvelt, the 1st Battalion suffered huge casualties between November 1–8 holding the line against near defeat by German forces, while defending Klein Zillebeke. In May 1915, the 1st Irish Guards took part in the Battle of Festubert, Two further battalions were formed for the regiment in July. In September that year, the battalion, as well as the 2nd Irish Guards, who had reached France in August, took part in the Battle of Loos, both battalions spent the rest of 1915 in the trenches and did not fight in any major engagements. This relative quite period for the regiment was broken on 1 July 1916 when the Battle of the Somme began, the 1st Irish Guards took part in an action at Flers–Courcelette where they suffered severe casualties in the attack in the face of withering fire from the German machine-guns. The battalion also took part in the action at Morval before they were relieved the by the 2nd Irish Guards, in 1917 the Irish Guards took part in the Battle of Pilckem which began on the 31 July during the Third Battle of Ypres. The Irish Guards also took part in the Battle of Cambrai in that year, in 1918 the regiment fought in a number of engagements during the Second Battle of the Somme, including at Arras and Albert. The regiment then went on to part in a number of battles during the British offensives against the Hindenburg Line. On 11 November 1918 the Armistice with Germany was signed, the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards were at Maubeuge when the Armistice was signed. This proposal, however, did not find favour in government or army circles and was dropped, between the wars, the regiment was deployed at various times to Turkey, Gibraltar, Egypt and Palestine. During the Second World War, battalions of the regiment fought in Norway, France, North Africa and Italy and following D-Day in France, Belgium, the regiment first saw combat during the Norwegian Campaign. Following a challenging sea voyage to Norway, the 1st Irish Guards arrived in May 1940, the Irish Guards conducted a fighting withdrawal and served as the Allied rearguard. The battalion were evacuated along with the rest of the force in June
17.
North African Campaign
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The North African Campaign of the Second World War took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco, the campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had colonial interests in Africa dating from the late 19th century. The Allied war effort was dominated by the British Commonwealth and exiles from German-occupied Europe, the United States entered the war in December 1941 and began direct military assistance in North Africa on 11 May 1942. Fighting in North Africa started with the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940, on 14 June, the British Armys 11th Hussars crossed the border from Egypt into Libya and captured the Italian Fort Capuzzo. Information gleaned via British Ultra code-breaking intelligence proved critical to Allied success in North Africa, victory for the Allies in this campaign immediately led to the Italian Campaign, which culminated in the downfall of the fascist government in Italy and the elimination of a German ally. On 10 May 1940, the Wehrmacht had started the Battle of France, one month later, it was plain to see that France would have to surrender within two weeks. On 10 June 1940, the Kingdom of Italy aligned itself with Nazi Germany and declared war upon France, British forces based in Egypt were ordered to undertake defensive measures, but to act as non-provocatively as possible. However, on 11 June they began a series of raids against Italian positions in Libya, following the defeat of France on 25 June, Italian forces in Tripolitania—facing French troops based in Tunisia—redeployed to Cyrenaica to reinforce the Italian Tenth Army. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini ordered the Tenth Army to invade Egypt by 8 August, two days later, no invasion having been launched, Mussolini ordered Marshal Graziani that, the moment German forces launched Operation Sea Lion, he was to attack. The battle plan was to advance along the road, while limited armoured forces operated on the desert flank. To counter the Italian advance, Wavell ordered his forces to harass the advancing Italians, falling back towards Mersa Matruh. Positioned on the flank was the 7th Armoured Division, which would strike the flank of the Italian force. By 16 September, the Italian force had advanced to Maktila, around 80 mi west of Mersa Matruh, in response to the dispersed Italian camps, the British planned a limited five-day attack, Operation Compass, to strike at these fortified camps one by one. The British Commonwealth force, totalling 36,000 men, attacked the forward elements of the 10-division-strong Italian army on 9 December, following their initial success, the forces of Operation Compass pursued the retreating Italian forces. In January, the port at Bardia was taken, soon followed by the seizure of the fortified port of Tobruk. Some 40,000 Italians were captured in and around the two ports, with the remainder of the Tenth Army retreating along the coast road back to El Agheila. Richard OConnor sent the 7th Armoured Division across the desert, with a reconnaissance group reaching Beda Fomm some ninety minutes before the Italians. Although desperate attempts were made to overcome the British force at the Battle of Beda Fomm, the Italians were unable to break through, and the remnants of the retreating army surrendered
18.
Military Cross
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The Military Cross is the third-level military decoration awarded to officers and other ranks of the British Armed Forces, and used to be awarded to officers of other Commonwealth countries. The MC is granted in recognition of an act or acts of gallantry during active operations against the enemy on land to all members. In 1979, the Queen approved a proposal that a number of awards, including the Military Cross, the award was created on 28 December 1914 for commissioned officers of the substantive rank of Captain or below and for Warrant Officers. In August 1916, Bars were awarded to the MC in recognition of the performance of acts of gallantry meriting the award. In 1931 the award was extended to Majors and also to members of the Royal Air Force for actions on the ground, the MC now serves as the third-level award for gallantry on land for all ranks of the British Armed Forces. 46 mm max height,44 mm max width, ornamental silver cross with straight arms terminating in broad finials, suspended from plain suspension bar. Obverse decorated with crowns, with the Royal Cypher in centre. Reverse is plain, but from 1938 the name of the recipient, the ribbon width is 32 mm and consists of three equal vertical moire stripes of white, purple, and white. During World War I, Acting Captain Francis Wallington of the Royal Field Artillery was the first person to be awarded the MC, during World War II Captain Sam Manekshaw, Indian Army, was leading a counter-offensive operation against the invading Japanese Army in Burma. During the course of the offensive, he was hit by a burst of machine-gun fire, Major General D. T. Cowan spotted Manekshaw holding on to life and was aware of his valour in face of stiff resistance from the Japanese. Fearing the worst, Major General Cowan quickly pinned his own Military Cross ribbon on to Manekshaw saying, the first posthumous Military Cross was that awarded to Captain Herbert Westmacott, Grenadier Guards for gallantry in Northern Ireland during the period 1 February 1980 to 30 April 1980. The first woman to be awarded the Military Cross was Private Michelle Norris of the Royal Army Medical Corps, Norris was awarded her medal personally by Queen Elizabeth II on 21 March 2007 as the result of her actions in Iraq on 11 June 2006. Able Seaman Kate Nesbitt, second woman, first in the Royal Navy, sergeant Michael Lockett MC was the first holder of the MC to be killed in action since World War II. Database of Australian Awardees at the Australian Government Honours website Search recommendations for the Military Cross on The UK National Archives website, the Kings Own Royal Regiment Museum, Military Cross
19.
Western Desert Campaign
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The Western Desert Campaign, took place in the deserts of Egypt and Libya and was the main theatre in the North African Campaign during the Second World War. The campaign began in September 1940 with the Italian invasion of Egypt, Operation Compass, Benito Mussolini sought help from Adolf Hitler, who responded with a small German force sent to Tripoli under Directive 22. The German Afrika Korps was under nominal Italian command but Italian dependency on Nazi Germany made it the dominant partner. In the spring of 1941, Axis forces under Rommel pushed the British back to Egypt except for the port of Tobruk, the Axis forces were forced to retire to where they had started by the end of the year. In 1942 Axis forces drove the British back again and captured Tobruk after the Battle of Gazala, on the final Axis push to Egypt, the British retreated to El Alamein, where at the Second Battle of El Alamein the Eighth Army defeated the Axis forces. They were driven out of Libya to Tunisia, where they were defeated in the Tunisian Campaign, for Hitler the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union dwarfed the desert war, which was a holding action of secondary importance. The Axis never had sufficient resources or the means to deliver them, the British missed several opportunities to finish the campaign by diverting resources to Greece and the Levant in 1941 and the Far East in 1942. Cyrenaica had been an Italian colony since the Italo-Turkish War, supreme Headquarters had the 5th Army and the 10th Army which in mid-1940 had nine metropolitan divisions of about 13,000 men each, three Blackshirt and two Libyan divisions with 8,000 men each. Italian army divisions had been reorganised in the late 1930s, from three regiments each to two and reservists were recalled in 1939, along with the usual call-up of conscripts, morale was considered to be high and the army had recent experience of military operations. The Italian navy had prospered under the Fascist regime, which had paid for fast, well-built and well-armed ships and a large submarine fleet but the navy lacked experience and training. The air force had been ready for war in 1936 but had stagnated by 1939 and was not considered by the British to be capable of maintaining a high rate of operations. The 5th Army with eight divisions was based in Tripolitania, the half of Libya opposite Tunisia. When war was declared, the 10th Army deployed the 1st Libyan Division Sibelle on the frontier from Giarabub to Sidi Omar and XXI Corps from Sidi Omar to the coast, Bardia, the XXII Corps moved south-west of Tobruk, to act as a counter-attack force. The British had based forces in Egypt since 1882 but these were reduced by the terms of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. The small British and Commonwealth force garrisoned the Suez Canal and the Red Sea route, the canal was vital to British communications with its Far Eastern and Indian Ocean territories. In mid-1939, Lieutenant-General Archibald Wavell was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the new Middle East Command, over the Mediterranean, until the Franco-Axis armistice, the French divisions in Tunisia faced the Italian 5th Army on the western Libyan border. In Libya, the Royal Army had about 215,000 men and in Egypt, British forces included the Mobile Division, one of only two British armoured training formations, which in mid-1939 was renamed Armoured Division. The HQ of the 6th Infantry Division, which lacked complete, Italian land and air forces in Libya, greatly outnumbered the British in Egypt but suffered from poor morale and were handicapped by some inferior equipment
20.
Libya
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The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica. With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa, Libya has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves of any country in the world. The largest city and capital, Tripoli, is located in western Libya, the other large city is Benghazi, which is located in eastern Libya. Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age, the Phoenicians established trading posts in western Libya, and ancient Greek colonists established city-states in eastern Libya. Libya was variously ruled by Carthaginians, Persians, Egyptians and Greeks before becoming a part of the Roman Empire, Libya was an early center of Christianity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century, in the 16th century, the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli, until Ottoman rule began in 1551. Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries, Ottoman rule continued until the Italian occupation of Libya resulted in the temporary Italian Libya colony from 1911 to 1943. During the Second World War Libya was an important area of warfare in the North African Campaign, the Italian population then went into decline. Libya became an independent kingdom in 1951, a military coup in 1969 overthrew King Idris I, beginning a period of sweeping social reform. Since then, Libya has experienced a period of instability, the European Union is involved in an operation to disrupt human trafficking networks exploiting refugees fleeing from wars in Africa for Europe. At least two political bodies claim to be the government of Libya, the Council of Deputies is internationally recognized as the legitimate government, but it does not hold territory in the capital, Tripoli, instead meeting in the Cyrenaica city of Tobruk. Parts of Libya are outside of either governments control, with various Islamist, rebel, the United Nations is sponsoring peace talks between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based factions. An agreement to form an interim government was signed on 17 December 2015. Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidency Council, the leaders of the new government, called the Government of National Accord, arrived in Tripoli on 5 April 2016. Since then the GNC, one of the two governments, has disbanded to support the new GNA. The name Libya was introduced in 1934 for Italian Libya, reviving the name for Northwest Africa. The name was based on use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli. It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania, the region of what is today Libya having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911
21.
Hampstead
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Hampstead, commonly known as Hampstead Village, is an area of London, England,4 miles northwest of Charing Cross. Part of the London Borough of Camden, it is known for its intellectual, liberal, artistic, musical and literary associations and for Hampstead Heath and it has some of the most expensive housing in the London area. The village of Hampstead has more millionaires within its boundaries than any area of the United Kingdom. The name comes from the Anglo-Saxon words ham and stede, which means, and is a cognate of, the growth of Hampstead is generally traced back to the 17th century. Trustees of the Well started advertising the medicinal qualities of the waters in 1700. Although Hampstead Wells was initially most successful and fashionable, its popularity declined in the 1800s due to competition with other fashionable London spas, the spa was demolished in 1882, although a water fountain was left behind. Much luxurious housing was created during the 1870s and 1880s, in the area that is now the ward of Frognal & Fitzjohns. Much of this remains to this day. The large Victorian Hampstead Library and Town Hall was recently converted and extended as a creative industries centre, on 14 August 1975 Hampstead entered the UK Weather Records with the Highest 155-min total rainfall at 169 mm. As of November 2008 this record remains, Hampstead became part of the County of London in 1889 and in 1899 the Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead was formed. The borough town hall on Haverstock Hill, which was also the location of the Register Office, Hampstead is part of the Hampstead and Kilburn constituency, formed at the 2010 general election. It was formerly part of the Hampstead and Highgate constituency, since May 2015 the area has been represented on Camden Council by Conservative Party councillors Tom Currie, Oliver Cooper and Stephen Stark. The area has a significant tradition of educated liberal humanism, often referred to as Hampstead Liberalism, michael Idov of The New Yorker stated that the community was the citadel of the moneyed liberal intelligentsia, posh but not stuffy. As applied to an individual, the term Hampstead Liberal is not synonymous with champagne socialist, the term is also rather misleading. As of 2016, all the component wards of Hampstead elect a full slate of Conservative councillors, the bridge pictured is known locally as The Red Arches or The Viaduct, built in fruitless anticipation of residential building on the Heath in the 19th century. The largest employer in Hampstead is the Royal Free Hospital, Pond Street, George Martins AIR recording studios, in converted church premises in Lyndhurst Road, is a current example, as Jim Hensons Creature Shop was before it relocated to California. It was recently restored by Notting Hill Housing Trust, notable and longstanding are La Gaffe, Gaucho Grill, Jin Kichi, Tip Top Thai, Villa Bianca and, in May 2016, Patara. Hampsteads rural feel lends itself for use on film, an example being The Killing of Sister George starring Beryl Reid
22.
J. D. Salinger
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Jerome David J. D. Salinger was an American writer who is known for his widely-read novel, The Catcher in the Rye. Following his early success publishing short stories and Catcher in the Rye and he published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980. Salinger was raised in Manhattan and began writing stories while in secondary school. Several were published in Story magazine in the early 1940s before he serving in World War II. In 1948, his acclaimed story A Perfect Day for Bananafish appeared in The New Yorker magazine. In 1951, his novel The Catcher in the Rye was a popular success. His depiction of adolescent alienation and loss of innocence in the protagonist Holden Caulfield was influential, the novel remains widely read and controversial, selling around 250,000 copies a year. The success of The Catcher in the Rye led to public attention, Salinger became reclusive, publishing new work less frequently. His last published work, a novella entitled Hapworth 16,1924, in 1996, a small publisher announced a deal with Salinger to publish Hapworth 16,1924 in book form, but amid the ensuing publicity the release was indefinitely delayed. Salinger died of natural causes on January 27,2010, at his home in Cornish, in November 2013, three unpublished stories by Salinger were briefly posted online. One of the stories, The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls, is said to be a prequel to The Catcher in the Rye, jerome David Salinger was born in New York City, on New Years Day,1919. His father, Sol Salinger, sold kosher cheese, and was from a Jewish family of Lithuanian descent, his father having been the rabbi for the Adath Jeshurun congregation in Louisville, Kentucky. Salingers mother, Marie, was born in Atlantic, Iowa, of Scottish, German, and Irish descent, Salinger did not learn that his mother was not of Jewish ancestry until just after he celebrated his bar mitzvah. His only sibling was his older sister Doris, in youth, Salinger attended public schools on the West Side of Manhattan. Then in 1932, the moved to Park Avenue, and Salinger was enrolled at the McBurney School. At McBurney, he managed the team, wrote for the school newspaper. He showed a talent for drama, though his father opposed the idea of J. D. s becoming an actor. Salinger had trouble fitting in at his new school and took measures to conform and his parents then enrolled him at Valley Forge Military Academy in Wayne, Pennsylvania
23.
Bernard Malamud
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Bernard Malamud was an American novelist and short story writer. Along with Saul Bellow and Philip Roth, he was one of the best known American Jewish authors of the 20th century and his baseball novel, The Natural, was adapted into a 1984 film starring Robert Redford. His 1966 novel The Fixer, about antisemitism in Tsarist Russia, Bernard Malamud was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Bertha and Max Malamud, Russian Jewish immigrants. A brother, Eugene, born in 1917, lived a hard and lonely life, Malamud entered adolescence at the start of the Great Depression. From 1928 to 1932, Bernard attended Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn, during his youth, he saw many films and enjoyed relating their plots to his school friends. He was especially fond of Charlie Chaplins comedies, Malamud worked for a year at $4.50 a day as a teacher-in-training, before attending college on a government loan. He received his B. A. degree from City College of New York in 1936, in 1942, he obtained a masters degree from Columbia University, writing a thesis on Thomas Hardy. He was excused from service in World War II because he was the sole support of his widower father. He first worked for the Bureau of the Census in Washington D. C. then taught English in New York, starting in 1949, Malamud taught four sections of freshman composition each semester at Oregon State University, an experience fictionalized in his 1961 novel A New Life. Because he lacked the Ph. D. he was not allowed to teach literature courses, in those days, OSU, a land grant university, placed little emphasis on the teaching of humanities or the writing of fiction. While at OSU, he devoted three days out of week to his writing, and gradually emerged as a major American author. In 1961, he left OSU to teach writing at Bennington College. In 1967, he was made a member of the American Academy of Arts, in 1942, Malamud met Ann De Chiara, an Italian-American Roman Catholic, and a 1939 Cornell University graduate. They married on November 6,1945, despite the opposition of their respective parents, Ann typed his manuscripts and reviewed his writing. Ann and Bernard had two children, Paul and Janna, Janna Malamud Smith is the author of a memoir about her father, titled My Father Is A Book. Raised Jewish, Malamud was in adulthood an agnostic humanist, Malamud died in Manhattan in 1986, at the age of 71. In his writing, Malamud depicts an honest picture of the despair and difficulties of the immigrants to America, Malamud wrote slowly and carefully, he was not especially prolific. He is the author of eight novels and four collections of short stories, the posthumously published Complete Stories contains 55 short stories and is 629 pages long
24.
Norman Mailer
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Norman Kingsley Mailer was an American novelist, journalist, essayist, playwright, film-maker, actor, and political activist. His novel The Naked and the Dead was published in 1948 and his best-known work was widely considered to be The Executioners Song, which was published in 1979, and for which he won one of his two Pulitzer Prizes. In addition to the Pulitzer Prize, his book Armies of the Night was awarded the National Book Award, along with Truman Capote, Joan Didion, Hunter S. Mailer was also known for his essays, the most renowned of which was The White Negro. He was a commentator and critic, expressing his views through his novels, journalism, essays. In 1955, Mailer and three others founded The Village Voice, an arts- and politics-oriented weekly newspaper distributed in Greenwich Village, Mailer was born to a Jewish family in Long Branch, New Jersey. His father, Isaac Barnett Mailer, was an accountant born in South Africa, Mailers sister, Barbara, was born in 1927. Raised in Brooklyn, New York, Mailer graduated from Boys High School and entered Harvard University in 1939, as an undergraduate, he was a member of the Signet Society. At Harvard, he studied engineering, and became interested in writing. He published his first story at the age of 18, winning Story magazines college contest in 1941, after graduating in 1943, he was drafted into the U. S. Army. Hoping to gain a deferment from service, Mailer argued that he was writing an important literary work which pertained to the war and this deferral was denied, and Mailer was forced to enter the Army. After training at Fort Bragg, Mailer was stationed in the Philippines with the 112th Cavalry, during his time in the Philippines, Mailer worked as a cook and saw little combat. He participated in a patrol on the island of Leyte and this lesson inspired Mailer to write his first novel, The Naked and the Dead. Mailer wrote 12 novels over a 59-year span, in 1948, while continuing his studies at the University of Paris, Mailer published his first, The Naked and the Dead, based on his military service in World War II. A New York Times best seller for 62 weeks, it was hailed by many as one of the best American wartime novels and this book that made his reputation is rarely read today. The same newspaper described the book as, a hard read today, barbary Shore was mauled by the critics. It was a parable of Cold War leftist politics set in a Brooklyn rooming-house. His 1955 novel The Deer Park drew on his experiences working as a screenwriter in Hollywood in 1949–50 and it was initially rejected by seven publishers due to its purportedly sexual content before being published by Putnams. It was not a success, at one point Mailer took out an advertisement that defiantly quoted his many bad reviews
25.
Alberto Moravia
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Alberto Moravia, born Alberto Pincherle, was an Italian novelist and journalist. His novels explored matters of sexuality, social alienation and existentialism. Moravia is best known for his debut novel Gli indifferenti and for the anti-fascist novel Il Conformista, Cedric Kahns LEnnui is another version of La Noia. It is what we are forced to do that forms our character and his writing was marked by its factual, cold, precise style, often depicting the malaise of the bourgeoisie. It was rooted in the tradition of narrative, underpinned by high social and cultural awareness. In his world, where inherited social, religious and moral beliefs were no longer acceptable, he considered sex and money the only criteria for judging social, between 1959 and 1962 Moravia was president of PEN International, the worldwide association of writers. Alberto Pincherle was born in Via Sgambati in Rome, Italy and his Jewish Venetian father, Carlo, was an architect and a painter. His Catholic Anconitan mother, Teresa Iginia de Marsanich, was of Dalmatian origin and his family had interesting twists and developed a complex cultural and political character. Moravia did not finish conventional schooling because, at the age of nine, he contracted tuberculosis of the bone and he spent three years at home and two in a sanatorium near Cortina dAmpezzo, in north-eastern Italy. He learned French and German and wrote poems in French and Italian, in 1925 at the age of 18, he left the sanatorium and moved to Bressanone. During the next three years, partly in Bressanone and partly in Rome, he began to write his first novel, Gli indifferenti, the novel is a realistic analysis of the moral decadence of a middle-class mother and two of her children. In 1927, Moravia met Corrado Alvaro and Massimo Bontempelli and started his career as a journalist with the magazine 900, the journal published his first short stories, including Cortigiana stanca, Delitto al circolo del tennis, Il ladro curioso and Apparizione. Gli indifferenti was published at his own expense, costing 5,000 Italian lira, literary critics described the novel as a noteworthy example of contemporary Italian narrative fiction. The next year, Moravia started collaborating with the newspaper La Stampa, in 1933, together with Mario Pannunzio, he founded the literary review magazines Caratteri and Oggi and started writing for the newspaper Gazzetta del Popolo. The years leading to World War II were difficult for Moravia as an author, in 1935 he traveled to the United States to give a lecture series on Italian literature. Limbroglio was published by Bompiani in 1937, to avoid Fascist censorship, Moravia wrote mainly in the surrealist and allegoric styles, among the works is Il sogno del pigro. The Fascist seizure of the edition of La mascherata in 1941. That same year, he married the novelist Elsa Morante, whom he had met in 1936 and they lived in Capri, where he wrote Agostino
26.
Homelessness
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Homelessness is the condition of people without a permanent dwelling, such as a house or apartment. People who are homeless are most often unable to acquire and maintain regular, safe, secure, the legal definition of homeless varies from country to country, or among different jurisdictions in the same country or region. According to the UK homelessness charity Crisis, a home is not just a space, it also provides roots, identity, security, a sense of belonging. American government homeless enumeration studies also include people who sleep in a public or private place not designed for use as a sleeping accommodation for human beings. There are a number of organizations who provide help for the homeless, in 2005, an estimated 100 million people worldwide were homeless, and as many as 1 billion people live as squatters, refugees or in temporary shelter, all lacking adequate housing. In Western countries, the majority of homeless are men. Most countries provide a variety of services to assist homeless people and these services often provide food, shelter and clothing and may be organized and run by community organizations or by government departments or agencies. These programs may be supported by the government, charities, churches, many cities also have street newspapers, which are publications designed to provide employment opportunity to homeless people. While some homeless have jobs, some must seek other methods to make a living, begging or panhandling is one option, but is becoming increasingly illegal in many cities. People who are homeless may have conditions, such as physical or mental health issues or substance addiction. In 2004, the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs defined a homeless household as those households without a shelter that would fall within the scope of living quarters. They carry their few possessions with them, sleeping in the streets, in doorways or on piers, or in another space and this category includes persons living in the streets without a shelter that would fall within the scope of living quarters, Secondary homelessness. This category may include persons with no place of usual residence who move frequently between various types of accommodations and this category includes persons living in private dwellings but reporting no usual address on their census form. The CES acknowledges that the approach does not provide a full definition of the homeless. Homelessness is perceived and addressed according to country. The ETHOS approach confirms that homelessness is a process that affects many vulnerable households at different points in their lives. The typology was launched in 2005 and is used for different purposes, as a framework for debate, for collection purposes, for policy purposes, monitoring purposes. This typology is an exercise which makes abstraction of existing legal definitions in the EU member states
27.
Council house
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A council house is a form of public or social housing built by local municipalities in the United Kingdom and Ireland. A council estate is a complex containing a great many council houses and other amenities like schools. Council houses were built and distinctive in design which evolved over the period of their construction from 1919 to 1980. There were local design variations but they all stuck rigidly to Local Authority building standards and they could be funded directly, through central government incentive or by revenue obtained when other houses were sold. Increasingly, they have been transferred through the instrument of housing associations into the private sector, Woolwich Borough Council was responsible for the Well Hall Estate designed for workers at the munition factories at Woolwich Arsenal. The estate and the house were built to the garden suburb philosophy, the estate received the royal seal of approval when on Friday,24 March 1916, Queen Mary made an unannounced visit. A programme of house building started after the First World War following on from the David Lloyd George’s government’s Housing Act of 1919. The Addison Act brought in subsidies for house building and aimed to provide 500,000 homes fit for heroes within a three-year period although less than half of this target was met. The housing built comprised three-bedroom dwellings with parlour and scullery, larger properties also include a living room, the standards are based on the Tudor Walters Report of 1919, and the Design Manual written according to the 1913 building standards. In 1923 the Chamberlain Act withdrew subsidies for council houses except for private builders, councils could undertake to build houses and offer these for sale but also to sell off some of their existing properties. This was essentially reversed by the incoming Labour government of 1924, the Wheatley Act passed by the new Labour Government introduced higher subsidies for council housing and also allowed for a contribution to be made from the rates. The housing revenue account was separated from the general account. This was a period of council house construction. The Housing Act 1930 stimulated slum clearance, i. e. the destruction of houses in the inner cities that were built before the 1875 Act. This released land for housing and the need for smaller two bedroomed houses to replace the two-up two-down houses that had been demolished, smaller three bedroom properties were also built. The Housing Act of 1935 led to a continuation of this policy, prefabs The immediate post-war period saw the building of prefab bungalows with a design life of ten years. Innovative steel-framed properties were also tried in an attempt to speed up construction, a number survive, a testament to the durability of a series of housing designs and construction methods only envisaged to last 10 years. The eventual bill, under the post-war Labour government of Prime Minister Clement Attlee, agreed to deliver 300,000 units within 10 years, within a budget of £150m
28.
Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts
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The Italia Conti Academy is a co-educational independent school for pupils aged from 10 to 19 years, and a theatre arts training school, based in London, England. It was founded in 1911 by the actress Italia Conti, the academy grew out of the first production of the play Where the Rainbow Ends. Italia Conti, an actress with a reputation for her success working with young people, was asked to take over the job of training the cast. The play was a triumph and the school was born in basement studios in London’s Great Portland Street, in the school moved to a church building in Conduit Street. During World War 2, the school was bombed, destroying all records of the school. In 1972 the school moved to a building in Landor Road and it was the home to all full-time Italia Conti pupils for 9 years. In 1981 the school moved again for the time to Goswell Road. The Acting course consists of three years of professional training, offered to students from the age of 18. It is based in Italia Contis Avondale Building in Clapham, the three-year course is university accredited and students graduate with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Acting. Part of the course teaches students to be original and individual in their work, to reinvent old techniques and develop new ones. The Performing Arts course is a three-year full-time course for students from the age of 16, it place at Italia Conti House. It is designed for students who require an all round training in performing arts, the course aims to produce confident, artistic and multi-skilled performers, the emphasis is on training in the three main art forms, acting, singing and dancing. The Intensive course is a full-time one-year course for students from the age of 16, the course, similarly to the diploma course, focuses on the skills of singing, acting and dancing. The course works with students on the Performing Arts three-year diploma course, the course develops technical skills, artistic interpretation and a sense of performance. Students who successfully complete the course graduate with the Academy Diploma, students who achieve the necessary skills are also given the opportunity throughout the course to take external examinations in theatre disciplines which are recognised by outside boards. The Performing Arts with Dance Teacher Training is a three-year full-time course for students from the age of 16, the course trains students to become performers and dance teachers by providing performing arts training and dance teaching qualifications. With the introduction of the ISTD qualifications in 2006, the academy provided students with the opportunity to take these examinations, the course follows the same path as the Performing Arts Course but also incorporates the teacher training by offering the FDI qualifications in Classical Ballet, Tap and Modern. This allows students to become qualified dance teachers to teach up to grade 5 in the ISTD syllabus, the academy has three sites, The main centre Italia Conti House, commonly referred to as mainschool, is based in Goswell Road, Barbican, London
29.
Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall
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Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, GCVO, CSM, PC, is the second wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, who is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Instead of using the title of Princess of Wales, she uses the title Duchess of Cornwall, in Scotland, she is known as the Duchess of Rothesay. Camilla was born into a family as the eldest child of Major Bruce Shand and his wife, the Honourable Rosalind Cubitt. She was raised in East Sussex and South Kensington, and was educated in England, Switzerland, subsequently, she worked for different firms based in central London, most notably the decorating firm Sibyl Colefax & John Fowler. In 1973, Camilla married British Army officer Andrew Parker Bowles, for many years, Camilla was in a relationship with the Prince of Wales before and after their former marriages. The relationship became highly publicised in the media and attracted worldwide scrutiny, as the Duchess of Cornwall, Camilla assists the Prince of Wales on his official duties. She is also the patron, president and a member of numerous charities, since 1994, she has taken action on osteoporosis, which has earned her honours and awards. She has also raised awareness in areas including rape and sexual abuse, literacy and poverty, Camilla Rosemary Shand was born at Kings College Hospital, London, on 17 July 1947 at 7,00 am. She grew up in the Laines, a house located in Plumpton, East Sussex. Her parents were British Army officer turned businessman Major Bruce Shand and his wife, the Hon. Rosalind and she has one younger sister, Annabel Elliot, and had a younger brother, Mark Shand. Her maternal great-grandmother, Alice Keppel, was a mistress of King Edward VII from 1898 to 1910, on 1 November 1947, Camilla was baptised at Firle Church, Sussex. Her godparents were Hon. Henry Cubitt, Major Neil Speke, Mrs Heathcoat-Amory, Mrs Lombard Hobson, Camillas mother worked for an adoption agency, while her father had different business interests after retiring from the army. He was most notably a partner in Block, Grey and Block, during her childhood years, Camilla became an avid reader due to the influence of her father, who read to her frequently. She grew up with dogs and cats, and, at a young age, according to her, childhood was perfect in every way. Biographer Gyles Brandreth describes her background and childhood, Camilla is often described as having had an Enid Blyton sort of Childhood, in fact, it was much grander than that. The Shands had position and they had help—help in the house, help in the garden and they opened their garden for the local Conservative Party Association summer fête. At the age of five, Camilla was sent to Dumbrells and she left Dumbrells aged ten to attend Queens Gate School in Queens Gate, South Kensington. Her classmates at Queens Gate knew her as Milla, her pupils included the singer Twinkle
30.
Cram school
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Cram schools or as a whole, crammers, are specialized schools that train their students to meet particular goals, most commonly to pass the entrance examinations of high schools or universities. The English name is derived from the slang term cramming, meaning to study hard or to study a large amount of material in a period of time. Cram schools often specialize in a subject or subjects. Special cram schools that students who have failed their entrance examinations to take them the following year are also common. In extreme cases, such students may spend up to eighteen hours a day studying to retake their tests, students who attend regular after-school cram schools may study for four hours or more. As the name suggests, the aim of a school is generally to impart as much information to its students as possible in the shortest period of time. The goal is to enable the students to pass, or obtain a grade in. Cram schools are sometimes criticized, along with the countries in which they are prevalent, for a lack of training in critical thinking and analysis. Cram schools are referred to largely as coaching colleges, they are used primarily to achieve the results for the entrance exam for selective schools in New South Wales. They are also used extensively in mathematics courses for the Higher School Certificate, in Bangladesh, Cram Schools are known as Coaching Centers and to some extent Tutorials. Most cram schools provide help for admission tests of public universities and medical colleges, and public examinations like SSC, there are also some variants which have entered the market of ever increasing help seekers. For example, cram schools now also prepare students for language tests like IELTS and TOEFL, aptitude tests like GRE, GMAT, SAT, in recent years cram schools have also been extended to the tests for government civil services like BCS Examination. Cram schools are called Cursinhos in Brazil and are attended by students who will be taking an exam to be admitted into a university. Cram schools are called Preuniversitarios in Chile and are attended by students to revise before taking PSU in order to get onto undergraduate studies, Cram schools are popular in China due to the importance of standardized exams, such as, High school entrance exam. The National Higher Education Entrance Examination, or Gaokao, mandatory for college admission, passing the College English Test band 4 and 6 is sometimes a prerequisite for bachelors degree, and the certificates are often important to finding employment. The TOEFL and GRE tests from ETS are required for studying abroad in English-speaking countries, Entrance exams to domestic graduate program. Over recent years the competition has intensified, partially because many new college graduates fail to find satisfactory jobs, mainland China has a test-driven system. Education departments give entrance examinations to sort students into schools of different levels, examinations like the National Higher Education Entrance Examination are vital, deciding the academic future of the participants
31.
Anna Wintour
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Dame Anna Wintour DBE is a British-American journalist and editor. She has been editor-in-chief of Vogue since 1988, in 2013, she became artistic director for Condé Nast, Vogues publisher. Her reportedly aloof and demanding personality has earned her the nickname Nuclear Wintour, the eldest daughter of Charles Wintour, editor of the London Evening Standard, her father consulted her on how to make the newspaper relevant to the youth of the era. She became interested in fashion as a teenager and her career in fashion journalism began at two British magazines. Later, she moved to the US, with stints at New York and she returned to London and was the editor of British Vogue between 1985 and 1987. A year she assumed control of the franchises magazine in New York. Her use of the magazine to shape the fashion industry has been the subject of debate within it, animal rights activists have attacked her for promoting fur, while other critics have charged her with using the magazine to promote elitist views of femininity and beauty. In 2009, she was the focus of film, R. J. Wintour was born in Hampstead, London in 1949, to Charles Wintour, editor of the Evening Standard, and Eleanor Nonie Trego Baker, an American and her parents married in 1940 and divorced in 1979. Wintour was named after her grandmother, Anna Baker, a merchants daughter from Pennsylvania. Audrey Slaughter, an editor who founded publications such as Honey. The late-18th-century novelist Lady Elizabeth Foster, Duchess of Devonshire, was Wintours great-great-great-grandmother, and Sir Augustus Vere Foster and her older brother, Gerald, died in a traffic accident as a child. One of her brothers, Patrick, is also a journalist. James and Nora Wintour have worked in London local government and for international non-governmental organisations, in her youth, Wintour was educated at the independent North London Collegiate School, where she frequently rebelled against the dress code by taking up the hemlines of her skirts. At the age of 14, she began wearing her hair in a bob and she developed an interest in fashion as a regular viewer of Cathy McGowan on Ready Steady Go. and from the issues of Seventeen which her grandmother sent from the United States. Growing up in London in the 60s, youd have to have had Irving Penns sack over your head not to know something extraordinary was happening in fashion and her father regularly consulted her when he was considering ideas for increasing readership in the youth market. At the age of 15, she began dating well-connected older men and she was involved briefly with Piers Paul Read, then 24. In her later teens, she and gossip columnist Nigel Dempster became a fixture on the London club circuit, I think my father really decided for me that I should work in fashion, she recalled in The September Issue
32.
Helena Bonham Carter
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Helena Bonham Carter, CBE is an English actress. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role as Kate Croy in The Wings of the Dove. For her role as Queen Elizabeth in The Kings Speech, she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and she also won the 2010 International Emmy Award for Best Actress for her role as British author Enid Blyton in the TV film Enid. Bonham Carter began her career playing the title character in Lady Jane. Her other television films include A Pattern of Roses, Live from Baghdad, Toast, Bonham Carter was born in Islington, London. C. Her mother, Elena, is a psychotherapist who is of mostly Jewish background and her paternal grandmother was politician and feminist icon Violet Asquith, daughter of H. H. Asquith, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the first half of World War I. Bonham Carter is the youngest of three children, with two brothers, Edward and Thomas and they were brought up in Golders Green and she was educated at South Hampstead High School, and completed her A-levels at Westminster School. When Bonham Carter was five, her mother had a nervous breakdown. Five years after her mothers recovery, her father was diagnosed with acoustic neuroma and he suffered complications during an operation to remove the tumour which led to a stroke that left him half-paralysed and using a wheelchair. With her brothers at college, Bonham Carter was left to help her mother cope and she later studied her fathers movements and mannerisms for her role in The Theory of Flight. Bonham Carter, who has no formal acting training, entered the field winning a national writing contest and she made her professional acting début at the age of 16 in a television commercial. She also had a part in a minor TV film, A Pattern of Roses and her first lead film role was as Lady Jane Grey in Lady Jane, which was given mixed reviews by critics. Her breakthrough role was Lucy Honeychurch in A Room with a View, the role went to Emily Watson, who was nominated for an Academy Award for her performance. In 1994, Bonham Carter appeared in a sequence during the second series of the British sitcom Absolutely Fabulous, as Edina Monsoons daughter Saffron. Throughout the series, references were made to Saffrons resemblance to Bonham Carter and her early films led to her being typecast as a corset queen, and English rose, playing pre- and early 20th century characters, particularly in Merchant-Ivory films. She played Olivia in Trevor Nunns film version of Twelfth Night in 1996, Bonham Carter speaks French fluently, and starred in a 1996 French film Portraits chinois. In August 2001, she was featured in Maxim, Bonham Carter was a member of the 2006 Cannes Film Festival jury that unanimously selected The Wind That Shakes the Barley as best film. In May 2006, Bonham Carter launched her own line, The Pantaloonies
33.
Southwold
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Southwold is a small town on the English North Sea coast in the Waveney district of Suffolk. It lies at the mouth of the River Blyth within the Suffolk Coast, the town is about 11 miles south of Lowestoft,29 miles north-east of Ipswich and 97 miles north-east of London, within the parliamentary constituency of Suffolk Coastal. The All Usual Residents 2011 Census figure gives a total of 1,098 persons for the town, the 2012 Housing Report by the Southwold and Reydon Society concluded that 49 per cent of the dwellings in the town are used as second homes and let to holiday-makers. Southwold was the home of a number of Puritan emigrants to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the 1630s, notably a party of 18 assembled under Rev. Young, which travelled in the Mary Ann in 1637. Richard Ibrook, born in Southwold and a bailiff of the town, emigrated to Hingham, Massachusetts, along with Rev. Peter Hobart, son of Edmund Hobart of Hingham. Rev. Hobart had been an assistant vicar of St Edmunds Church, Hobart married in America Rebecca Ibrook, daughter of his fellow Puritan Richard Ibrook. The migrants to Hingham were led by Robert Peck, vicar of St Andrews Church in Hingham, a fire in 1659 devastated most of the town and damaged St Edmunds Church, whose original structure dated from the 12th century. The fire created a number of spaces within the town which were never rebuilt. Today this series of varied and very delightful village greens and the restriction of expansion because of the marshes, have preserved the towns genteel appearance. The battle was bloody but indecisive and many bodies were washed ashore, Southwold Museum has a collection of mementos of the event. During World War I, it was thought that these cannon were one reason why this part of the coast was bombarded by the German Fleet as a fortified coast. In World War II the cannon were removed, reputedly buried for safety. Southwold is part of the Southwold and Reydonelectoral ward, in the Waveney District Council area. The population of this ward, taken at the 2011 census, was 3,680, although once home to a number of different industries, Southwolds economy nowadays is mainly based on services, and particularly hotels, holiday accommodation, catering, and tourism. However, there has been a trend in recent years for retailing chains, including food and beverages, clothing and stationery shops. Adnams Brewery is located in Southwold, and is the towns largest single employer, although the fishing fleet and the industry generally is much diminished, Southwold Harbour remains one of the main fishing ports on the Suffolk coastline. In 2012, additional facilities for the fleet were constructed there, as part of the repair, the narrow-gauge Southwold Railway connected the town to Halesworth and ran from 24 September 1879 to 11 April 1929. In 2007 the Southwold Railway Society submitted plans to build a new line between the parish of Easton Bavents and Henham Park, to link the town to the nearest mainline service at Halesworth
34.
Battersea
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Battersea is a largely residential inner-city district of south London in the London Borough of Wandsworth, England. It has Battersea Park, one of southwest Londons main parks, noted for the long-awaited bringing of the London Underground in the 21st century, two main railway lines cross here at what was the countrys busiest station. Elsewhere in Battersea are a growing proportion of private architecturally-acclaimed riverside, parkside, in 2001, Battersea had a population of 75,651 people. Landmarks include New Covent Garden Market and the Royal Academy of Dance, Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common border parts of this large district, which traditionally also includes Nine Elms. Railway stations in Battersea are in fare zone 2, Battersea is mentioned in Anglo-Saxon times as Badrices īeg = Badrics Island and later Patrisey. As with many former parishes beside major rivers some land was reclaimed by draining marshland, the original village nucleus is marked by St. Marys Church, which is on a site that has featured churches since the 9th century. The settlement appears in the Domesday Book as Patricesy, held by St Peters Abbey and its Domesday Assets were,18 hides and 17 ploughlands of cultivated land,7 mills worth £42 9s 8d per year,82 acres of meadow, woodland worth 50 hogs. The former parish of Battersea included, in a detached part, the borough dates from the London Government Act of 1899, and includes the greater part of the original ecclesiastical parish of St. Mary Battersea. Penge was a district, over which the tenants of Battersea Manor had common of pasture. At the end of the 18th century, above 300 acres of land in the parish of Battersea were occupied by some 20 market gardeners, who rented from five to near 60 acres each. Bridges erected across the Thames encouraged growth, Putney Bridge, a mile to the west, was built in 1729, inland from the river, the rural agricultural community persisted. Between these were numerous wharfs for shipping, in 1929, construction started on Battersea Power Station, being completed in 1939. Factories have been demolished and replaced with apartment buildings. Some of the council owned properties have been sold off and several working mens pubs have become more fashionable bistros. Battersea neighbourhoods close to the railway have some of the most deprived local authority housing in the Borough of Wandsworth, an area which saw condemned slums after their erection in the Victoria era. Battersea was radically altered by the coming of railways, over the next 22 years five other lines were built, across which all trains from Londons Waterloo and Victoria termini would as today travel. An interchange station was built in 1863 towards the north west of the area, taking the name of a fashionable village a mile and more away, the station was named Clapham Junction, a campaign to rename it Battersea Junction fizzled out as late as the early twentieth century. The area was served by a vast music hall – The Grand – opposite the station as well as a theatre next to the town hall
35.
Houseboat
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A houseboat is a boat that has been designed or modified to be used primarily as a home. Some houseboats are not motorized, because they are moored, kept stationary at a fixed point. However, many are capable of operation under their own power, float house is a Canadian and American term for a house on a float, a rough house may be called a shanty boat. In Western countries, houseboats tend to be owned privately or rented out to holiday-goers. Examples of this include, but are not limited to, Amsterdam, London, in Zimbabwe, specifically on Lake Kariba, houseboats have been in use since the creation of the lake in the late 1950s/early 1960s. A houseboat makes it easy to experience the Zambezi basin and all the wildlife, as a lot of game come down to the water for drinking. There is a houseboat and fishing community on the side of Hong Kong Island known as Aberdeen floating village. There was also one such community in the Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter, in India, houseboats as accommodation for tourists are common on the backwaters of Kerala, see below, and on the Dal Lake near Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir. Houseboats in Kerala, south India, are huge, slow-moving barges used for leisure trips and they are a reworked model of Kettuvallams, which, in earlier times, were used to carry rice and spices from Kuttanad to the Kochi port. Kerala houseboats were considered a convenient means of transportation, the popularity of Kettuvallams has returned in the function as major tourist attractions. Such a houseboat is about 60 to 70 feet long and about 15 feet wide at the middle, the hull is made of wooden planks that are held together by ropes of coconut fiber, the usual wood is Anjali. The roof is made of poles and palm leaves. The exterior of the boat is painted with coats of cashew nut oil. Unlike their counterparts in Kerala, the houseboats in Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir are usually stationary and they are usually moored at the edges of the Dal Lake and Nageen lakes. Some of the houseboats there were built in the early 1900s and these houseboats are made of wood and usually have intricately carved wood paneling. The houseboats are of different sizes, some having up to three bedrooms apart from a room and kitchen. Srinagars thousand or so houseboats are moored along sections of the Dal and Nagin Lakes, like hotels, houseboats vary in degree of luxury and have been accordingly graded by the Department of Tourism. A luxury houseboat, like a hotel, has fine furniture, good carpets and modern bathroom fittings, while the D category of houseboats
36.
Biography
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A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a persons life. It involves more than just the basic facts like education, work, relationships, biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a persons life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing, works in diverse media, from literature to film, form the genre known as biography. An authorized biography is written with the permission, cooperation, and at times, an autobiography is written by the person himself or herself, sometimes with the assistance of a collaborator or ghostwriter. At first, biographical writings were regarded merely as a subsection of history with a focus on an individual of historical importance. The independent genre of biography as distinct from general history writing, began to emerge in the 18th century, one of the earliest of the biographers was Plutarch, and his Parallel Lives, published about 80 A. D. covers prominent figures in the classical world. Cornelius Nepos published a work, his Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae. Perhaps the earliest extant biography that does not contain mythological material is The Lives of the Caesars by Suetonius, in the early Middle Ages, there was a decline in awareness of the classical culture in Europe. During this time, the only repositories of knowledge and records of the history in Europe were those of the Roman Catholic Church. Hermits, monks, and priests used this period to write biographies. Their subjects were usually restricted to the fathers, martyrs, popes. Their works were meant to be inspirational to the people and vehicles for conversion to Christianity, one significant secular example of a biography from this period is the life of Charlemagne by his courtier Einhard. Early biographical dictionaries were published as compendia of famous Islamic personalities from the 9th century onwards and they contained more social data for a large segment of the population than other works of that period. And then began the documentation of the lives of other historical figures who lived in the medieval Islamic world. By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, the most famous of such biographies was Le Morte dArthur by Sir Thomas Malory. The book was an account of the life of the fabled King Arthur, following Malory, the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular. Giorgio Vasaris Lives of the Artists was the landmark biography focusing on secular lives, vasari made celebrities of his subjects, as the Lives became an early bestseller. Two other developments are noteworthy, the development of the press in the 15th century
37.
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
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The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848 by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The three founders were joined by William Michael Rossetti, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens and Thomas Woolner to form the seven-member brotherhood and their principles were shared by other artists, including Marie Spartali Stillman and Ford Madox Brown. A later, medievalising strain inspired by Rossetti included Edward Burne-Jones, the groups intention was to reform art by rejecting what it considered the mechanistic approach first adopted by Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo. Its members believed the Classical poses and elegant compositions of Raphael in particular had been an influence on the academic teaching of art. In particular, the group objected to the influence of Sir Joshua Reynolds, founder of the English Royal Academy of Arts, to the Pre-Raphaelites, according to William Michael Rossetti, sloshy meant anything lax or scamped in the process of painting. Any thing or person of a commonplace or conventional kind, the brotherhood sought a return to the abundant detail, intense colours and complex compositions of Quattrocento Italian art. The group associated their work with John Ruskin, an English critic whose influences were driven by his religious background, the group continued to accept the concepts of history painting and mimesis, imitation of nature, as central to the purpose of art. The Pre-Raphaelites defined themselves as a movement, created a distinct name for their form of art. The groups debates were recorded in the Pre-Raphaelite Journal, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded in John Millaiss parents house on Gower Street, London in 1848. At the first meeting, the painters John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Hunt and Millais were students at the Royal Academy of Arts and had met in another loose association, the Cyclographic Club, a sketching society. At his own request Rossetti became a pupil of Ford Madox Brown in 1848, at that date, Rossetti and Hunt shared lodgings in Cleveland Street, Fitzrovia, Central London. Hunt had started painting The Eve of St. Agnes based on Keatss poem of the same name, as an aspiring poet, Rossetti wished to develop the links between Romantic poetry and art. Ford Madox Brown was invited to join, but the more senior artist remained independent but supported the group throughout the PRB period of Pre-Raphaelitism, other young painters and sculptors became close associates, including Charles Allston Collins, Thomas Tupper, and Alexander Munro. The PRB intended to keep the existence of the secret from members of the Royal Academy. The principles were deliberately non-dogmatic, since the brotherhood wished to emphasise the personal responsibility of artists to determine their own ideas. Influenced by Romanticism, the members thought freedom and responsibility were inseparable, nevertheless, they were particularly fascinated by medieval culture, believing it to possess a spiritual and creative integrity that had been lost in later eras. The emphasis on medieval culture clashed with principles of realism which stress the independent observation of nature, in its early stages, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood believed its two interests were consistent with one another, but in later years the movement divided and moved in two directions. The realists were led by Hunt and Millais, while the medievalists were led by Rossetti and his followers, Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris
38.
Edward Burne-Jones
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Burne-Joness early paintings show the heavy inspiration of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, but by the 1860s Burne-Jones was discovering his own artistic voice. In 1877, he was persuaded to show eight oil paintings at the Grosvenor Gallery and these included The Beguiling of Merlin. The timing was right, and he was taken up as a herald, Edward Coley Burne Jones was born in Birmingham, the son of a Welshman, Edward Richard Jones, a frame-maker at Bennetts Hill, where a blue plaque commemorates the painters childhood. He attended Birminghams King Edward VI grammar school from 1844 and the Birmingham School of Art from 1848 to 1852, before studying theology at Exeter College, at Oxford he became a friend of William Morris as a consequence of a mutual interest in poetry. The members of the Brotherhood read John Ruskin and Tennyson, visited churches, at this time Burne-Jones discovered Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur which was to be so influential in his life. In February 1857, Rossetti wrote to William Bell Scott In 1856 Burne-Jones became engaged to Georgiana Georgie MacDonald and she was training to be a painter, and was the sister of Burne-Joness old school friend. The couple married in 1860, after which she made her own work in woodcuts, Georgiana bore a son, Philip, in 1861. A second son, born in the winter of 1864 while Georgiana was gravely ill with scarlet fever, the family soon moved to 41 Kensington Square, and their daughter Margaret was born there in 1866. In 1867 Burne-Jones and his family settled at the Grange, an 18th-century house set in a garden in North End, Fulham. During these difficult years Georgiana developed a friendship with Morris. Morris and Georgie may have been in love, but if he asked her to leave her husband, in the end, the Burne-Joneses remained together, as did the Morrises, but Morris and Georgiana were close for the rest of their lives. His troubled son Philip, who became a portrait painter. His adored daughter Margaret married John William Mackail, the friend and biographer of Morris and their children were the novelists Angela Thirkell and Denis Mackail. In an edition of the magazine, Chums, an article on Burne-Jones stated that. his pet grandson used to be punished by being sent to stand in a corner with his face to the wall. One day on being sent there he was delighted to find the wall prettily decorated with fairies, flowers, birds and his indulgent grandfather had utilised his talent to alleviate the tedium of his favourites period of penance. Burne-Jones once admitted that after leaving Oxford he found himself at five-and-twenty what he ought to have been at fifteen and he had had no regular training as a draughtsman, and lacked the confidence of science. Many are pen-and-ink drawings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of which his Waxen Image is one of the earliest and best examples, although the subject, medium and manner derive from Rossettis inspiration, it is not the hand of a pupil merely, but of a potential master. This was recognized by Rossetti himself, who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him
39.
The Golden Child (novel)
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The Golden Child is a novel by British author Penelope Fitzgerald. It offers a version of the King Tut exhibition at the British Museum in 1972, and also pokes fun at museum politics, academic scholars. Fitzgerald wrote the novel to amuse her husband, who was terminally ill and she was inspired by her two visits to the King Tut exhibit, and the incredibly poor museum-goer experience she underwent. The original manuscript was much longer, with chapters on the extended cover-up the Museum, with Government connivance and they were cut by the publisher. The publisher also wanted Fitzgerald to write more Professor Untermensch novels and she originally started the drafts of two such novels, but in the end thought it best not to be typecast. The Golden Child The gold-plated child-king Garamantian mummy, buried circa 500 BC with golden treasures, theres a Curse associated with him. Sir John Allison The Director of the Museum, a Kenneth Clark-like figure, specialist in French porcelain, silverware, marcus Hawthorne-Mannering The Keeper of Funerary Art, and responsible for the Exhibition of the Golden Child. Warren Smith A junior Exhibition Officer, he knows some Russian, Professor Heinrich Untermensch A German expert on the Garamantians. Doctor Tite-Live Rochegrosse-Bergson A French expert on something, but it is not clear what, a parody of Barthes, Derrida, and Lévi-Strauss. Professor Cyril Ivanovitch Semyonov A Russian expert on the Garamantians, unable to come, Jones Jones Museum official, mostly attends to Sir Williams needs. Len Coker Staff member, Conservation and Technical Services Department, miss Dousha Vartarian Secretary to Sir William. Miss Rank Secretary to Sir John, in January 1973, London, the Museum is exhibiting, for the first time anywhere, the golden Garamantian treasures, including the Golden Child. Crowds, especially of schoolchildren, queue for hours for a brief sight under poor lighting, Sir William takes no interest in the exhibit. Running an errand for Sir William late at night — the return of a clay tablet — Smith is strangled, when suspicion surfaces concerning the authenticity of some of the exhibits, the Museum dispatches Smith, with the Golden Doll, to Moscow to get Semyonovs opinion. It is expected no one will be suspicious of Smith because of his low position, Untermensch realizes the exact opposite will be true with the Soviets, that they will assume he is of course a spy, so he tags along and shadows Smith. After two days of failing to contact with Semyonov, Smith learns the truth, there is no Semyonov. The Soviets, thinking to impress upon the British they know what game the British are playing, allow Smith and he is detained briefly and without much explanation by someone from the Ministry of Defence and someone from Special Branch. He invokes Sir William, whom he expects will clarify his trip and his body was found between two shelves in a compact storage unit
40.
Crime fiction
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Crime fiction is the literary genre that fictionalises crimes, their detection, criminals, and their motives. It is usually distinguished from mainstream fiction and other such as historical fiction or science fiction. Crime fiction has multiple subgenres, including fiction, courtroom drama, hard-boiled fiction. Suspense and mystery are key elements that are ubiquitous to the genre. In Italy people commonly call a story about detectives or crimes giallo, better known are the earlier dark works of Edgar Allan Poe. Wilkie Collins epistolary novel The Woman in White was published in 1860, french author Émile Gaboriaus Monsieur Lecoq laid the groundwork for the methodical, scientifically minded detective. The evolution of locked room mysteries was one of the landmarks in the history of crime fiction, the Sherlock Holmes mysteries of Arthur Conan Doyle are said to have been singularly responsible for the huge popularity in this genre. A precursor was Paul Féval, whose series Les Habits Noirs features Scotland Yard detectives, the best-selling crime novel of the nineteenth century was Fergus Humes The Mystery of a Hansom Cab, set in Melbourne, Australia. The evolution of the print mass media in the United Kingdom, like the works of many other important fiction writers of his day—e. g. Wilkie Collins and Charles Dickens—Arthur Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes stories first appeared in form in the monthly Strand magazine in the United Kingdom. Later a set of stereotypic formulae began to appear to cater to various tastes, Crime fiction can be divided into the following four branches, The cozy mystery, a subgenre of detective fiction in which profanity, sex, and violence are downplayed or treated humorously. The whodunit, the most common form of detective fiction, the historical whodunnit, also a subgenre of historical fiction. The police procedural, the detective is a member of the police, the forensic crime fiction, similar to the police procedural. The detective the reader follows is usually a medical examiner or pathologist—they must use the evidence left on the body. This subgenre was first introduced by Patricia Cornwell, the legal thriller, the major characters are lawyers and their employees, and they become involved in proving their cases. The spy novel, the characters are spies, usually working for an intelligence agency. The caper story and the novel, the stories are told from the point of view of the criminals. The parody or spoof When trying to pigeon-hole fiction, it is difficult to tell where crime fiction starts
41.
Tutankhamun
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Tutankhamun was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom or sometimes the New Empire Period. He has, since his discovery, been referred to as King Tut. His original name, Tutankhaten, means Living Image of Aten, in hieroglyphs, the name Tutankhamun was typically written Amen-tut-ankh, because of a scribal custom that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase to show appropriate reverence. The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon of Tutankhamuns nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage and it sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamuns mask, now in the Egyptian Museum, remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts from his tomb have toured the world, in February 2010, the results of DNA tests confirmed that he was the son of Akhenaten. His mother was Akhenatens sister and wife, whose name is unknown, the mysterious deaths of a few of those who excavated Tutankhamuns tomb has been popularly attributed to the curse of the pharaohs. Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten and one of Akhenatens sisters, as a prince, he was known as Tutankhaten. He ascended to the throne in 1333 BC, at the age of nine or ten and his wet nurse was a woman called Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara. His teacher was most likely Sennedjem, when he became king, he married his half-sister, Ankhesenpaaten, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, both stillborn, computed tomography studies released in 2011 revealed that one daughter died at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at 9 months of pregnancy. No evidence was found in either mummy of congenital anomalies or an apparent cause of death, given his age, the king probably had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb and Grand Vizier Ay. Horemheb records that the king appointed him lord of the land as hereditary prince to maintain law and he also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared. In his third year, under the influence of his advisors. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy, the ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten abandoned and this is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun, Living image of Amun, reinforcing the restoration of Amun. As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, many monuments were erected, and an inscription on his tomb door declares the king had spent his life in fashioning the images of the gods. The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet and his restoration stela says, The temples of the gods and goddesses. Their shrines were deserted and overgrown and their sanctuaries were as non-existent and their courts were used as roads
