1.
Strategic Missile Troops
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The Strategic Rocket Forces were created on December 17,1959 as the main Soviet force used for attacking an enemys offensive nuclear weapons, military facilities, and industrial infrastructure. They operated all Soviet nuclear ground-based intercontinental, intermediate-range ballistic missile, complementary strategic forces within Russia are the Long Range Aviation and the Russian Navys ballistic missile submarines. On October 18,1947 the brigade conducted the first launch of the remanufactured former German A-4 ballistic missile, or R-1, in the early 1950s the 77th and 90th Brigades were also formed to operate the R-1. The 54th and 56th Brigades were formed to conduct test launches of the R-2 at Kapustin Yar on June 1,1952, by 1990 all these early types of missiles had been retired from service. This was the year that the Strategic Missile Troops were officially established as a service branch of the Armed Forces under the direct control of the Defense Ministry. The date of its foundation, December 17, is celebrated as Strategic Missile Troops Day. Two rocket armies were formed in 1960, the 43rd Rocket Army and the 50th Rocket Army were formed from the previous 43rd and 50th Air Armies of the Long Range Aviation. During a test of the R-16 ICBM on October 24,1960 and this disaster, the details of which were concealed for decades, became known as the Nedelin catastrophe. He was succeeded by Marshal of the Soviet Union Kirill Moskalenko, under Marshal Вiryuzov the SRF deployed missiles to Cuba in 1962 as part of Operation Anadyr. 36 R-12 intermediate range missiles were sent to Cuba, initiating the Cuban Missile Crisis. The 43rd Guards Missile Division of 43rd Rocket Army manned the missiles while in Cuba, Marshal Nikolai Krylov then took over in March 1963 and served until February 1972. During this time French President Charles de Gaulle visited the Strategic Rocket Forces in 1966, Chief Marshal of Artillery Vladimir Fedorovich Tolubko commanded the SRF from April 12,1972 to July 10,1985. Tolubko emphasised raising the physical fitness standards within the SRF and he was succeeded by General of the Army Yury Pavlovich Maksimov, who commanded from July 10,1985 to August 19,1992. In 1989 the Strategic Rocket Forces had over 1,400 ICBMs,300 launch control centers, the SMT also operated RSD-10 intermediate-range ballistic missiles and R-12 medium-range ballistic missiles. Two-thirds of the road-mobile Soviet RSD-10 force was based in the western Soviet Union and was aimed at Western Europe, one-third of the force was located east of the Ural Mountains and was targeted primarily against China. Older R-12 missiles were deployed at fixed sites in the western Soviet Union, the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, signed in December 1987, called for the elimination of all 553 Soviet RSD-10 and R-12 missiles within three years. As of mid-1989, over 50% of RSD-10 and R-12 missiles had been eliminated, by 1990 the Soviet Union had seven types of operational ICBMs, about 50% were heavy R-36M and UR-100N ICBMs, which carried 80% of the countrys land-based ICBM warheads. By this time it was producing new mobile, and hence survivable ICBMs
2.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
3.
Communist Party of China
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The Communist Party of China is the founding and ruling political party of the Peoples Republic of China. It was founded in 1921, chiefly by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, the CPC is currently the worlds second largest political party with a membership of 88.76 million as of 2016. It also controls the worlds largest armed force, the Peoples Liberation Army, the highest body of the CPC is the National Congress, convened every fifth year. The partys leader holds the offices of General Secretary, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, through these posts the party leader is the countrys paramount leader. The current party leader is Xi Jinping, elected at the 18th National Congress, the CPC is still committed to communist thought and continues to participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties each year. The official explanation for Chinas economic reforms is that the country is in the stage of socialism. The planned economy established under Mao Zedong was replaced by the socialist market economy, the CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, during which radical ideologies like Marxism and anarchism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals. Other influences stemming from the Bolshevik revolution and Marxist theory inspired the Communist Party of China, Li Dazhao was the first leading Chinese intellectual who publicly supported Leninism and world revolution. In contrast to Chen Duxiu, Li did not renounce participation in the affairs of the Republic of China, both of them regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking, believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere. The CPC was modeled on Vladimir Lenins theory of a vanguard party, Study circles were, according to Cai Hesen, the rudiments. Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement, the founding National Congress of the CPC was held on 23–31 July 1921. With only 50 members in the beginning of 1921, the CPC organization, while it was originally planned to be held in Shanghai French Concession, police officers interrupted the meeting on 3 July. Because of that, the congress was moved to a tourist boat on South Lake in Jiaxing, Zhejiang province, only 12 delegates attended the congress, with neither Li nor Chen being able to attend. Chen sent a representative to attend the congress. The resolutions of the called for the establishment of a communist party. The communists dominated the left wing of the KMT, a party organized on Leninist lines, when KMT leader Sun Yat-sen died in March 1925, he was succeeded by a rightist, Chiang Kai-shek, who initiated moves to marginalize the position of the communists. Fresh from the success of the Northern Expedition to overthrow the warlords, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the communists, ignoring the orders of the Wuhan-based KMT government, he marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by communist militias. Although the communists welcomed Chiangs arrival, he turned on them, Chiangs army then marched on Wuhan, but was prevented from taking the city by CPC General Ye Ting and his troops
4.
Intercontinental ballistic missile
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An intercontinental ballistic missile is a guided ballistic missile with a minimum range of 5,500 kilometres primarily designed for nuclear weapons delivery. Similarly, conventional, chemical, and biological weapons can also be delivered with varying effectiveness, most modern designs support multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, allowing a single missile to carry several warheads, each of which can strike a different target. Early ICBMs had limited precision that allowed them to be used only against the largest targets such as cities and they were seen as a safe basing option, one that would keep the deterrent force close to home where it would be difficult to attack. Attacks against military targets, if desired, still demanded the use of a more precise manned bomber, the result is that the power of a nuclear explosion to rupture hardened structures is greatly decreased by the distance from the impact point of the nuclear weapon. So a near-direct hit is generally necessary, as only diminishing returns are gained by increasing bomb yield, second- and third-generation designs dramatically improved accuracy to the point where even the smallest point targets can be successfully attacked. Short and medium-range ballistic missiles are known collectively as theatre ballistic missiles, the ICBM A9/A10 rocket initially was intended to be guided by radio, but was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of Operation Elster. The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945, the progenitor of the A9/A10 was the German V-2 rocket, also designed by von Braun and widely used at the end of World War II to bomb British and Belgian cities. All of these rockets used liquid propellants, in the immediate post-war era, the US and USSR both started rocket research programs based on the German wartime designs, especially the V-2. In the US, each branch of the military started its own programs, in the USSR, rocket research was centrally organized, although several teams worked on different designs. Early designs from both countries were short-range missiles, like the V-2, but improvements quickly followed, in the USSR early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. This changed in 1953 when Sergei Korolyov was directed to development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the R-7 developed with some speed, the first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash 400 km from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957, the R-7 flew over 6,000 km, the first strategic-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at Plesetsk in north-west Russia. It was the same R-7 launch vehicle that placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik, the first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on a derivative of R-7, Vostok, on 12 April 1961, by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. The U. S. initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the RTV-A-2 Hiroc project and this was a three-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut after only three successful launches in 1948 of the second stage design, used to test variations on the V-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly forming US Air Force did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of their first thermonuclear weapon, the Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957, the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket blew up
5.
Second strike
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In nuclear strategy, a second-strike capability is a countrys assured ability to respond to a nuclear attack with powerful nuclear retaliation against the attacker. The possession of second-strike capabilities counters a first-strike nuclear threat and can support a no first use nuclear strategy, reciprocal second-strike capabilities usually cause a mutual assured destruction defence strategy, though one side may have a lower level minimal deterrence response. Second-strike capabilities can be strengthened by implementing fail-deadly mechanisms. These mechanisms create a threshold and guaranteed consequences if that threshold is breached, for instance, a threshold may be for an allied nation not to be attacked. If a rival nation then breaches this threshold by attacking the allied nation and these predetermined consequences could include a wide range of responses, including a retaliatory nuclear second strike. The crucial goal in maintaining second-strike capabilities is preventing first-strike attacks from taking out a nuclear arsenal. In this manner, a country can carry out nuclear retaliation even after absorbing a nuclear attack, the United States and other countries have diversified their nuclear arsenals through the nuclear triad in order to better ensure second-strike capability. Using SLBMs as a second-strike capability has a problem, because in retaliation for a submarine-launched ICBM, the wrong country could be targeted. However, implementation of second strikes is crucial to deter a first strike, countries with nuclear weapons make it their primary purpose to convince their opponents that a first strike is not worth facing a second strike. Launch on warning is a strategy of nuclear retaliation that gained recognition during the Cold War between the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. In addition to the triad, nations deploy an early warning system that detects incoming nuclear missiles. This gives that nation the capability and option to launch a second strike before the incoming nuclear first strike hits any of its targets. This is another method of solidifying second-strike capabilities and deterring a first strike from another nuclear power, because of the low accuracy of early-generation intercontinental ballistic missiles, second strike was initially only possible against very large, undefended countervalue targets like cities. Later-generation missiles with much improved accuracy made counterforce attacks against the opponents hardened military facilities possible. Perimetr PTS dates back to 1974, in response to Soviet fears of devastating nuclear strikes from US Ballistic Missile submarines and it became operational in January 1985, with SS-17 launch silos in Vypolzovo and Kostroma, each 100 and 150 miles north-west of Moscow respectively. The system was built with layers of redundancy, in case multiple layers of communications were destroyed in the initial strike. Launch authorisation would be transmitted by UHF radio, by transmitters buried deep underground, development continued over the years with the system incorporating the new SS-27 ICBMs in December 1990, and further refinements in 1996. Russian leadership was concerned that the system could trigger an accidental launch, initially, both the Vyuga nuclear command link to Russian leadership and the secure Kazbek communications system must be interrupted
6.
People's Liberation Army
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The Chinese Peoples Liberation Army is the armed forces of the Communist Party of China and the Peoples Republic of China. The PLA consists of five service branches, the Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Rocket Force. The PLA is the worlds largest military force, with a strength of approximately 2,183,000 personnel. In September 2015, Xi Jinping, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, the PLAs insignia consists of a roundel with a red star bearing the Chinese characters for Eight One, referring to the Nanchang Uprising which began on August 1,1927. The PLA is under the command of the Central Military Commission of the CPC and its commander in chief is the Chairman of the Central Military Commission. The Ministry of National Defense, which operates under the State Council and this conception of the role of the PLA requires the promotion of specialised officers who can understand modern weaponry and handle combined arms operations. Units around the country are assigned to one of five Theater commands by geographical location, Military service is compulsory by law, however, compulsory military service in China has never been enforced due to large numbers of military and paramilitary personnel. In times of emergency, the Peoples Armed Police and the Peoples Liberation Army militia act as a reserve. They were then known as the Chinese Workers and Peasants Red Army, between 1934 and 1935, the Red Army survived several campaigns led against it by Chiang Kai-Shek and engaged in the Long March. After the Japanese surrendered in 1945, the Communist Party merged the Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army and they eventually won the Chinese Civil War, establishing the Peoples Republic of China in 1949. The PLA then saw a reorganisation with the establishment of the Air Force leadership structure in November 1949 followed by the Navy leadership the following April. In 1950, the structures of the artillery, armoured troops, air defence troops, public security forces. The chemical warfare defence forces, the forces, the communications forces. During the 1950s, the PLA with Soviet assistance began to transform itself from a peasant army into a modern one, part of this process was the reorganisation that created thirteen military regions in 1955. The PLA also contained many former National Revolutionary Army units and generals who had defected to the PLA, Ma Hongbin and his son Ma Dunjing were the only two Muslim generals who led a Muslim unit, the 81st corps, to ever serve in the PLA. Han Youwen, a Salar Muslim general, also defected to the PLA, in November 1950, some units of the PLA under the name of the Peoples Volunteer Army intervened in the Korean War as United Nations forces under General Douglas MacArthur approached the Yalu River. Under the weight of offensive, Chinese forces drove MacArthurs forces out of North Korea and captured Seoul. The war also served as a catalyst for the modernisation of the PLAAF
7.
Haidian District
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Haidian District is a district of the municipality of Beijing. It lies towards the part of the urban core. Since 1992, Haidian District has signed official papers and established Sister City relationship with 14 cities, the famed Old Summer Palace and Summer Palace, two grand imperial gardens are also among its reputed features. It became a university district after the building of the Tsinghua University and it is mentioned in Lao Shes novel Camel Xiangzi as an academic village for students. After the foundation of the Peoples Republic, it was developed as a university area. It officially became an district in June 1954. Since the reform and opening up, it has become the centre of Chinas IT industry, in the words of Time magazine, During the later half of the 1990s, out of the Beijing districts, Haidian had the highest per capita GDP. During that period the GDP of Haidian District grew by double digits each year, the northwestern stretches of the 3rd Ring Road, 4th Ring Road and 5th Ring Road all run through the area. A central part of Haidians economy, the Zhongguancun electronics district, hosts the Beijing offices of many software, Baidu has its headquarters in the Baidu Campus. Sohu has its headquarters in the Sohu. com Internet Plaza, sinosteels headquarters are in the Sinosteel Plaza in Haidian District. Youku has its headquarters on the floor of Sinosteel Plaza. Wumart has its headquarters in the Wumart Commercial Building in Haidian District, aigos head office is in the Ideal Plaza in the Haidian District. China Postal Airlines has its headquarters on the 11th through 14th floors of the Ziyu Office Building in Haidian District, the Beijing Civil Aircraft Technology Research Center of COMAC has its offices on the 8th floor of the Beijing Olympic Building in Haidian District. Xiaomi has its headquarters in the Office Building of Huarun Wucai City, Haidian District, Beijing Municipality Haidian District, Beijing Municipality
8.
Beijing
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Beijing is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and the worlds third most populous city proper. It is also one of the worlds most populous capital cities, the city, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by population after Shanghai and is the nations political, cultural. It is home to the headquarters of most of Chinas largest state-owned companies, and is a hub for the national highway, expressway, railway. The citys history dates back three millennia, as the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been the political centre of the country for much of the past eight centuries. Beijing was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium A. D, the city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates. Its art treasures and universities have made it centre of culture, encyclopædia Britannica notes that few cities in the world have served for so long as the political headquarters and cultural centre of an area as immense as China. Siheyuans, the traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing. The city hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics and was chosen to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, many of Beijings 91 universities consistently rank among the best in China, of which Peking University and Tsinghua University are ranked in the top 60 universities in the world. Beijings Zhongguancun area is known as Chinas Silicon Valley and Chinas center of innovation. According to the 2016 InterNations Expat Insider Survey, Beijing ranked first in Asia in the subcategory Personal Finance Index, expats live primarily in urban districts such as Dongcheng and Chaoyang in the east, or in suburban districts such as Shunyi. Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had other names. The name Beijing, which means Northern Capital, was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming Dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing, the English spelling is based on the pinyin romanisation of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. Those dialects preserve the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 京 as kjaeng, the single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, which appears on automobile license plates in the city. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is BJ, the earliest traces of human habitation in the Beijing municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District, where Peking Man lived. Homo erectus fossils from the date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago. Paleolithic Homo sapiens also lived more recently, about 27,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality, including in Wangfujing, the first walled city in Beijing was Ji, a city from the 11th to 7th century BC
9.
Red
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Red is the color at the longer-wavelengths end of the spectrum of visible light next to orange, at the opposite end from violet. Red color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 620–740 nanometers, light with a longer wavelength than red but shorter than terahertz radiation and microwave is called infrared. Red is one of the secondary colors, resulting from the combination of yellow. Traditionally, it was viewed as a primary colour, along with yellow and blue, in the RYB color space and traditional color wheel formerly used by painters. Reds can vary in shade from light pink to very dark maroon or burgundy. Red is the color of cyan. In nature, the red color of blood comes from hemoglobin, the red color of the Grand Canyon and other geological features is caused by hematite or red ochre, both forms of iron oxide. It also causes the red color of the planet Mars, the color of autumn leaves is caused by pigments called anthocyanins, which are produced towards the end of summer, when the green chlorophyll is no longer produced. One to two percent of the population has red hair, the color is produced by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin. Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger, modern surveys in the United States and Europe show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness, since the 19th century, red has also been associated with socialism and communism. The word red is derived from the Old English rēad, the word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root rewdʰ-. In Sanskrit, the word means red or blood. In the Akkadian language of Ancient Mesopotamia and in the modern Inuit language of Inuit, the words for colored in Latin and Spanish both also mean red. In Portuguese the word for red is vermelho, which comes from Latin vermiculus, in the Russian language, the word for red, Кра́сный, comes from the same old Slavic root as the words for beautiful—красивый and excellent—прекрасный. Thus Red Square in Moscow, named long before the Russian Revolution, in heraldry, the word gules is used for red. Red can vary in hue from orange-red to violet-red, and for each hue there is a variety of shades and tints. Red hematite powder was found scattered around the remains at a grave site in a Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing
10.
Gold (color)
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Gold, also called golden, is one of a variety of yellow-orange color blends used to give the impression of the color of the element gold. The web color gold is sometimes referred to as golden to distinguish it from the metallic gold. The use of gold as a term in traditional usage is more often applied to the color metallic gold. The first recorded use of golden as a name in English was in 1300 to refer to the element gold. Metallic gold, such as in paint, is often called goldtone or gold-tone, in heraldry, the French word or is used. In model building, the gold is different from brass. A shiny or metallic silvertone object can be painted with transparent yellow to obtain goldtone, at right is displayed a representation of the color metallic gold which is a simulation of the color of the actual metallic element gold itself—gold shade. The American Heritage Dictionary defines the color metallic gold as A light olive-brown to dark yellow, or a moderate, of course, the visual sensation usually associated with the metal gold is its metallic shine. This cannot be reproduced by a solid color, because the shiny effect is due to the materials reflective brightness varying with the surfaces angle to the light source. Especially in sacral art in Christian churches, real gold was used for rendering gold in paintings, Gold can also be woven into sheets of silk to give an East Asian traditional look. Old gold is a yellow, which varies from heavy olive or olive brown to deep or strong yellow. The widely accepted color old gold is on the rather than the lighter side of this range. The first recorded use of old gold as a name in English was in the early 19th century. The Delta Sigma Pi fraternity, founded in November 7,1907, official colors are designated royal purple, the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternitys colors are garnet and old gold. Old gold is one of two colors of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, maroon and old gold are the colors of Texas State Universitys intercollegiate sports teams. Old Gold and black are the colors of Purdue University Boilermakers intercollegiate sports teams. The Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets wear white and old gold, the Wake Forest Demon Deacons, UCF Knights, and Vanderbilt Commodores wear old gold and black. The New Orleans Saints list their official team colors as black, old gold, Golden yellow is the color halfway between amber and yellow on the RGB color wheel
11.
Ballistic missile
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A ballistic missile is a missile that follows a ballistic trajectory with the objective of delivering one or more warheads to a predetermined target. A ballistic missile is only guided during relatively brief periods of flight and this contrasts to a cruise missile, which is aerodynamically guided in powered flight. Long range intercontinental ballistic missiles are launched on a flight trajectory. Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earths atmosphere, the earliest use of rockets as a weapon date to the 13th Century. A pioneer ballistic missile was the A-4, commonly known as the V-2 rocket developed by Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s under the direction of Wernher von Braun. The first successful launch of a V-2 was on October 3,1942, by the end of World War II in May 1945, over 3,000 V-2s had been launched. The R-7 Semyorka was the first intercontinental ballistic missile, a total of 30 nations have deployed operational ballistic missiles. Development continues with around 100 ballistic missile tests in 2007, mostly by China, Iran. In 2010, the U. S. and Russian governments signed a treaty to reduce their inventory of intercontinental ballistic missiles over a period to 1550 units each. Ballistic missiles can be launched from fixed sites or mobile launchers, including vehicles, aircraft, ships, the powered flight portion can last from a few tenths of seconds to several minutes and can consist of multiple rocket stages. When in space and no more thrust is provided, the missile enters free-flight, the re-entry stage begins at an altitude where atmospheric drag plays a significant part in missile trajectory, and lasts until missile impact. The course taken by ballistic missiles has two significant desirable properties, first, ballistic missiles that fly above the atmosphere have a much longer range than would be possible for cruise missiles of the same size. Powered rocket flight through thousands of kilometers of air would require greater amounts of fuel, making the launch vehicles larger and easier to detect. Powered missiles that can cover similar ranges, such as missiles, do not use rocket motors for the majority of their flight. Despite this, cruise missiles have not made ballistic missiles obsolete, due to the major advantage. An ICBM can strike a target within a 10,000 km range in about 30 to 35 minutes, with terminal speeds of over 5,000 m/s, ballistic missiles are much harder to intercept than cruise missiles, due to the much shorter time available to intercept them. This is why ballistic missiles are some of the most feared weapons available, despite the fact that cruise missiles are cheaper, more mobile, Ballistic missiles can vary widely in range and use, and are often divided into categories based on range. A comparable missile would be the decommissioned Chinas JL-1 SLBM with a range of less than 2, tactical, short- and medium-range missiles are often collectively referred to as tactical and theatre ballistic missiles, respectively
12.
Cruise missile
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A cruise missile is a guided missile used against terrestrial targets that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight path at approximately constant speed. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a warhead over long distances with high precision. Modern cruise missiles are capable of travelling at supersonic or high speeds, are self-navigating. The idea of a torpedo was shown in the British 1909 film The Airship Destroyer. In 1916, Lawrence Sperry built and patented an aerial torpedo, a small biplane carrying a TNT charge, a Sperry autopilot, inspired by these experiments, the United States Army developed a similar flying bomb called the Kettering Bug. Germany had also flown trials with remote-controlled aerial gliders built by Siemens-Schuckert beginning in 1916, in the period between the World Wars the United Kingdom developed the Larynx, which underwent a few flight tests in the 1920s. In the Soviet Union, Sergei Korolev headed the GIRD-06 cruise missile project from 1932 to 1939, the 06/III and 06/IV contained gyroscopic guidance systems. The vehicle was designed to boost to 28 km altitude and glide a distance of 280 km, in 1944, Germany deployed the first operational cruise missiles in World War II. The V-1, often called a bomb, contained a gyroscope guidance system and was propelled by a simple pulsejet engine. Accuracy was sufficient only for use against very large targets, while the range of 250 km was significantly lower than that of a bomber carrying the same payload, the main advantages were speed and expendability. The production cost of a V-1 was only a fraction of that of a V-2 supersonic ballistic missile. Unlike the V-2, however, the deployments of the V-1 required stationary launch ramps which were susceptible to bombardment. Immediately after the war the United States Air Force had 21 different guided missile projects, all were cancelled by 1948, except four — the Air Materiel Command BANSHEE, the SM-62 Snark, the SM-64 Navaho, and the MGM-1 Matador. The BANSHEE design was similar to Operation Aphrodite, like Aphrodite, it failed, during the Cold War period both the United States and the Soviet Union experimented further with the concept, deploying early cruise missiles from land, submarines and aircraft. The main outcome of the United States Navy submarine missile project was the SSM-N-8 Regulus missile, the United States Air Forces first operational surface-to-surface missile was the winged, mobile, nuclear-capable MGM-1 Matador, also similar in concept to the V-1. Deployment overseas began in 1954, first to West Germany and later to the Republic of China and this alert was in response to the crisis posed by the Soviet attack on Hungary which suppressed the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Between 1957 and 1961 the United States followed an ambitious and well-funded program to develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile and it was designed to fly below the enemys radar at speeds above Mach 3 and carry a number of hydrogen bombs that it would drop along its path over enemy territory. Although the concept was sound and the 500 megawatt engine finished a successful test run in 1961
13.
Third Taiwan Strait Crisis
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The second set of missiles were fired in early 1996, allegedly intending to intimidate the Taiwanese electorate in the run-up to the 1996 presidential election. The crisis began when President Lee Teng-hui accepted an invitation from his alma mater, seeking to diplomatically isolate the Republic of China, the PRC opposed such visits by ROC leaders. It argued that Lee harbored pro-Taiwan independence sentiments and was therefore a threat to stability in the region. A year earlier, in 1994, when President Lees plane had stopped in Honolulu to refuel after a trip to South America, Lee had been confined to the military airfield where he landed, forcing him to spend a night on his plane. A U. S. State Department official called the situation embarrassing, after Lee had decided to visit Cornell, U. S. Secretary of State Warren Christopher assured PRC Foreign Minister Qian Qichen that a visa for Lee would be inconsistent with unofficial relationship. However, the humiliation from Lees last visit caught the attention of many figures in the U. S. and this time. In May 1995, a concurrent resolution asking the State Department to allow Lee to visit the U. S. passed the House 396 to 0 with 38 not voting, and the Senate 97 to 1 with 2 not voting. The State Department relented on May 22,1995, and the PRC condemned the U. S. for ruining Sino-American relations. Lee spent June 9–10,1995, in the U. S. at a Cornell Alumni reunion as the PRC state press branded him a traitor attempting to split China, the PRC government was furious over the U. S. ’s policy reversal. On July 7,1995, the Xinhua News Agency announced missile tests to be conducted by the Peoples Liberation Army and pointed out that this would endanger the peace, the PRC conducted tests from July 21 to 26 in an area only 60 kilometers north of ROC-held Pengjia Islet. At the same time, the PRC mobilized forces in Fujian, in the later part of July and early August numerous commentaries were published by Xinhua and the Peoples Daily condemning Lee and his cross-strait policies. Another set of firings, accompanied by live ammunition exercises. Naval exercises in August were followed by highly publicized amphibious assault exercises in November, the U. S. government responded by staging the biggest display of American military might in Asia since the Vietnam War. President Clinton ordered additional ships into the region in March 1996, the Nimitz and her battle group and the Belleau Wood sailed through the Taiwan Strait, while the Independence did not. The crisis forced the Chinese leadership to acknowledge its inability to stop U. S. forces from coming to Taiwans assistance, Beijing intended to send a message to the Taiwanese electorate that voting for Lee Teng-hui in the 1996 presidential election meant war. A third set of PLA tests from March 8 to March 15, over 70 percent of commercial shipping passed through the targeted ports, which were disrupted by the proximity of the tests. Flights to Japan and trans-Pacific flights were prolonged by ten minutes because airplanes needed to detour away from the flight path, ships traveling between Kaohsiung and Hong Kong had to take a two-hour detour. On the following day, the PRC announced live-fire exercises to be conducted near Penghu from March 12–20, on March 11, the U. S. dispatched Carrier Group Seven, centered on Nimitz, which steamed at high speed from the Persian Gulf
14.
Missile
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In modern language, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as a rocket. Missiles have four components, targeting and/or missile guidance, flight system, engine. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes, surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles, all known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine, jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is any thrown object, the word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning to send. In military usage, munitions projected towards a target are broadly categorised as follows, a powered, unguided munition is known as a rocket. Unpowered munitions not fired from a gun are called bombs whether guided or not, munitions that are fired from a gun are known as projectiles whether guided or not. If explosive, they are more specifically as shells or mortar bombs. Powered munitions that travel through water are called torpedoes, hand grenades are not usually classed as missiles. The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of missiles developed by Nazi Germany in World War II, most famous of these are the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, however, these early systems in World War II were only built in small numbers. Guided missiles have a number of different system components, Targeting and/or missile guidance Flight system Engine Warhead Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infrared, lasers or radio waves and this radiation may emanate from the target, it may be provided by the missile itself, or it may be provided by a friendly third party. The first two are known as fire-and-forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV guidance—using either visible light or infrared—in order to see the target, the picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target or by a computer doing much the same job. One of the more bizarre guidance methods instead used a pigeon to steer the missile to its target, many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement. Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target and using a system such as INS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the current position and the position of the target
15.
Central Military Commission (China)
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The State CMC is nominally considered the supreme military policy-making body and its chairman, elected by the National Peoples Congress, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. In reality, command and control of the PLA, however, both commissions are identical in membership, thus actually forming one identical institution under two different names, in order to fit in both state government and party systems. Both commissions are currently chaired by Xi Jinping, who is the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China as well as Paramount leader, the 11-man commission issues directives relating to the PLA, including senior appointments, troop deployments and arms spending. CMC has control over 6.8 million personnel The CMC is housed in the Ministry of National Defense compound in western Beijing. The party military committee dates back to October 1925, and while operating under various degrees of authority and responsibility, was named the Central Military Affairs Commission. Among Western commentators, “Affairs” is frequently dropped from the title, as a commission, it ranks higher in the party hierarchy than departments such as the Organization or United Front Departments. In this period, the Committee was always chaired by Mao Zedong, in the September 1949 reorganization, military leadership was transferred to a government body, the Peoples Revolutionary Military Commission of the Central Peoples Government. As a consequence of the Cultural Revolution, the Party CMC became the sole military overseeing body, both the National Defense Commission and State CMC have been described as consultative bodies. Contrarily to the National Defense Commission, however, the Party and state CMCs are almost identical in leadership, composition, the Commission included the post of secretary-general until 1992. This post was held by Yang Shangkun, Huang Kecheng, Luo Ruiqing, Ye Jianying, Luo Ruiqing, Geng Biao, Yang Shangkun, Yang Baibing. In 2016, the 5 traditional departments were dissolved by order of Chairman Xi Jinping, unlike in most countries, the Central Military Commission is not considered as just another ministry. Although China does have a Ministry of National Defense, headed by a Minister of National Defense, the most important chain of command runs from the CMC to the four General Headquarters and, in turn, to each of the service branches. In addition, the CMC also has control over the Rocket Force, the National Defense University. The CMC shares command authority with the Ministry of Public Security of the State Council. The CMC is usually chaired by the General Secretary of the Communist Party, members of the CMC normally includes the Directors of the PLA’s Four Department and the Commander of the Ground Force, Air Force, Navy, and Rocket Force. The Chairman of the CMC was twice in its history held by an official who had given up his other posts, by Deng in the late 1980s. In the case of Deng Xiaoping, because of his prestige, he was able to exercise considerable power after his retirement, one major factor is that, in contrast to Deng Xiaoping, who always had close relations with the Peoples Liberation Army, Jiang had no military background. In addition, with the promotion of the generation of Chinese leaders to lead the civilian party
16.
Brigade
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A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment, two or more brigades may constitute a division. Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armored, in addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery and engineers, and logistic units or sub-units. Historically, such brigades have sometimes been called brigade-groups, on operations, a brigade may comprise both organic elements and attached elements, including some temporarily attached for a specific task. Brigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions of a branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, armored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers. Some brigades are classified as independent or separate and operate independently from the division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade consists of approximately 3,200 to 5,500 troops, however, in Switzerland and Austria, the numbers could go as high as 11,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerunners and successors, mostly use regiment instead of brigade, a brigades commander is commonly a major general, brigadier general, brigadier or colonel. In some armies, the commander is rated as a General Officer, the brigade commander has a self-contained headquarters and staff. Some brigades may also have a deputy commander, the headquarters has a nucleus of staff officers and support that can vary in size depending on the type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached, the headquarters will usually have its own communications unit. In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the organizational unit. The brigade as a military unit came about starting in the 15th century when the British army, as such a field army became larger, the number of subordinate commanders became unmanageable for the officer in general command of said army, usually a major general, to effectively command. In order to streamline command relationships, as well as effect some modicum of control, especially in regard to combined arms operations. The terms origin is found in two French roots, which together, meant roughly those who fight, the so-called brigada was a well-mixed unit, comprising infantry, cavalry and normally also artillery, designated for a special task. The size of such brigada ranged from a company of up to two regiments. The brigada was the forerunner of the battalion task force, battle group. The brigade was improved as a unit by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus
17.
Theater commands of the People's Liberation Army
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The former Northwest Military Region, which became the Beijing Military Region, doubled as Beijing-Tianjin Garrison Command. Due to the tension in the Taiwan Straits, the State Council ordered the establishment of the Fuzhou Military Region on 22 April 1956 and it included the provincial military districts of Fujian and Jiangsu, formerly under the Nanjing Military Region. The Fuzhou MR was officially established on 1 July 1956, with Ye Fei as its commander, the thirteen military regions established by 1956 were reduced to eleven in the late 1960s. Those eleven military regions - Shenyang, Beijing, Jinan, Nanjing, Guangzhou, Kunming, Wuhan, Chengdu, Lanzhou, Xinjiang, finally Guangzhou and Jinan Military Regions both appear to include parts of the former Wuhan MR. The military regions are divided into districts, usually contiguous with provinces. The four other inland military regions will be streamlined into two military areas mainly for organizing forces for operations, the change is to occur over the next five years. In February 2016, the seven military regions were reorganised into five theater commands, a Glossary of Political Terms of the Peoples Republic of China
18.
Intermediate-range ballistic missile
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An intermediate-range ballistic missile is a ballistic missile with a range of 3, 000–5,500 km, between a medium-range ballistic missile and an intercontinental ballistic missile. Classifying ballistic missiles by range is mostly for convenience, in principle there is very little difference between a low-performance ICBM and a high-performance IRBM. The range definition used here is used within the U. S, some other sources include an additional category, the long-range ballistic missile, to describe missiles with a range between IRBMs and true ICBMs. The more modern term theater ballistic missile encompasses MRBMs and SRBMs, IRBMs are currently operated by the Peoples Republic of China, India, Israel, and possibly North Korea. The United States, USSR, United Kingdom, and France were former operators, the A4b was the prototype for the upper stage of the A9/A10 rocket. The goal of the program was to build a capable of bombarding New York when launched in France or Spain. A4b rockets were tested a few times in December 1944 and January and February 1945, all of these rockets used liquid propellant. The A4b used an inertial system, while the A9 would have been controlled by a pilot. They started from a launch pad
19.
China and weapons of mass destruction
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The Peoples Republic of China has developed and possesses weapons of mass destruction, including chemical and nuclear weapons. The first of Chinas nuclear weapons tests took place in 1964, tests continued until 1996, when China signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. China has acceded to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in 1984, the number of nuclear warheads in Chinas arsenal is a state secret. There are varying estimates of the size of Chinas arsenal, according to some estimates, the country could more than double the number of warheads on missiles that could threaten the United States by the mid-2020s. Early in 2011, China published a white paper, which repeated its nuclear policies of maintaining a minimum deterrent with a no-first-use pledge. Yet China has yet to define what it means by a minimum deterrent posture and this, together with the fact that it is deploying four new nuclear-capable ballistic missiles, invites concern as to the scale and intention of China’s nuclear upgrade. China signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on January 13,1993, China ratified the CWC on April 25,1997. It has declared only three former chemical production facilities that may have produced gas, phosgene and Lewisite. China was found to have supplied Albania with a stockpile of chemical weapons in the 1970s during the Cold War. However, China was reported to have had a biological weapons program in the 1980s. Kanatjan Alibekov, former director of one of the Soviet germ-warfare programs, Alibekov asserted that Soviet reconnaissance satellites identified a biological weapons laboratory and plant near a site for testing nuclear warheads. US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright expressed her concerns over possible Chinese biological weapon transfers to Iran, in response to this, China issued export control protocols on dual use biological technology in late 2002. Mao Zedong decided to begin a Chinese nuclear-weapons program during the First Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1954–1955 over the Quemoy, while he did not expect to be able to match the large American nuclear arsenal, Mao believed that even a few bombs would increase Chinas diplomatic credibility. Construction of uranium-enrichment plants in Baotou and Lanzhou began in 1958, and a facility in Jiuquan. The Chinese, who preferred to import technology and components to developing them within China, exported uranium to the Soviet Union, and that year, however, Soviet leader Nikita Khruschev told Mao that he planned to discuss arms control with the United States and Britain. China was already opposed to Khruschevs post-Stalin policy of peaceful coexistence, although Soviet officials assured China that it was under the Soviet nuclear umbrella, the disagreements widened the emerging Sino-Soviet split. The Chinese conducted their first nuclear test, code-named 596, on 16 October 1964, Chinas last nuclear test was on July 29,1996. According to the Australian Geological Survey Organization in Canberra, the yield of the 1996 test was 1–5 kilotons and this was Chinas 22nd underground test and 45th test overall
20.
Nuclear deterrent
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Nuclear strategy involves the development of doctrines and strategies for the production and use of nuclear weapons. As a sub-branch of military strategy, nuclear strategy attempts to match nuclear weapons as means to political ends, in addition to the actual use of nuclear weapons whether in the battlefield or strategically, a large part of nuclear strategy involves their use as a bargaining tool. Some of the issues considered within nuclear strategy include, Under what conditions does it serve a nations interest to nuclear weapons. What types of weapons should be developed. When and how should such weapons be used, many strategists argue that nuclear strategy differs from other forms of military strategy. The immense and terrifying power of the weapons makes their use, in seeking victory in a military sense. Perhaps counterintuitively, an important focus of nuclear strategy has been determining how to prevent and deter their use, in the context of nuclear proliferation and maintaining the balance of power, states also seek to prevent other states from acquiring nuclear weapons as part of nuclear strategy. The doctrine of mutual assured destruction assumes that a nuclear deterrent force must be credible and survivable and that is, each deterrent force must survive a first strike with sufficient capability to effectively destroy the other country in a second strike. Therefore, a first strike would be suicidal for the launching country, in the late 1940s and 1950s as the Cold War developed, the United States and Soviet Union pursued multiple delivery methods and platforms to deliver nuclear weapons. Three types of platforms proved most successful and are called a nuclear triad. These are air-delivered weapons, ballistic missile submarines, and intercontinental ballistic missiles, although not considered part of the deterrent forces, all of the nuclear powers deployed large numbers of tactical nuclear weapons in the Cold War. These could be delivered by virtually all platforms capable of delivering large conventional weapons, during the 1970s there was growing concern that the combined conventional forces of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact could overwhelm the forces of NATO. It seemed unthinkable to respond to a Soviet/Warsaw Pact incursion into Western Europe with strategic nuclear weapons, thus, technologies were developed to greatly reduce collateral damage while being effective against advancing conventional military forces. Other technologies were so-called “suppressed radiation devices, ” which produced mostly blast with little radioactivity, making them much like conventional explosives, strangelove, a film satirizing nuclear strategy. Dunn, Lewis A. dead link]Deterrence Today – Roles, Challenges, New Haven, Yale University Press,1966. The Arms Dynamic in World Politics, New York, St. Martins Press,1989. NATO, Britain, France and the FRG, Nuclear Strategies and Forces for Europe, 1949–2000, Strategies and Belief Systems in Britain, France and the FRG, 277p. A Comparison of NATO and WTO War Aims and Strategies, Contemporary European History Vol.7 Part 3, Warsaw Pact Military Doctrines in the 70s and 80s, Findings in the East German Archives, Comparative Strategy Vol.12 No
21.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
22.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
23.
Sino-Soviet relations
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For post-1991 relations, see Sino-Russian relations since 1991. See also History of Sino-Russian relations and History of foreign relations of the Peoples Republic of China, the Beiyang government in north China joined the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, sending forces to Siberia and North Russia beginning in 1918. Mongolia and Tuva became contested territories, after being occupied by the Chinese General Xu Shuzheng in 1919, they came under the sway of the Russian White Guard General turned independent warlord, Ungern von Sternberg in 1920. In 1921 the Soviet Union began supporting the Kuomintang, and in 1923 the Comintern instructed the Chinese Communist Party to sign a treaty with the KMT. But in 1926 KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek abruptly dismissed his Soviet advisers, the Soviet Union tried and failed in an attempt to make the Hui hostile to China. The Sino-Soviet conflict of 1929 was an armed conflict between the Soviet Union and the Republic of China over the Manchurian Chinese Eastern Railway. The Soviet Union Red Army and their White Russian allies were severely mauled by the Republic of China 36th Division which was composed of Muslims, the Soviet Union intervened again in Xinjiang in 1937. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and created the state of Manchukuo. In 1937, a month after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Soviet forces won a decisive victory while the Kwantung suffered massive casualties, with 700,000 having surrendered. The Soviet Union distributed some of the weapons of the captured Kwantung Army to the CCP, after the Chinese Communist Party defeated Kuomintang in 1949, USSR terminated support for the Second East Turkestan Republic. The Soviets tried to spread propaganda among minorities in Xinjiang. Chinese Muslim forces fought against Soviet and Mongol troops in this incident, after 1946, the CCP was increasingly successful in the Civil War. On October 1,1949, the Peoples Republic of China was proclaimed by Mao Zedong, after the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China, a sensitive issue which influenced the Sino-Soviet relationship emerged. As a condition of fighting the Kwantung Army at the end of the Second World War, the Soviet Union received usage rights of the China Far East Railway, the South Manchuria Railway, Lushun and Dalian. Joseph Stalin initially refused this treaty, but finally made a great concession and this issue motivated Stalins support for allowing Kim Il-Sung to launch the Korean War. However, both Kim Il-Sung and Stalin did not consider that the United States would intervene into that war immediately, Kim Il-Sung could not sustain the attack against the US Army. When Kim Il-Sung required military assistance from the Soviet Union and China, Mao agreed to send Chinese troops, as the two leaders distrusted each other, Stalin agreed with sending Chinese troops to Korea, but refused to provide air cover. Since without the air cover from the Soviet Union, Mao once considered that China did not send troops into Korea, after much cogitation, Mao solely sent Chinese troops into Korea on 19 October 1950 under an extremely hard Chinese economic and military situation
24.
Military technology
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Military technology is the application of technology for use in warfare. Military technology is researched and developed by scientists and engineers specifically for use in battle by the armed forces. Many new technologies came as a result of the funding of science. Weapons engineering is the design, development, testing and lifecycle management of military weapons and this section is divided into the broad cultural developments that affected military technology. The first use of tools may have begun during the Paleolithic Period. The earliest stone tools are from the site of Lomekwi, Turkana, stone tools diversified through the Pleistocene Period, which ended ~12,000 years ago. Humans entered the Bronze Age as they learned to smelt copper into an alloy with tin to make weapons, in Asia where copper-tin ores are rare, this development was delayed until trading in bronze began in the third millennium BCE. In the Middle East and Southern European regions, the Bronze Age follows the Neolithic period, but in parts of the world. The first large use of iron type weapons began in Asia Minor around the 14th century BCE and in Central Europe around the 11th century BCE followed by the Middle East and India. The Assyrians are credited with the introduction of cavalry in warfare. Assyrians were also the first to use iron-tipped arrows, the book covers topics of military strategy, training, and the production and employment of advanced weaponry. Advances in military technology aided the Song dynasty in its defense against hostile neighbors to the north, the flamethrower found its origins in Byzantine-era Greece, employing Greek fire in a device with a siphon hose by the 7th century. The earliest reference to Greek Fire in China was made in 917, written by Wu Renchen in his Spring, lin Yu mentioned also that the fierce fire oil derived ultimately from one of Chinas maritime contacts in the southern seas, Arabia Dashiguo. The Chinese applied the use of bellows to pump petrol out of a single cylinder. This device was featured in description and illustration of the Wujing Zongyao military manuscript of 1044, in the suppression of the Southern Tang state by 976, early Song naval forces confronted them on the Yangtze River in 975. Southern Tang forces attempted to use flamethrowers against the Song navy, the first art depiction of the Chinese fire lance was from a Buddhist mural painting of Dunhuang, dated circa 950. Eventually, perishable bamboo was replaced with hollow tubes of cast iron, the earliest known depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan, dating to 1128, that portrays a figure carrying a vase-shaped bombard, firing flames and a cannonball. However, the oldest existent archaeological discovery of a metal barrel handgun is from the Chinese Heilongjiang excavation, the Chinese also discovered the explosive potential of packing hollowed cannonball shells with gunpowder
25.
Nuclear technology
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Nuclear technology is technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei. Among the notable nuclear technologies are nuclear reactors, nuclear medicine and it is also used, among other things, in smoke detectors and gun sights. The vast majority of common, natural phenomena on Earth only involve gravity and electromagnetism and this is because atomic nuclei are generally kept apart because they contain positive electrical charges and therefore repel each other. In 1896, Henri Becquerel was investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts when he discovered a new phenomenon which came to be called radioactivity and he, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began investigating the phenomenon. In the process, they isolated the element radium, which is highly radioactive and they discovered that radioactive materials produce intense, penetrating rays of three distinct sorts, which they labeled alpha, beta, and gamma after the Greek letters. Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, all of the early researchers received various radiation burns, much like sunburn, and thought little of it. The new phenomenon of radioactivity was seized upon by the manufacturers of quack medicine, gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that even quantities too small to burn could pose a severe long-term hazard. Many of the working on radioactivity died of cancer as a result of their exposure. Radioactive patent medicines mostly disappeared, but other applications of radioactive materials persisted, as the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer. Some larger atomic nuclei are unstable, and so decay after a random interval, the three forms of radiation that Becquerel and the Curies discovered are also more fully understood. Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus, beta decay is the release of a beta particle, a high-energy electron. Gamma decay releases gamma rays, which unlike alpha and beta radiation are not matter but electromagnetic radiation of high frequency. This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block, all three types of radiation occur naturally in certain elements. In natural nuclear radiation, the byproducts are very small compared to the nuclei from which they originate, Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into roughly equal parts, and releasing energy and neutrons in the process. If these neutrons are captured by another unstable nucleus, they can fission as well, the average number of neutrons released per nucleus that go on to fission another nucleus is referred to as k. Values of k larger than 1 mean that the reaction is releasing more neutrons than it absorbs. A mass of fissile material large enough to induce a chain reaction is called a critical mass. When a neutron is captured by a nucleus, fission may occur immediately
26.
Superpower
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Superpower is a term used to describe a state with a dominant position, which is characterised by its extensive ability to exert influence or project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined-means of technological, cultural, military and economic strength, as well as international relations. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the great powers, the term was first applied to the British Empire, the United States, and the Soviet Union. At the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, There have been many attempts by historians to apply the term superpower to a variety of past entities. However, since even the most powerful empires of old had little to no means to exert influence over very long distances, no agreed definition of what is a superpower exists, and may differ between sources. This was because the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union had proved themselves to be capable of casting great influence in global politics and military dominance. The term in its current political meaning was coined by Dutch-American geostrategist Nicholas Spykman in a series of lectures in 1943 about the shape of a new post-war world order. A year later, in 1944, William T. R, according to him, there were three states that were superpowers, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union. According to Lyman Miller, The basic components of superpower stature may be measured along four axes of power, military, economic, political, although, many modifications may be made to this basic definition. According to Professor June Teufel Dreyer, A superpower must be able to project its power, soft and hard, in his book, Superpower, Three Choices for Americas Role in the World, Dr. There have been attempts by historians to apply the term superpower retrospectively. Recognition by historians of these states as superpowers may focus on various superlative traits exhibited by them. The two countries opposed each other ideologically, politically, militarily, and economically, the Soviet Union promoted the ideology of communism, planned economy and a one-party state, whilst the United States promoted the ideologies of liberal democracy and the free market. This was reflected in the Warsaw Pact and NATO military alliances, respectively and these alliances implied that these two nations were part of an emerging bipolar world, in contrast with a previously multipolar world. Additionally, much of the conflict between the superpowers was fought in wars, which more often than not involved issues more complex than the standard Cold War oppositions. After the Soviet Union disintegrated in the early 1990s, the term began to be applied to the United States. This term, popularized by French foreign minister Hubert Védrine in the late 1990s, is controversial, one notable opponent to this theory, Samuel P. Huntington, rejects this theory in favor of a multipolar balance of power. In 1999, Samuel P. However, he rejected the claim that the world was unipolar, but that does not mean that the world is unipolar, describing it instead as a strange hybrid, a uni-multipolar system with one superpower and several major powers
27.
National security
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The concept developed all in the United States after World War II. Accordingly, in order to possess national security, a nation needs to possess economic security, energy security, environmental security, the variety of definitions provide an overview of the many usages of this concept. National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, in 1990, Harvard University history professor Charles Maier defined national security through the lens of national power, National security. The variety of definitions provide an overview of the usages of this concept. National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, in 1990, Harvard University history professor Charles Maier defined national security through the lens of national power, National security. To be truly secure, a nation needs other forms of security, authorities differ in their choice of nation security elements. Besides the military aspect of security, the aspects of diplomacy or politics, society, environment, energy and natural resources, the elements of national security correlate closely to the concept of the elements of national power. Romm lists security from narcotic cartels, economic security, environmental security, military security is traditionally the earliest recognised form of national security. Military security implies the capability of a nation to defend itself, alternatively, military security implies the capability of a nation to enforce its policy choices by use of military force. The term military security is considered synonymous with security in much of its usage, diplomacy, negotiation and other interactions form the means of interaction between the objects. Historically, conquest of nations has made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources, economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military security. The creation and protection of jobs that supply defense and non-defense needs are vital to national security, third world countries are less secure due to lack of employment for their citizens. Environmental security deals with issues which threaten the national security of a nation in any manner. The scope and nature of environmental threats to security and strategies to engage them are a subject of debate. While all environmental events are not considered significant of being categorised as threats, many transnational issues, romm classifies these as, Transnational environmental problems that threaten a nations security, in its broad defined sense. These include global environmental problems such as climate change due to warming, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Environmental or resource problems that threaten a nations security, traditionally defined and these would be problems whose outcomes would result in conventional threats to national security as first or higher order outcomes. Environmentally threatening outcomes of warfare, e. g. Prabhakaran Paleris 2008 definition of a resource is. a support inventory, biotic or abiotic, renewable or expendable. for sustaining life at a heightened level of well-being
28.
Lop Nur
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Administratively, the lake is in Lop Nur township of Ruoqiang County, which in its turn is part of the Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture. The lake system into which the Tarim River and Shule River empty is the last remnant of the historical post-glacial Tarim Lake, Lop Nur is hydrologically endorheic— it is landbound and there is no outlet. The lake measured 3,100 km2 in 1928, but has dried up due to construction of dams blocked the flow of water feeding into the lake system. The dried-up Lop Nur Basin is covered with a salt crust ranging from 30 cm to 1 m in thickness. Lop Nur has been used as a testing site. From around 1800 BC, until the 9th century the lake supported a thriving Tocharian culture, archaeologists have discovered the buried remains of settlements, as well as several of the Tarim mummies, along its ancient shoreline. Former water resources of the Tarim River and Lop Nur nurtured the kingdom of Loulan since the second century BC, an ancient civilization along the Silk Road, Loulan became a client-state of the Chinese empire in 55 BC, renamed Shanshan. Marco Polo in his travels passed through the Lop Desert, and it is also likely that Swedish soldier Johan Gustaf Renat had visited the area when he was helping the Zunghars to produce maps over the area in the eighteenth century. The lake was given names in ancient Chinese texts. In Shiji it was called Yan Ze, indicating its saline nature, in Hanshu it was called Puchang Hai and was given a dimension of 300 to 400 li in length and breadth, indicating it was once a lake of great size. These early texts also mentioned the belief, mistaken as it turns out and this shift of the terminal lake caused some confusion amongst the early explorers as to the exact location of Lop Nur. The change in the course of the river, which resulted in Lop Nur drying up, was suggested by Hedin as the reason why ancient settlements such as Loulan had perished. In 1921, due to intervention, the terminal lake shifted its position back to Lop Nur. The lake measured 2400 km2 in area in 1930-31, in 1934 Sven Hedin went down the new Kuruk Darya in a canoe. He found the delta to be a maze of channels and the new lake so shallow that it was difficult to even in a canoe. In 1900 he had walked the dry Kuruk Darya in a caravan, in 1952 the terminal lake then shifted to Taitema Lake when the Tarim River and Konque River were separated through human intervention, and Lop Nur dried out again by 1964. In 2000, in an effort to prevent further deterioration of the ecosystem, the Taitema Lake however had shifted 30 to 40 kilometres westwards during the past 40 years due in part to the spread of the desert. Another cause of the destabilization of the desert has been the cutting of poplars and willows for firewood, in response, the Kara-Koshun dried basin may be considered part of the greater Lop Nur
29.
Thermonuclear weapon
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A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a bomb or an H-bomb because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen. The first full scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952, similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, and France. The radiation implosion mechanism is an engine that exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stages hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is maintained by a massive heat barrier called the pusher. If made of uranium, as is almost always the case, it can capture neutrons produced by the reaction and undergo fission itself. In many Teller–Ulam weapons, fission of the pusher dominates the explosion, detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation, in a small number of prior cases, the U. S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his new book, Building the H Bomb, the state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section consists of an implosion-type fission bomb. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called radiation implosion, at which point it is heated, surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primarys energy inside temporarily. The outside of this case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb components configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified, generally, a research program with the capacity to create a thermonuclear bomb has already mastered the ability to engineer boosted fission. The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel, around the column is first a pusher-tamper, a heavy layer of uranium-238 or lead that serves to help compress the fusion fuel. Inside this is the fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug, a hollow column of fissile material that, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission. The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary, separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage
30.
Dongfeng (missile)
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In the area of ballistic missiles, the Soviets transferred R-1, R-2 and R-11F to China. The first Chinese ballistic missiles were based on Soviet design, since then, China has made many advances in its ballistic missile and rocket technology. For instance, the space-launch vehicle Long March rockets has its roots in the Dongfeng missiles, first of the Dongfeng missiles, the DF-1, was a licensed copy of the Soviet R-2 short-range ballistic missile. The DF-1 had a single RD-101 rocket engine, and used alcohol for fuel with oxygen as an oxidizer. The missile had maximum range of 550 km and a 500 kg payload, limited numbers of DF-1 were produced in the 1960s, and have since been retired. The DF-2 is Chinas first medium-range ballistic missile, with a 1,250 km range and it received the western designation of CSS-1. It was long noted by the observers that the DF-2 could be a copy of the Soviet R-5 Pobeda, as they have identical look, range, engine. Now it is known that the documentation for R-5 had been delivered from Soviet Union to China in the late 1950s. But some western authors are still attribute the design to Chinese specialists Xie Guangxuan, Liang Sili, Liu Chuanru, Liu Yuanwei, Lin Shuangwei. The first DF-2 failed in its launch test in 1962, leading to the improved DF-2A, the DF-2A was used to carry out Chinas first nuclear ballistic missile test at Lop Nor in 1966, and was in operational service since late 1960s. All DF-2 were retired from duty in the 1980s. The DF-3 is often considered Chinas first domestic intermediate-range ballistic missile, the common ICBM design was greatly influenced by soviet R-14 Chusovaya missile and the first stage engine itself was a direct copy of С.2. 1100/С.2.1150 La-350 booster engine developed by Isayev OKB-2. The 2,500 km DF-3 was originally designed with 2,000 kg payload to carry an atomic payload, a further improved DF-3A with 3,000 km range was developed in 1981, and exported to Saudi Arabia with conventional high-explosive warhead. The 2013 Pentagon report on Chinas military power confirms the DF-3s 3,300 km range, all DF-3/DF-3As were retired by the mid-2010s and replaced by the DF-21. The DF-4 Chingyu is Chinas first two-stage ballistic missile, with 5 and it was developed in late 1960s to provide strike capability against Moscow and Guam. The DF-4 missile also served as basis for Chinas first space launch vehicle,20 DF-4s remain in service, and are scheduled to be replaced by DF-31 by 2010-2015. The DF-5 is a ballistic missile, designed to carry a 3 megaton nuclear warhead to distance up to 12,000 km. The DF-5 is a silo-based, two-stage missile, and its served as the basis for the space-launch vehicle Fengbao-Tempest used to launch satellites
31.
Cultural Revolution
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The Cultural Revolution, formally the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement that took place in China from 1966 until 1976. The Revolution marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of power after the Great Leap Forward, the movement paralyzed China politically and negatively affected the countrys economy and society to a significant degree. The Revolution was launched in May 1966, after Mao alleged that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society at large, to eliminate his rivals within the Communist Party of China, Mao insisted that these revisionists be removed through violent class struggle. Chinas youth responded to Maos appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country, the movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a purge of senior officials, most notably Liu Shaoqi. During the same period Maos personality cult grew to immense proportions, a large segment of the population was forcibly displaced, most notably the transfer of urban youth to rural regions during the Down to the Countryside Movement. Historical relics and artifacts were destroyed, Cultural and religious sites were ransacked. Mao officially declared the Cultural Revolution to have ended in 1969, after Maos death and the arrest of the Gang of Four in 1976, reformers led by Deng Xiaoping gradually began to dismantle the Maoist policies associated with the Cultural Revolution. In 1958, after Chinas first Five-Year Plan, Mao called for grassroots socialism in order to accelerate his plans for turning China into an industrialized state. In this spirit, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, established Peoples Communes in the countryside, many communities were assigned production of a single commodity—steel. Mao vowed to increase production to twice 1957 levels. The Great Leap was an economic failure, uneducated farmers attempted to produce steel on a massive scale, partially relying on backyard furnaces to achieve the production targets set by local cadres. The steel produced was low quality and largely useless, the Great Leap reduced harvest sizes and led to a decline in the production of most goods except substandard pig iron and steel. Furthermore, local authorities frequently exaggerated production numbers, hiding and intensifying the problem for several years, in the meantime, chaos in the collectives, bad weather, and exports of food necessary to secure hard currency resulted in the Great Chinese Famine. Food was in shortage, and production fell dramatically. The famine caused the deaths of millions of people, particularly in poorer inland regions, the Great Leaps failure reduced Maos prestige within the Party. Forced to take responsibility, in 1959, Mao resigned as the President of the Peoples Republic of China, Chinas de jure head of state
32.
Weapon of mass destruction
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The scope and usage of the term has evolved and been disputed, often signifying more politically than technically. Who can think without horror of another widespread war would mean. At the time, nuclear weapons had not been developed, japan conducted research on biological weapons, and chemical weapons had seen wide battlefield use in World War I. They were outlawed by the Geneva Protocol of 1925, Italy used mustard gas against civilians and soldiers in Ethiopia in 1935–36. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended World War II and during the Cold War, the application of the term to specifically nuclear and radiological weapons is traced by William Safire to the Russian phrase Оружие массового поражения – oruzhiye massovogo porazheniya. That exact phrase, says Safire, was used by Bernard Baruch in 1946. The resolution also created the Atomic Energy Commission, an exact use of this term was given in a lecture Atomic Energy as an Atomic Problem by J. Robert Oppenheimer. The lecture was delivered to the Foreign Service and the State Department, the lecture is reprinted in The Open Mind. The term was used in the introduction to the hugely influential U. S. government document known as NSC-68 written in April 1950. During a speech at Rice University on 12 September 1962, President John F. Kennedy spoke of not filling space with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding. The following month, during a presentation about the Cuban Missile Crisis on 22 October 1962. An early use of the phrase in an international treaty was in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. During the Cold War, the weapons of mass destruction was primarily a reference to nuclear weapons. This policy of action against real or perceived weapons of mass destruction became known as the Begin Doctrine. Reagans successor, George H. W. Bush, used the term in an 1989 speech to the United Nations, the end of the Cold War reduced U. S. reliance on nuclear weapons as a deterrent, causing it to shift its focus to disarmament. With the 1990 invasion of Kuwait and 1991 Gulf War, Iraqs nuclear, biological, following the war, Bill Clinton and other western politicians and media continued to use the term, usually in reference to ongoing attempts to dismantle Iraqs weapons programs. After the 11 September 2001 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, however, American forces found none in Iraq. Iraq, however, declared a chemical weapons stockpile in 2009, the stockpile contained mainly chemical precursors, but some warheads remained usable
33.
Gansu
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Gansu is a province of the Peoples Republic of China, located in the northwest of the country. It lies between the Tibetan and Loess plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, the Yellow River passes through the southern part of the province. Gansu has a population of 26 million and covers an area of 425,800 square kilometres, the capital is Lanzhou, located in the southeast part of the province. Gansu is a compound of the names of Ganzhou and Suzhou, Gansu is abbreviated as 甘 or 陇, and is also known as Longxi or Longyou, in reference to the Long Mountain east of Gansu. Gansu is a name first used during the Song dynasty of two Sui and Tang dynasty prefectures, Gan and Su. In prehistoric times, Gansu was host to Neolithic cultures, the Dadiwan culture, from where archaeologically significant artifacts have been excavated, flourished in the eastern end of Gansu from about 6000 BC to about 3000 BC. The Majiayao culture and part of the Qijia culture took root in Gansu from 3100 BC to 2700 BC and 2400 BC to 1900 BC respectively, the Yuezhi originally lived in the very western part of Gansu until they were forced to emigrate by the Xiongnu around 177 BCE. The State of Qin, later to become the state of the Chinese empire, grew out from the southeastern part of Gansu. The Qin name is believed to have originated, in part, Qin tombs and artifacts have been excavated from Fangmatan near Tianshui, including one 2200-year-old map of Guixian County. In imperial times, Gansu was an important strategic outpost and communications link for the Chinese empire, the Han dynasty extended the Great Wall across this corridor, building the strategic Yumenguan and Yangguan fort towns along it. Remains of the wall and the towns can be found there, the Ming dynasty built the Jiayuguan outpost in Gansu. By the Qingshui treaty, concluded in 823 between the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty, China lost a part of Gansu province for a significant period. After the fall of the Uyghur Empire, an Uyghur state was established in parts of Gansu that lasted from 848 to 1036 AD, during that time, many of Gansus residents were converted to Islam. Along the Silk Road, Gansu was an important province. Temples and Buddhist grottoes such as those at Mogao Caves and Maijishan Caves contain artistically and historically revealing murals. An early form of paper inscribed with Chinese characters and dating to about 8 BC was discovered at the site of a Western Han garrison near the Yumen pass in August 2006, the province was also the origin of the Dungan Revolt of 1862-77. Among the Qing forces were Muslim generals like Ma Zhanao and Ma Anliang who helped Qing crush the rebel Muslims, the revolt spread into Gansu from neighbouring Qinghai. Frequent earthquakes, droughts and famines have tended to slow progress of the province until recently
34.
Lockheed U-2
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It provides day and night, high-altitude, all-weather intelligence gathering. The U-2 has also used for electronic sensor research, satellite calibration. Early versions of the U-2 were involved in several events through the Cold War, being flown over the Soviet Union, China, Vietnam, in 1960, Gary Powers was shot down in a CIA U-2A over the Soviet Union by a surface-to-air missile. Another U-2, piloted by Major Rudolf Anderson, Jr. was lost in a fashion during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The U-2 is one of a handful of types to have served the USAF for over 50 years. The newest models entered service in the 1980s, the current model, the U-2S, received its most recent technical upgrade in 2012. They have taken part in post–Cold War conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, after World War II, the U. S. military desired better strategic aerial reconnaissance to help determine Soviet capabilities and intentions. Richard Leghorn of the USAF suggested that an aircraft that could fly at 60,000 feet should be safe from the MiG-17, the Soviet Unions best interceptor, which could barely reach 45,000 feet. He and others believed that Soviet radar, which used American equipment provided during the war, the highest-flying aircraft available to America and its allies at the time was the English Electric Canberra, which could reach 48,000 feet. Air Research and Development Command mandated design changes made the aircraft more durable for combat. The Soviet Union, unlike the United States and Britain, had improved radar technology after the war and it was thought that an aircraft that could fly at 70,000 feet would be beyond the reach of Soviet fighters, missiles, and radar. Another USAF officer, John Seaberg, wrote a request for proposal in 1953 for an aircraft that could reach 70,000 feet over a target with 1,500 nmi of operational radius. The USAF decided to solicit designs only from smaller companies that could give the project more attention. Under the code name Bald Eagle, it contracts to Bell Aircraft, Martin Aircraft. Officials at Lockheed Aircraft Corporation heard about the project and decided to submit an unsolicited proposal, to save weight and increase altitude, Lockheed executive John Carter suggested that the design eliminate landing gear and avoid attempting to meet combat load factors for the airframe. The company asked Clarence Kelly Johnson to come up such a design. Johnson was Lockheeds best aeronautical engineer, responsible for the P-38 and he was also known for completing projects ahead of schedule, working in a separate division of the company, informally called the Skunk Works. Johnsons design, named CL-282, was based on the Lockheed XF-104 with long, slender wings, the design was powered by the General Electric J73 engine and took off from a special cart and landed on its belly
35.
DF-4
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The Dong Feng 4 or DF-4 is a two-stage Chinese Intercontinental ballistic missile with liquid fuel. It was thought to be deployed in limited numbers in underground silos beginning in the 1970s and early 1980s. The Dong Feng 4 has a takeoff thrust of 1,224.00 kN, a weight of 82000 kg, a diameter of 2.25 m, a length of 28.05 m. The range of the Dong Feng 4, which is equipped with a 2,190 kg nuclear warhead with 3.3 Mt yield and this gives it sufficient range to strike targets as far away as Russia, India, and American bases in the Pacific. The missile uses an inertial system, resulting in a large CEP of 1,500 meters. The decision to develop the DF-4 was made in 1965 in response to the U. S. ballistic missile submarine patrols that began operating out of Guam, the missiles designer has been variously identified as Ren Xinmin or Tu Shoue, and it was produced at Factory 211. In 1972 US intelligence estimated an IOC for this system as being expected in 1974 or 1975, deployment actually began in 1975-76, but only four DF-4s were believed to be in place by 1984. There were two versions of the developed, one version housed in caves or garages to be rolled out on launch. The U. S. DoD estimates that the missile will continue to serve as a regional deterrence instrument until they can be replaced by the DF-31 and this will be a significant capability gain for the Second Artillery Corps. The DF-31A has a range of 11,700 kilometers and is road- and rail-mobile, china, The Peoples Liberation Army is the only operator of the Dong-Feng 4
36.
DF-5
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The Dongfeng 5 or DF-5 is a three stage Chinese ICBM. It has a length of 32.6 m and a diameter of 3.35 m and it weighs in at 183,000 kilograms and it has an estimated range of 12,000 to 15,000 kilometers. The DF-5 had its first flight in 1971 and was in operational service 10 years later, one of the limitations of the missile is that it takes between 30 and 60 minutes to fuel. The DF-5 is due to be replaced by the DF-41, the DF-5 was designed under the leadership of Tu Shoue at the China Academy of Launch Technology, Li Xue) served as deputy chief designer. The missile was produced at the Chinas Factory 211, the DF-5 was first flight tested in 1971, with final tests into the Pacific Ocean in May 1980. Two silo-based missiles were put into trial operational deployment in 1981 and it had a range of 10,000 to 12,000 km which allowed it to threaten the western portions of the United States. Beginning in 1986 the Chinese started developing the improved DF-5A, with range increased to over 15,000 km, the DF-5A upgrade increased the throw-weight of the system from 3,000 kg to 3,200 kg. As with the DF-4, initially the DF-5 was stored in a position in tunnels under high mountains. The missiles must be moved into the open and fueled prior to firing, the initial deployment of a pair of DF-5s in silos in Central China was completed in 1981. That portion of the DF-5A force that is deployed in silos could be maintained in a ready-to-fire status, in order to enhance the survivability of these missiles, China has constructed a large number of decoy silos which consist of shallow holes excavations with headworks that resemble operational silos. According to the National Air and Space Intelligence Center, as of 1998 the deployed DF-5 force consisted of fewer than 25 missiles, from early 1999 to 2008 the total deployed DF-5 force was generally estimated at about 20 missiles. According to a 2015 Pentagon report, Business Insider, Janes Defence Weekly, China had begun to MIRV its DF-5s. It is believed about three to eight warheads can be placed on each MIRVed missile, an improved version, named DF-5B, was shown to the public during the parade in Beijing celebrating 70 years since the end of World War II on September 3,2015. By that time, the DoD estimated China possessed 20 are DF-5 ICBMs, the DF-5B supposedly has an increased throw weight of 5000 kg. China has begun testing a new variant of a DF-5 missile, Peoples Republic of China, The Peoples Liberation Army Second Artillery Corps is the only operator of the DF-5. China and weapons of mass destruction CSIS Missile Threat - Dong Feng 5 A/B http, //www. sinodefence. com/strategic/missile/df5. asp DF-5
37.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
38.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
39.
Satellite
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In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earths Moon. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, since then, about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2013 estimate,3,600 remained in orbit, of those, about 1,000 were operational, the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in orbit,50 are in medium-Earth orbit. A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids, Satellites are used for many purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, well-known classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit, usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land. Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform, Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control, the first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced again in Jules Vernes The Begums Fortune, in 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the speed required for a minimal orbit. In 1928, Herman Potočnik published his book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground, in a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet, the first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere
40.
Orbit
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In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of an object around a point in space, for example the orbit of a planet about a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly repeating path around a body, to a close approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptical orbits, with the central mass being orbited at a focal point of the ellipse, as described by Keplers laws of planetary motion. For ease of calculation, in most situations orbital motion is adequately approximated by Newtonian Mechanics, historically, the apparent motions of the planets were described by European and Arabic philosophers using the idea of celestial spheres. This model posited the existence of perfect moving spheres or rings to which the stars and it assumed the heavens were fixed apart from the motion of the spheres, and was developed without any understanding of gravity. After the planets motions were accurately measured, theoretical mechanisms such as deferent. Originally geocentric it was modified by Copernicus to place the sun at the centre to help simplify the model, the model was further challenged during the 16th century, as comets were observed traversing the spheres. The basis for the understanding of orbits was first formulated by Johannes Kepler whose results are summarised in his three laws of planetary motion. Second, he found that the speed of each planet is not constant, as had previously been thought. Third, Kepler found a relationship between the orbital properties of all the planets orbiting the Sun. For the planets, the cubes of their distances from the Sun are proportional to the squares of their orbital periods. Jupiter and Venus, for example, are respectively about 5.2 and 0.723 AU distant from the Sun, their orbital periods respectively about 11.86 and 0.615 years. The proportionality is seen by the fact that the ratio for Jupiter,5. 23/11.862, is equal to that for Venus,0. 7233/0.6152. Idealised orbits meeting these rules are known as Kepler orbits, isaac Newton demonstrated that Keplers laws were derivable from his theory of gravitation and that, in general, the orbits of bodies subject to gravity were conic sections. Newton showed that, for a pair of bodies, the sizes are in inverse proportion to their masses. Where one body is more massive than the other, it is a convenient approximation to take the center of mass as coinciding with the center of the more massive body. Lagrange developed a new approach to Newtonian mechanics emphasizing energy more than force, in a dramatic vindication of classical mechanics, in 1846 le Verrier was able to predict the position of Neptune based on unexplained perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. This led astronomers to recognize that Newtonian mechanics did not provide the highest accuracy in understanding orbits, in relativity theory, orbits follow geodesic trajectories which are usually approximated very well by the Newtonian predictions but the differences are measurable. Essentially all the evidence that can distinguish between the theories agrees with relativity theory to within experimental measurement accuracy
41.
Launch vehicle
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In spaceflight, a launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket used to carry a payload from Earths surface into outer space. A launch system includes the launch vehicle, the launch pad, Earth orbital launch vehicles typically have at least two stages, and sometimes as many as four or more. Expendable launch vehicles are designed for one-time use and they usually separate from their payload and disintegrate during atmospheric reentry. In contrast, reusable vehicles are designed to be recovered intact. The Space Shuttle was a part of a vehicle with components used for multiple orbital spaceflights. SpaceX has developed a rocket launching system to successfully bring back a part—the first stage—of their Falcon 9 and launch it again. A fully reusable VTVL design is planned for all parts of the ITS launch vehicle, Launch vehicles are often classified by the amount of mass they can carry into orbit. For example, a Proton rocket can lift 22,000 kilograms into low Earth orbit, Launch vehicles are also characterized by their number of stages. Rockets with as many as five stages have been successfully launched, additionally, launch vehicles are very often supplied with boosters supplying high early thrust, normally burning with other engines. Boosters allow the engines to be smaller, reducing the burnout mass of later stages to allow larger payloads. Other frequently reported characteristics of vehicles are the launching nation or space agency. For example, the European Space Agency is responsible for the Ariane V, many launch vehicles are considered part of a historical line of vehicles of same or similar name, e. g. the Atlas V is the latest Atlas rocket. A small-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting up to 2,000 kg of payload into low Earth orbit, a medium-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting 2,000 to 20,000 kg of payload into LEO. A heavy-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting 20,000 to 50,000 kg of payload into LEO, a super-heavy lift vehicle is capable of lifting more than 50,000 kg of payload into LEO. It refers to its 1,500 kg to LEO Vega launch vehicle as light lift, sounding rockets have long been used for brief, inexpensive unmanned space and microgravity experiments. Current human-rated suborbital launch vehicles include SpaceShipOne and the upcoming SpaceShipTwo, minimizing air drag requires a reasonably high ballistic coefficient, a ratio of length to diameter greater than ten. This generally results in a vehicle that is at least 20 m long. Leaving the atmosphere as early on in the flight as possible provides a velocity loss due to air drag of around 300 m/s, Launch vehicles of sufficient size are capable of launching payloads smaller than their orbital capability, to the Moon or beyond
People's Republic of China
Communist Party of China[1]
People's Liberation Army
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies document "China".
This article incorporates 
People's Liberation Army (PLA)
