1.
PepsiCo
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PepsiCo, Inc. is an American multinational food, snack and beverage corporation headquartered in Purchase, New York. PepsiCo has interests in the manufacturing, marketing and distribution of grain-based snack foods, beverages, PepsiCo was formed in 1965 with the merger of the Pepsi-Cola Company and Frito-Lay, Inc.3 billion. Based on net revenue, PepsiCo is the second largest food, within North America, PepsiCo is the largest food and beverage business by net revenue. Indra Krishnamurthy Nooyi has been the executive of PepsiCo since 2006. The companys beverage distribution and bottling is conducted by PepsiCo as well as by licensed bottlers in certain regions, approximately 274,000 employees generated $66.415 billion in revenue as of 2013. The recipe for the soft drink Pepsi was first developed in the 1880s by Caleb Bradham and he coined the name Pepsi-Cola in 1898. As the cola developed in popularity, he created the Pepsi-Cola Company in 1902, the Pepsi-Cola Company was first incorporated in the state of Delaware in 1919. The company went bankrupt in 1931 and on June 8 of that year, Guth was also the president of Loft, Incorporated, a leading candy manufacturer, and he used the companys labs and chemists to reformulate the syrup. In 1935, the shareholders of Loft sued Guth for his 91% stake of Pepsi-Cola Company in the landmark case Guth v. Loft Inc. Loft won the suit and on May 29,1941 formally absorbed Pepsi into Loft, Loft restaurants and candy stores were spun off at this time. In the early 1960s, Pepsi-Colas product lines expanded with the creation of Diet Pepsi, in 1965, the Pepsi-Cola Company merged with Frito-Lay, Inc. to become PepsiCo, Inc. At the time of its foundation, PepsiCo was incorporated in the state of Delaware and headquartered in Manhattan, the companys headquarters were relocated to their present location of Purchase, New York in 1970, and in 1986 PepsiCo was reincorporated in the state of North Carolina. In August 2009, PepsiCo made a $7 billion offer to acquire the two largest bottlers of its products in North America, Pepsi Bottling Group and PepsiAmericas. In 2010 this acquisition was completed, resulting in the formation of a new wholly owned subsidiary of PepsiCo, when it acquired the remaining 23% stake of Wimm-Bill-Dann Foods in October 2011, PepsiCo became the largest food and beverage company in Russia. In July 2012, PepsiCo announced a joint venture with the Theo Muller Group which was named Muller Quaker Dairy and this marked PepsiCos first entry into the dairy space in the U. S. The joint venture was dissolved in December 2015, in 2009, The Coca-Cola Company held a higher market share in carbonated soft drink sales within the U. S. In the same year, PepsiCo maintained a share of the U. S. refreshment beverage market, however. As a result of mergers, acquisitions and partnerships pursued by PepsiCo in the 1990s and 2000s, its business has shifted to include a broader base, including foods, snacks
2.
Cola
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Cola is a sweetened, carbonated soft drink, derived from drinks that contain caffeine from the kola nut and non-cocaine derivatives from coca leaves, flavored with vanilla and other ingredients. Most colas now use other flavoring ingredients with a similar taste, Colas became popular worldwide after pharmacist John Pemberton invented Coca-Cola in 1886. His non-alcoholic recipe was inspired by the wine of pharmacist Angelo Mariani. Modern colas usually contain caramel color, caffeine, and sweeteners such as sugar or high fructose corn syrup, despite the name, the primary modern flavoring ingredients in a cola drink are sugar, citrus oils, cinnamon, vanilla, and an acidic flavorant. Manufacturers of cola drinks add trace ingredients to create different tastes for each brand. Trace flavorings may include nutmeg and a variety of ingredients. Acidity is often provided by phosphoric acid, sometimes accompanied by citric or other isolated acids, coca-Colas recipe is maintained as a corporate trade secret. A variety of different sweeteners may be added to cola, often dependent on local agricultural policy. High-fructose corn syrup is used in the United States and Canada due to the lower cost of government-subsidized corn. In Europe, however, HFCS is subject to production quotas designed to encourage the production of sugar, sugar is typically used to sweeten sodas. In addition, stevia or an artificial sweetener may be used, Cola can be manufactured with sugar as in Mexican Coca-Cola. Kosher for Passover Coca-Cola sold in the U. S. around the Jewish holiday also uses sucrose rather than HFCS and is highly sought after by people who prefer the original taste. In addition, PepsiCo has recently been marketing versions of its Pepsi and these are marketed under the name Throwback and became permanent products. Clear cola is a variety of cola produced in the early 1990s. Brands included Crystal Pepsi, Tab Clear,7 Up Ice Cola, a 2007 study found that consumption of colas, both those with natural sweetening and those with artificial sweetening, was associated with increased risk of chronic kidney disease. The phosphoric acid used in colas was thought to be a possible cause, studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of calcium, magnesium, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, and vitamin A. The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of caffeine, a link has been shown between long-term regular cola intake and osteoporosis in older women. This was thought to be due to the presence of acid
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Caramel color
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Caramel color or caramel coloring is a water-soluble food coloring. It is made by heat treatment of carbohydrates, in general in the presence of acids, alkalis, or salts and it is more fully oxidized than caramel candy, and has an odor of burnt sugar and a somewhat bitter taste. Its color ranges from yellow to amber to dark brown. Caramel color is widely approved for use in food globally but application, caramel color is manufactured by heating carbohydrates, either alone or in the presence of acids, alkalis, and/or salts. Caramel color is produced from commercially available nutritive sweeteners consisting of fructose, dextrose, invert sugar, sucrose, malt syrup, molasses, starch hydrolysates, antifoaming agents, such as polyglycerol esters of fatty acids, may be used as processing aids during manufacture. Its color ranges from pale-yellow to amber to dark-brown, caramel color molecules carry either a positive or a negative charge depending upon the reactants used in their manufacture. Problems such as precipitation, flocculation, or migration can be eliminated with the use of a properly charged caramel color for the intended application. Color Intensity is defined as the absorbance of a 1 mg/mL solution in water, in this case, A stands for absorbance and TS stands for total solids. Color Intensity = A ∗100 T S The color tone of the color is also important. This is defined by the Linner Hue Index, which is the measure of the color hue or red characteristics of the caramel color and it is a function of the absorbance of light of wavelengths 510 and 610 nm. In general, the higher the Tinctorial Power, K0.56, the lower the Hue Index, various other indices are in use around the world and there are conversion factors between them. Though the primary function of caramel color is for coloration, it also serves additional functions, the United States Food and Drug Administration classifies and regulates caramel color in Title 21 CFR §73.85 as a generally recognized as safe color additive exempt from certification. Unless a food has a standard of identity, caramel color may be used in foods generally at levels consistent with good manufacturing practice. The IPCS has concluded that caramel color does not exhibit carcinogenicity or mutagenicity, caramel color has excellent microbiological stability. When reacted with sulfites, caramel color may retain traces of sulfite after processing, however, in finished food products, labeling is usually required only for sulfite levels above 10 ppm. Caramel coloring may be derived from a variety of products that are themselves common allergens, starch hydrolysates, malt syrup. North American and European manufacturers mostly use glucose derived from corn or wheat to produce caramel color, which is highly processed and is generally considered gluten-free
5.
Diet Pepsi
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Diet Pepsi and Diet Pepsi Classic Formula Blend are no-calorie carbonated cola soft drinks produced by PepsiCo, introduced in 1964 as a variant of Pepsi-Cola with no sugar. In the 1960s and 1970s its competition consisted of Tab, produced by The Coca-Cola Company, Diet Coke was a later entrant to the diet cola market, though shortly after entering production in 1982 it became the primary competing diet cola to Diet Pepsi. While the U. S. represents the largest single market for Diet Pepsi, the beverage composition, flavor variations and packaging varies based on the country of production. In some countries—primarily in Eastern Europe—the product is labeled and sold under the name Pepsi Light, in the UK it was called Pepsi Diet to bring it inline with the European version, until 2015 when it was renamed Diet Pepsi once again. Diet Pepsi was originally created in the US under the name Patio in 1963, following a positive reception attributed to the shifting dietary habits and preferences among the Baby Boom Generation at the time, the drink was re-branded as Diet Pepsi the following year. It became the first diet cola to be distributed on a scale in the United States. Distribution was extended to the UK in 1983, where it is referred to as Diet Pepsi. Distribution has since expanded to countries around the world, though an alternate name is used in certain countries. In Italy, Czech Republic, Poland Argentina, Spain Greece, Turkey, Russia, Ukraine, and Brazil, the beverage is known as Pepsi Light. As of 2010, Diet Pepsi represented a 5.3 percent share of all carbonated soft drink sales in the United States, in the same year, Diet Coke was recorded as having a 9.9 percent market share. Additional variations of Diet Pepsi have been introduced over the years, a caffeine-free version of Diet Pepsi is also produced. The availability and brand identification of Diet Pepsi flavor variants varies by country, in addition to Diet Pepsi, PepsiCo produces other low-calorie colas known as Pepsi Max and Pepsi ONE. These products, however, are marketed separately, and are not labeled under the Diet Pepsi brand. In the United States, Diet Pepsi is marketed as having zero calories and it is also positioned as having no carbohydrates, as represented in the primary slogan, which as of 2011 is 0 carbs. Though Diet Pepsi is represented worldwide as a low- or no-calorie beverage, in Canada, the ingredient listing reads, carbonated water, caramel color, phosphoric acid, aspartame, sodium benzoate, caffeine, flavor, acesulfame potassium, citric acid, dimethylpolysiloxane. In the composition of all no-calorie carbonated colas, a sweetener is used in place of sugar. In December 2012, an AP article reported that Diet Pepsi was changing its sweetener to sucralose ahead of a rebranding of the soft drink set for January 2013. In 2015, some people on Facebook and Twitter expressed their distaste for the new fomula, Pepsi plans to revive its aspartame formulation, as Diet Pepsi Classic Sweetener Blend for US markets in September 2016
6.
Pepsi Wild Cherry
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Pepsi Wild Cherry is a cherry-flavored cola first introduced in 1988 by PepsiCo as a replacement for Cherry Cola Slice, introduced as part of the line in 1986. A sugar-free version is available, with zero calories, named Diet Pepsi Wild Cherry. Alongside the beverages, a Lip Balm version is also available, Pepsi Wild Cherry is currently sold in the United States and Canada as a regular, permanent product. Pepsi Wild Cherry is officially available nationally in the United States, in the United States, it is available in 12-ounce cans, 24-ounce cans,16. 9-ounce bottles, 20-ounce bottles, 1-liter bottles, and 2-liter bottles. It is also available in Netherlands in some stores, on March 25,2017, after five years of limited time availability, Pepsi officially relaunched Pepsi Wild Cherry as a permanent Canadian flavour, in 591mL bottles and 12-packs of 355mL cans. Prior to 2005, the product was known as Wild Cherry Pepsi, the re-branding came about due to a change in formula used with a slightly altered taste. The logo was changed in 2007, as the Pepsi script. This design, however, was found on the boxes that carried cans, 1-. In October 2008, Pepsi announced they would be redesigning its logo, in 2009, Pepsi, Diet Pepsi and Pepsi Max began using all lower-case fonts for name brands. The brands blue and red globe trademark became a series of smiles, in the case of Pepsi, the logo has the medium-sized smile, while the new lower-case font is used. In March 2010, Pepsi Wild Cherry received the redesign on bottles, beginning in March 2013, the drink came to the United Kingdom with plans to expand it worldwide. Also in late 2013 and in areas in early 2014, the packaging was redesigned again, now resembling the 2005-2010 design. Carbonated water, high fructose corn syrup and/or sugar, caramel color, phosphoric acid, natural flavors, caffeine and citric acid
7.
Crystal Pepsi
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Crystal Pepsi is a soft drink made by PepsiCo. It was sold from 1992 to 1993 in the United States and Canada, Crystal Pepsi was sold for a longer time in Europe during the early 1990s. In the early 1990s, a marketing fad equating clarity with purity began with the remake of Ivory soap from its classic milky solution, Crystal Pepsi was marketed as a caffeine-free clear alternative to normal colas, equating clarity with purity and health. Its marketing slogan was Youve never seen a taste like this, in 1992, PepsiCo introduced Crystal Pepsi to test markets in Denver, Sacramento, Dallas, Providence, and Grand Rapids, and the product generated a positive response. Pleased with the results, PepsiCo launched the cola on April 12,1992, a large marketing campaign was launched, for which the company invented the worlds first photo-realistic, computer-generated bus wrap printing. A series of advertisements featuring Van Halens hit song Right Now premiered on national television on January 31,1993. Another marketing ploy was to give out full sized sample bottles with the Sunday paper deliveries such as the Boston Globe in Massachusetts, in its first year, Crystal Pepsi captured a full percentage point of U. S. soft drink sales, approximately $474 million. Coca-Cola followed suit by launching Tab Clear on December 14,1992, initial sales were good but quickly fell. By fall 1993, Pepsi pulled the drink off the market, Pepsi returned several months later with a reformulated citrus/cola hybrid titled Crystal From Pepsi, but that was short-lived as well. Zyman said Pepsi spent an amount of money on the brand and, regardless. Both of them were dead within six months, in 2005, a new clear Pepsi was sold in Mexico as Pepsi Clear for a limited time. On August 22,2008, PepsiCo filed for trademarks on the product names Pepsi Clear, novak is credited with introducing the Crystal Pepsi concept. In a December 2007 interview, he stated, It was a learning experience. I still think its the best idea I ever had, a lot of times as a leader you think, They dont get it, they dont see my vision. People were saying we should stop and address some issues along the way and it would have been nice if Id made sure the product tasted good. Once you have an idea and you blow it, you dont get a chance to resurrect it. In March 2015, a campaign to bring back Crystal Pepsi began. The interest from this led to an official response by PepsiCo
8.
Pepsi Vanilla
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PepsiCo has produced a number of variations on its primary cola, Pepsi, over the years, including the following, Pepsi, PepsiCos signature cola flavor and its namesake cola. Pepsi Free, Introduced in 1982 by PepsiCo as the first major-brand caffeine-free cola and is sold as Caffeine-Free Pepsi. Pepsi Wild Cherry, Introduced in 1988, it is cherry flavored cola, known as Wild Cherry Pepsi until 2005. It was named Wild Cherry to not be confused with Cokes Cherry variation, Crystal from Pepsi, Discontinued citrus/cola hybrid, reformulation of Crystal Pepsi. Introduced in 1989 and discontinued in 1990, Pepsi Fresh, Made only for summer 2007. Pepsi X -2012 release Marketed from X Factor television show, Pepsi Candy, Sold in Canada in 1999 in the Spring as a sweeter version with a fruity taste. Pepsi Natural, a new cola made with natural ingredients, released in select markets in 2009. Pepsi Blue, A blue colored fruity soda, given a huge marketing push, often considered a major flop on the order of New Coke. In Iceland, Pepsi Blue was sold for a period of time during the winter of 2003/2004. It was sold for a period in Austria, and is still available in some parts of Mexico. It is also available in Indonesia. It was also sold in the Philippines for a time only, usually it appears during Christmas season. Likewise, it was sold for a time in Australia, Bulgaria, Poland, Finland. Pepsi Gold, Limited edition gold colored variant as part of a 2006 FIFA World Cup and ICC Cricket World Cup 2007 promotion. It had a hint of ginger, but nowhere near the level of Pepsi Red. Re-released as Pepsi Cheer for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Pepsi Holiday Spice, a limited edition variety which the company began selling November 1,2004 in the U. S. and Canada for an eight-week period, and again in the 2006 Christmas season. It is flavored with a finish of cinnamon, somewhat similar to the Swedish Julmust. Christmas Pepsi, Almost identical to Pepsi Holiday Spice, with nutmeg and cocoa added to the ingredients list, Pepsi Kona, a coffee-flavored cola which was test-marketed on the East Coast of the USA
9.
Pepsi Next
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Pepsi Next is a cola-flavored carbonated soft drink produced by PepsiCo. It is a variant of the Pepsi cola range, however, the continued presence of acesulfame potassium means this version of the product still contains artificial sweeteners. Pepsi Edge, Pepsis first mid-calorie cola, was introduced in 2004, in September 2007, PepsiCo filed for trademarks in the US Patent and Trademark Office, for Pepsi Next, and Diet Pepsi Next. In 2010, PepsiCo began to test Pepsi Next via market research groups, in June 2011, PepsiCo announced that Pepsi Next was going to be moved into two test markets, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and Eau Claire, Wisconsin. After testing, on February 27,2012, PepsiCo announced the launch of Pepsi Next, in the Australian market, Pepsi Next is bottled by Schweppes Australia and is sweetened by stevia which reduces the sugar content by 30% compared to regular Pepsi. Pepsi Next was first introduced in France in March 2013, and in Finland, stevia extract is used in all three markets. One site stated that, Although it contains three artificial sweeteners and has 60 percent fewer calories than regular Pepsi, it’s really hard to taste anything “diet” about Pepsi Next, but it’s not quite like regular Pepsi, it’s less syrupy and smoother. There are also differences in flavor between Pepsi Next and original Pepsi, I thought Pepsi Next had a slightly stronger cola flavor and, for some reason, my taste buds perceived a hint of lemon. According to the BevReview, the taste of Pepsi Next is similar to original Pepsi. After the launch of Pepsi Next, a commercial was launched that depicted a young couple. Eva Longoria, Paula Patton, and Nicki Minaj all have featured in advertisements for Pepsi Next, Paula Patton has filmed a television commercial for Pepsi Next, as has Nicki Minaj. A series of Internet and print ads were made, with a picture of a can of Pepsi Next, with the words, Real Cola Taste, 60% Less Sugar, Drink It To Believe It. In the 2013 Super Bowl, Pepsi used its advertising minutes right before the show to advertise Pepsi Next. The presentation by Pepsi was unique in that it featured photos of Pepsi customers, Pepsi had asked customers to send in photos before the Super Bowl
10.
Coca-Cola
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Coca-Cola is a carbonated soft drink produced by The Coca-Cola Company. The drinks name refers to two of its ingredients, which were kola nuts and coca leaves. The current formula of Coca-Cola remains a secret, although a variety of reported recipes. The Coca-Cola Company produces concentrate, which is sold to licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water. A typical 12-US-fluid-ounce can contains 38 grams of sugar, the bottlers then sell, distribute and merchandise Coca-Cola to retail stores, restaurants and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants, the Coca-Cola Company has on occasion introduced other cola drinks under the Coke name. Based on Interbrands best global brand study of 2015, Coca-Cola was the third most valuable brand. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries worldwide, confederate Colonel John Pemberton, who was wounded in the American Civil War and became addicted to morphine, began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug. The prototype Coca-Cola recipe was formulated at Pembertons Eagle Drug and Chemical House and he may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French coca wine. It is also worth noting that a Spanish drink called Kola Coca was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, the patent for this Spanish drink was bought by Coca-Cola in 1953. In 1885, Pemberton registered his French Wine Coca nerve tonic, in 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca-Cola, a nonalcoholic version of French Wine Coca. The first sales were at Jacobs Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the year in the Atlanta Journal. By 1888, three versions of Coca-Cola – sold by three separate businesses – were on the market, a co-partnership had been formed on January 14,1888 between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen, J. C. Mayfield, A. O. Not codified by any signed document, a statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pembertons company as early as 1887. John Pemberton declared that the name Coca-Cola belonged to his son, Charley, Charleys exclusive control over the Coca Cola name became a continual thorn in Asa Candlers side. Candlers oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University, in this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states
11.
RC Cola
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RC Cola, also known as Royal Crown Cola, is a cola-flavored soft drink developed in 1905 by Claud A. Hatcher, a pharmacist in Columbus, Georgia, United States. In 1901, the Cole-Hampton-Hatcher Grocery Store was established in Columbus, in 1903, the Hatcher family took sole ownership and the name was changed to the Hatcher Grocery Store. The grocery store was located at what was 22 West 10th Street, todays address is 15 West 10th Street. At that same time, the popularity of bottled soft drinks rose rapidly, as a grocery wholesaler, Claud A. Hatcher purchased a large volume of Coca-Cola syrup from the local company salesman, Columbus Roberts. Hatcher felt that Hatcher Grocery Co. deserved a special reduced price for the syrup since it purchased such large volumes, Roberts would not budge on the cost, and a bitter conflict between the two erupted. Hatcher told Roberts he would win the battle by never purchasing any more Coca-Cola and he started developing products in the basement of the store with a recipe for ginger ale. The first product in the Royal Crown line was Royal Crown Ginger Ale in 1905, followed by Royal Crown Strawberry, the company was renamed Chero-Cola in 1910, and in 1925 renamed Nehi Corporation after its colored and flavored drinks. In 1934, Chero-Cola was reformulated by Rufus Kamm, a chemist, in the 1950s, Royal Crown Cola and moon pies were a popular working mans lunch in the American South. In 1954, Royal Crown was the first company to sell drinks in a can. In 1958, the introduced the first diet cola, Diet Rite, and in 1980. In the mid-1990s, RC released Royal Crown Draft Cola, billed as a premium cola using cane sugar as a sweetener, rather than high fructose corn syrup. It is now only in New Zealand, parts of Australia, Thailand. The company also released Cherry RC, a version of the RC soft drink, to compete with Cherry Coke. In October 2000, Royal Crown was acquired by Cadbury Schweppes plc through its acquisition of Snapple, Royal Crown operations were subsequently folded into Dr Pepper/Seven Up, a former subsidiary of Cadbury Schweppes. In the US, distribution is handled by Dr Pepper Snapple Group, RC Cola was introduced to Latvia in June 2010, and the United Kingdom in May 2011, and sold at Asda supermarkets and other retailers. It is bottled in the country by Cott Beverages and it is available in Estonia where it is distributed by A. In Australia, it is marketed by Australian Pure Fruits, RC Cola is bottled in Cyprus by Kean Soft Drinks Limited, and in the Philippines by ARC Bottlers. However, some of the former Cosmos top brass, in partnership with the Zest-O chairman, reintroduced RC Cola, today, RC Cola is the top-selling cola brand in the Philippines, and is the second largest cola brand in Israel, after Coca-Cola, but ahead of Pepsi
12.
Afri-cola
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Afri-Cola is a cola soft drink produced in Germany. The trademark Afri-Cola was registered in 1931 by the company F. Blumhoffer Nachfolger GmbH, the same company also produced Bluna, an orange soft drink. Today the brand belongs to the Mineralbrunnen Überkingen-Teinach AG, Afri-Cola was once one of the most popular cola brands in Germany, but has considerably lost market share since the 1960s. Afri-Cola was registered in 1931 by F. Blumhoffer Nachfolger GmbH, after the Second World War, Afri-Cola became one of the most popular drinks in Germany and a symbol of the German Wirtschaftswunder. In 1952, the company launched Bluna, a similar to Fanta. However, in the competition of the 1960s, Afri-Cola started to lose its influence on the German market to Coca-Cola. To update its image, the company hired designer and photographer Charles Wilp who created a controversial, the market share of Afri-Cola continued to dwindle during the 1980s and 1990s. Eventually, in 1998, German beverage company Mineralbrunnen Überkingen-Teinach AG bought all rights to Afri-Cola and this company changed the recipe of Afri-Cola in 1998. The taste of the 1998 drink also differed from that of the original, also, the caffeine content was 250 mg/L up until 1998, which is higher than the average. At the re-release, it had a content below 150 mg/L so that the content does not need to be listed on the bottle, however, the new recipe was unpopular. The mixture was changed to taste more like the original one. This mixture was not sufficiently successful and on April 1,2006. Since then, Afri-Cola has slightly regained market share, in the mid-1990s Real Soda LLC, a U. S. company, started importing Afri-Cola into the United States, largely in the Seattle area. At the time it was marketed as highest caffeine content allowed by law, in the late 1990s it was widely available at convenience stores and supermarkets in Seattle, and is available in several cafes in Minneapolis. For a short time it was available at the University of Rhode Island in their student union building, in the early 2000s it was available in the Reed College bookstore. Mineralbrunnen Überkingen-Teinach AG itself exports Afri-Cola to Austria, France, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland and the Czech Republic
13.
Kola Real
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Kola Real is a Peruvian soft drink. Kola Real is one of the most popular brands of Ajegroup, Kola Real is available in many flavours such as revolution red, orange, pineapple, lime-lemon, negra and dorada. In Nigeria, Mexico, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Indonesia and Thailand, list of soft drinks by country Kola Real Takes on Coca-Cola
14.
Carbonated
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Carbonation can refer to two chemical processes involving carbon dioxide, The dissolution in a liquid, also known as fizz or effervescence. The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure, when the pressure is reduced, the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released. Carbonation also describes the incorporation of carbon dioxide into chemical compounds and this occurs in the following cases, In biochemistry Our carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO. So important is this process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme. In reinforced concrete construction Also known as neutralisation, it is a reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete. Carbonation and Acidity Dissolution of Marble in Hydrochloric Acid Demonstration Robert OLeary, ATR Infrared Spectroscopy method for measuring CO2 concentration in Beer. Describes in detail the theory and practice of measuring dissolved CO2 content in soft drinks and beer
15.
Soft drink
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A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes, Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. Soft drinks are called soft in contrast to hard drinks, small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea, and other such non-alcoholic beverages are technically soft drinks by this definition but are not generally referred to as such, Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes or at room temperature. In rare cases, some drinks, such as Dr Pepper. Soft drinks are available in formats, including cans, glass bottles. Soft drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores. Soda fountain drinks are served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are served in glasses. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups, Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor, one well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of fruit juices. At ice cream parlours and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats are often sold, two popular ice cream floats are the coke float and the root beer float, which consist of a scoop of ice cream placed in a tall glass of the respectively named soft drinks. Due to the sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks. In Spanish, they use the English equivalent of refreshment, or also commonly called gaseosa. In the United States, the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names, over half of the survey respondents preferred the term soda, which was dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term tonic is hyperlocal to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term pop is prevalent, but soft drink is the most common English term used in Montreal. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms fizzy drink, pop and fizzy pop are used in northern England, while mineral is used in Ireland
16.
New Bern, North Carolina
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New Bern /ˈnuːbərn/ is a city in Craven County, North Carolina, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 29,524 and it is the county seat of Craven County and the principal city of the New Bern Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is located at the confluence of the Trent and the Neuse rivers and it lies 112 miles east of Raleigh,87 miles northeast of Wilmington, and 162 miles south of Norfolk. New Bern is the birthplace of Pepsi Cola, New Bern was settled in 1710 by Swiss and Palatine German immigrants. The new colonists named the settlement after Bern, the capital of Switzerland, the English connection with Switzerland had been established by some Marian exiles who sought refuge in Protestant parts of Switzerland. There were also marriages between the Royal House of Stuart and notable people in the history of Calvinism, the colonists later discovered they had started their settlement on the site of a former Tuscarora village named Chattoka. This caused conflicts with the Tuscaroras who were in the area, New Bern is the second-oldest European-American colonial town in North Carolina. It served as the capital of the North Carolina colonial government, after the American Revolution, New Bern became wealthy and quickly developed a rich cultural life. At one time New Bern was called the Athens of the South, renowned for its Masonic Temple and these are both still very active today. Within easy walking distance of the waterfront are more than 164 homes, also nearby are several bed and breakfasts, hotels, restaurants, banks, antiques stores and specialty shops. The historic districts contain many of the citys 2,000 crape myrtles—its official flower—and developed gardens, New Bern has two Local Historic Districts, a municipal zoning overlay that affords legal protection to the exteriors of New Berns irreplaceable historic structures. These areas provide much of New Berns unique charm, appeal to retirees and heritage tourism, the Local Historic Districts, while vitally important to New Bern, comprise only 2. 43% of New Berns 27-square-mile area. There is considerable area available for new development, varying complex cultures of indigenous peoples had lived along the waterways of North Carolina for thousands of years before Europeans explored the area. The Tuscarora, an Iroquoian-speaking people, had migrated south from the Great Lakes area in ancient time. They had an ancient village, Chattoka, here at the confluence of the rivers and they resisted encroachment by the Europeans, rising up in resistance in 1712. New Bern was first settled by Europeans in 1710 by Swiss and Palatine German immigrants under the leadership of Christoph von Graffenried, Franz Louis Michel and they named the settlement after Bern, von Graffenrieds home town that would later become the capital of Switzerland. Von Graffenried had the original plat of the laid out in the shape of a cross, though later development. This became the first permanent seat of the government of North Carolina
17.
Caleb Bradham
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Caleb Davis Bradham was an American pharmacist and is best known for being the inventor of Pepsi. He was born in Chinquapin, North Carolina and he graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill where he was a member of the Philanthropic Society, and attended the University of Maryland School of Medicine. Circa 1890, he dropped out of the University of Maryland School of Medicine and his assistant James Henry King was the first to taste the new drink. On December 24,1902, the Pepsi-Cola Company was incorporated in North Carolina, with Bradham as the president, also in 1903, he moved his Pepsi-Cola production out of his drug store and into a rented building nearby. In 1905, Bradham began selling Pepsi-Cola in six-ounce bottles, on January 4,1901, Bradham married Charity Credle in New Bern, North Carolina. He owned the Slover-Bradham House from 1908 to 1934, the house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. In addition to running his store, he served as the president of the People’s Bank of New Bern. At one point he was suggested as a candidate for governor of North Carolina. He also served as an officer in the reserve for 25 years, he was named a lieutenant in the North Carolina Naval Militia, was promoted to commander in 1904. He retired as a rear admiral, additionally, in 1914 he was appointed by Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels to the General Naval Militia Board. At the peak of success, Bradham had authorized Pepsi-Cola franchises in over 24 states, however, on May 31,1923, Bradham, the assets of his company were sold to the Craven Holding Company for $35,000. After declaring bankruptcy, Bradham returned to operating his drug store, nicholas Sparks, a fiction author who lives in New Bern, mentioned Mr. Bradham in his book Bend in the Road. The Birthplace of Pepsi-Cola Caleb Bradham at Find a Grave New Bern Antique Postcard Slideshow Pepsi website
18.
Kola nuts
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The kola nut is the fruit of the kola tree, a genus of trees that are native to the tropical rainforests of Africa. The caffeine-containing fruit of the tree is used as an ingredient in beverages. The kola nut is a caffeine-containing nut of evergreen trees of the genus Cola, primarily of the species Cola acuminata, Cola acuminata, an evergreen tree about 20 metres in height, has long, ovoid leaves pointed at both the ends with a leathery texture. The trees have flowers with purple spots, and star-shaped fruit. Inside the fruit, about a round or square seeds develop in a white seed-shell. The nut’s aroma is sweet and rose-like, the first taste is bitter, but it sweetens upon chewing. The nut can be boiled to extract the cola and this tree reaches 25 meters in height and is propagated through seeds. C. nitida and C. acuminata can easily be interchanged with other Cola species, Kola nuts comprise about 2% caffeine, as well as containing kolanin and theobromine. All three chemicals function as stimulants, the kola nut has a bitter flavor and contains caffeine. It is chewed in many West African cultures, individually or in a group setting and it is often used ceremonially, presented to chiefs or presented to guests. Human use of the nut, like the coffee berry and tea leaf. It is chewed in many West African cultures, individually or in a social setting, Kola nuts are an important part of the traditional spiritual practice of culture and religion in West Africa, particularly Niger, Nigeria and Liberia. The 1970s hit Goro City, by Manu Dibango, highlights the significance of kola nuts to the capital of Niger, Niamey. Kola nuts are used as an object and sacred offering during prayers, ancestor veneration, and significant life events, such as naming ceremonies, weddings. They are also used in a divination system called Obi divination. For this use, only kola nuts divided into four lobes are suitable and they are cast upon a special wooden board and the resulting patterns are read by a trained diviner. This ancient practice is currently enjoying increased growth within the United States and they were used as a form of currency in some West African people groups such as the Malinke and Bambara of Mali and Senegal. In the 1800s, a pharmacist in Georgia, John Pemberton, took extracts of kola and coca and mixed them with sugar, other ingredients and his accountant tasted it and called it Coca-Cola
19.
Syrup
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Its consistency is similar to that of molasses. The viscosity arises from the hydrogen bonds between the dissolved sugar, which has many hydroxyl groups, and the water. Syrups can be made by dissolving sugar in water or by reducing naturally sweet juices such as juice, sorghum juice. Corn syrup is made from starch using an enzymatic process that converts it to sugars. Granulated sugar does not dissolve easily in cold drinks or ethyl alcohol, since the following syrups are liquids, they are easily mixed with other liquids in mixed drinks, making them superior alternatives to granulated sugar. A basic sugar-and-water syrup used by bartenders as a sweetener to make cocktails, simple syrup is made by stirring granulated sugar into hot water in a saucepan until the sugar is dissolved and then cooling the solution. Generally, the ratio of sugar to water can range anywhere from 1,1 to 2,1 by weight, for pure sucrose the saturation limit is about 5,4 by volume. Syrup can be used as a sweetener, however, since the syrup jells readily when pectin is added, its primary culinary use is as a base for fruit sauces, toppings, and preserves. Combining Demerara sugar, a type of brown sugar, with water produces Demerara syrup. Sugar substitutes such as honey or agave nectar can also be used to make simple syrups, flavoured syrups are made by infusing simple syrups with flavouring agents during the cooking process. A wide variety of flavouring agents can be used, often in combination with other, such as herbs, spices. For instance, syrupus aromaticus is prepared by adding certain quantities of orange flavouring and this type of syrup is commonly used at coffee bars, especially in the United States, to make flavoured drinks. Infused simple syrups can be used to create desserts, or, to add sweetness, gomme syrup is an ingredient commonly used in mixed drinks. It is also used as a sweetener for iced coffee in Japan. Like bar syrups, it is a 2,1 sugar and water mixture, gomme syrup is made with the highest percentage of sugar to water possible, while the gum arabic prevents the sugar from crystallizing and adds a smooth texture. Media related to Syrups at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of syrup at Wiktionary
20.
Barney Oldfield
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Berna Eli Barney Oldfield was an American pioneer automobile racer whose name was synonymous with speed in the first two decades of the 20th century. He began racing in 1902 and continued until his retirement in 1918 and he was the first man to drive a car at 60 miles per hour. Berna Eli Oldfield was born in York Township, Fulton County, Ohio, near Wauseon, on January 29,1878, to Henry Clay, a laborer and he was named after his fathers bunkmate in the 68th Ohio Volunteer Infantry during the American Civil War. As of the 1880 United States Census, the Oldfields lived in Wauseon, in 1889 they moved to Toledo, where Henry got a job at a mental asylum. In the summer of 1891, Berna worked as a waterboy in order to purchase his first bicycle, according to legend, he spent most of his Sunday afternoons at the local Toledo fire station, hoping for the next call. As its “mascot”, he was allowed to ride the big red hose wagon, Berna worked the following school year selling the Toledo Blade and Toledo Bee newspapers. He dropped out of school after the grade in 1892 and started working with his father as a kitchen helper at the mental asylum during the day. He eventually worked at the hotel full-time as he felt uneasy around mental patients, the bell captain apparently told him that “Berna” was a sissy name, so “Barney” became his official name. Barney, who had a personality, received many tips and bought his first bike. Clarence Brigham, who sold the “Cleveland” brand bike, and Edward G, eager who sold the “Columbia” models in his store, organized the Wauseon Cycle Club to increase sales and draw more people to town on the Michigan Lake Shore Railroad. Other cycling groups in Swanton, Clyde, Monroe, Adrian, Blissfield, half-mile and mile classes were raced on public tracks usually reserved for horses. Other members included Fred Ballmeyer, Ora Brailey, Curt and Buff Harrison, Doc Myers, Emil Winzeler, Doc Miley, Frank Harper, Dan Raymond, Sid Black, in October 1892, the second “Silver Tournament” was held in Wauseon. In 1893, he working as an elevator operator at a different hotel. Every night he stored one hotel tenant’s lightweight Cleveland cycle in the basement, he borrowed it. At age 16, Oldfield began bicycle racing in 1894 when he entered his first race after officials from Dauntless bicycle factory asked him to ride for the Ohio state championship. By 1896, he was paid by Stearns in Syracuse, New York, Oldfield agreed and traveled to Michigan for the trial, but neither car started. Despite the fact that Oldfield had never driven a automobile, he. One of them was the famous No.999 that debuted in October 1902 at the Manufacturers Challenge Cup, today it is displayed at the Henry Ford Museum in Greenfield Village
21.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
22.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Charles Guth
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Charles George Guth was an American businessman, who, as executive of the Loft Candy Company, purchased the trademark and the syrup recipe of the twice-bankrupt Pepsi-Cola Company. He was President of Loft Candy Company from 1930 to 1935 and he was born on June 3,1877 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to Emil Guth of Dresden, Germany. In April,1929, Charles Guth became Vice-President of the Loft Candy Company when Loft bought Mavis Candies, in 1930, he was elected president at a stockholder conference where the police had to intervene to ensure it did not become a riot. He remained president of Loft until he resigned in 1935 amidst a stockholder revolt arising from his using Lofts resources to build his other company, Charles Guth owned a family business, Grace Company, which made syrups for soft drinks in a plant in Baltimore, Maryland. Then, he interested in the Pepsi-Cola Company after Coca-Cola refused to give him concessions on the sale of the cola in his drugstore. He stopped selling Coke and started selling Pepsi, when Pepsi-Cola Company went bankrupt on June 8,1931, he bought the Pepsi-Cola Co. from Roy Megargel, for the price of $10,500. Megargel, however, kept a third of the 300,000 shares, Guth was also supposed to pay him a $25,000 annual royalty. Guth never paid the royalty and Megargel sued him for $11,000, the lawsuit was settled out of court with Guth giving Megargel $35,000 and Megargels giving Guth his 97,000 remaining shares. However, Guth did not have any success with the company, in a desperate bid, Guth approached Coca-Cola and offered to sell them the company but officials from Coca-Cola declined his offer, not even placing a bid. In 1935 he moved the company to Long Island City. After Loft chemists changed the more to his liking, Guth negotiated a contract to bottle Pepsi in a six ounce bottle. After the product failed to become a success, he introduced Pepsi in a twelve-ounce format. By 1933, Pepsi-Cola was sold in 313 stores in the United States, by 1936, his company was making two million dollars of profit and had become the second largest soda company. That year alone,500 million bottles of the cola were consumed, in 1935, Loft sued Guth for breaching his duty of loyalty to the company by failing to sell the syrup formula to Loft, and instead appropriating it for himself. Loft argued that while its president, Guth used Lofts assets, credit, Guth argued that the opportunity came to him personally and that it was out of Lofts business sector. Loft sued for the 237,500 shares that Guth owned and he remained president of Pepsi during the process. In 1939, the Delaware supreme court rendered the verdict in favor of Loft, Guth was then removed from the board and replaced with Walter Mack. He was also ordered to give Loft $475,000, however, he remained general manager while he appealed the verdict
24.
USPTO
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The USPTO is unique among federal agencies because it operates solely on fees collected by its users, and not on taxpayer dollars. The USPTO is based in Alexandria, Virginia, after a 2005 move from the Crystal City area of neighboring Arlington, the head of the USPTO is Michelle K. Lee. She took up her new role on January 13,2014, on March 13, she formally took office as Director after being nominated by President Barack Obama and confirmed by the U. S. Senate. She formerly served as the Director of the USPTOs Silicon Valley satellite office, the USPTO cooperates with the European Patent Office and the Japan Patent Office as one of the Trilateral Patent Offices. The USPTO mission is to maintain a permanent, interdisciplinary historical record of all U. S. patent applications in order to fulfill objectives outlined in the United States Constitution. The legal basis for the United States patent system is Article 1, Section 8, an additional building in Arlington, Virginia, was opened in 2009. The USPTO was expected by 2014 to open its first ever satellite offices in Detroit, Dallas, Denver, the first satellite office opened in Detroit on July 13,2012. In 2013, due to the sequestration, the satellite office for Silicon Valley. However, renovation and infrastructure updates continued after the sequestration, and the Silicon Valley location is due to open in San Jose City Hall in mid-2015. As of September 30,2009, the end of the U. S. governments fiscal year, of those,6,242 were patent examiners and 388 were trademark examining attorneys, the rest are support staff. They are generally newly graduated scientists and engineers, recruited from universities around the nation. They hold degrees in scientific disciplines, but who do not necessarily hold law degrees. Unlike patent examiners, trademark examiners must be licensed attorneys, all examiners work under a strict, count-based production system. For every application, counts are earned by composing, filing, and mailing a first office action on the merits, the Patent Operations of the office is divided into nine different technology centers that deal with various arts. Prior to 2012, decisions of patent examiners may be appealed to the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, the United States Supreme Court may ultimately decide on a patent case. Similarly, decisions of trademark examiners may be appealed to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, with subsequent appeals directed to the Federal Circuit, under the America Invents Act, the BPAI was converted to the Patent Trial and Appeal Board or PTAB. In recent years, the USPTO has seen increasing delays between when a patent application is filed and when it issues, to address its workload challenges, the USPTO has undertaken an aggressive program of hiring and recruitment. The USPTO hired 1,193 new patent examiners in Fiscal Year 2006,1,215 new examiners in fiscal 2007, in 2006, USPTO instituted a new training program for patent examiners called the Patent Training Academy
25.
Purchase, New York
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Purchase, New York is a wealthy hamlet in the town of Harrison, in Westchester County. One myth explains that its name is derived from Harrisons purchase, Purchase is home to State University of New York at Purchase and Manhattanville College. In 1967,200 residents stated support for a plan to incorporate Purchase so corporations could not build in the community. In response, officials from the Town of Harrison put forward plans to try to become a city in an attempt to stop Purchase from seceding from the Town of Harrison, there are many historic sites located in Purchase. The grave of Revolutionary War General Thomas Thomas is located on the grounds of SUNY Purchase, the grounds that SUNY Purchase now occupies was once Strathglass Farms, a dairy farm. The Quaker Friends Meeting house was founded in the 18th century, the original building fell victim to fire years ago and the present one is an accurate reconstruction. Before the headquarters of Pepsi was built, the Blind Brook Polo Club was located on that site, amelia Earhart would fly her plane from the polo grounds. Many colonial era homes and unspoiled natural woodlands have decreased in the last 30 years due to residential development. The Old Oaks Country Club, originally named Hill Crest, is a mansion house built in the late 1880s by millionaire Trenor Luther Park. Trenor Luther was a Harvard Graduate, who studied law, and his father, Trenor William Park, funded the Panama Railway, ran for Vice President of the United States in 1864 and was involved with the California Gold Mines. Purchase is also known for being one of the richest areas in the country, the Reid Hall, Manhattanville College was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. MasterCards headquarters, MasterCard International Global Headquarters, PepsiCo, Atlas Air and its subsidiary Polar Air Cargo, pernod Ricard has offices in Purchase. Previously Lenovo had its U. S. headquarters in Purchase, in 2006 the company announced it was moving to Morrisville, North Carolina. The average household income in Purchase, NY is estimated to be approximately $352,000, Purchase School is the local K–5 elementary school, which is part of the Harrison Central School District. Harrison High School is the high school, which offers the IB Diploma Programme. Harrison High School also serves the area of the Town of Harrison, including the Village of Harrison. In 2010, Superintendent of the Harrison Central School District, Louis N. Wool was named Superintendent of the Year in New York State, Keio Academy of New York, a Japanese international boarding school, is in Purchase. Purchase is home to the State University of New York at Purchase and Manhattanville College, as well as the Westchester Campus of Fordham University, Keio University also operates a high school named Keio Academy of New York
26.
Infinite-loop motif
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Recursion occurs when a thing is defined in terms of itself or of its type. Recursion is used in a variety of disciplines ranging from linguistics to logic, the most common application of recursion is in mathematics and computer science, where a function being defined is applied within its own definition. While this apparently defines a number of instances, it is often done in such a way that no loop or infinite chain of references can occur. The ancestors of ones ancestors are also ones ancestors, the Fibonacci sequence is a classic example of recursion, Fib =0 as base case 1, Fib =1 as base case 2, For all integers n >1, Fib, = Fib + Fib. Many mathematical axioms are based upon recursive rules, for example, the formal definition of the natural numbers by the Peano axioms can be described as,0 is a natural number, and each natural number has a successor, which is also a natural number. By this base case and recursive rule, one can generate the set of all natural numbers, recursively defined mathematical objects include functions, sets, and especially fractals. There are various more tongue-in-cheek definitions of recursion, see recursive humor, Recursion is the process a procedure goes through when one of the steps of the procedure involves invoking the procedure itself. A procedure that goes through recursion is said to be recursive, to understand recursion, one must recognize the distinction between a procedure and the running of a procedure. A procedure is a set of steps based on a set of rules, the running of a procedure involves actually following the rules and performing the steps. An analogy, a procedure is like a recipe, running a procedure is like actually preparing the meal. Recursion is related to, but not the same as, a reference within the specification of a procedure to the execution of some other procedure. For instance, a recipe might refer to cooking vegetables, which is another procedure that in turn requires heating water, for this reason recursive definitions are very rare in everyday situations. An example could be the procedure to find a way through a maze. Proceed forward until reaching either an exit or a branching point, If the point reached is an exit, terminate. Otherwise try each branch in turn, using the procedure recursively, if every trial fails by reaching only dead ends, return on the path led to this branching point. Whether this actually defines a terminating procedure depends on the nature of the maze, in any case, executing the procedure requires carefully recording all currently explored branching points, and which of their branches have already been exhaustively tried. This can be understood in terms of a definition of a syntactic category. A sentence can have a structure in which what follows the verb is another sentence, Dorothy thinks witches are dangerous, so a sentence can be defined recursively as something with a structure that includes a noun phrase, a verb, and optionally another sentence
27.
Guth v. Loft
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Guth v Loft Inc,5 A2d 503 is a Delaware corporation law case, important for United States corporate law, on corporate opportunities and the duty of loyalty. Mr. Guth was the president of Loft, Inc. which manufactured a cola drink, lofts soda fountains purchased cola syrup from Coca-Cola Ltd. but then Mr. Guth decided it would be cheaper to buy from Pepsi after Coke declined to give him a larger jobber discount. Pepsi went bankrupt before Mr. Guth could inquire about obtaining syrup from Pepsi, Mr. Guth bought the company and its syrup recipe and then purported to sell the syrup on to Loft. He was alleged to have breached his duty of loyalty to the company by failing to offer that opportunity to Loft. Daniel J. Layton, the concurrent chief justice, gave the judgment for the Delaware Supreme Court. He started off by paying service to the general principle against conflicts of interest, Layton felt that there was no real standard for loyalty and it depends on the facts of the case. The court may enquire and will decide upon the fairness of any transaction and this has been followed in the Delaware General Corporation Law §144. Clark, “A New Look at Corporate Opportunities”94 Harvard Law Review 997
28.
Delaware Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of Delaware is the sole appellate court in the United States state of Delaware. The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over appeals from the Superior Court, Family Court. Because it is the appellate court in the state, its jurisdiction over appeals from final orders is mandatory. However, it has jurisdiction over appeals from interlocutory orders. The Court has original jurisdiction over writs of mandamus, prohibition, motions are normally handled in chambers by a motions justice. While the Courts appellate jurisdiction is mandatory, it is not required to hear oral argument, approximately 60-75% of its decisions are rendered on briefs. If a case involves a question of law or the justices desire clarification. Each attorney in oral argument is given 20 minutes to present its side, except for capital cases, most cases are heard by a panel of three justices. In certain cases set forth in Rule 1 of the Courts Rules, in cases being heard by a three justice panel, the lawyers presenting argument do not know the identity of the justices hearing the argument until the justices enter the courtroom. Arguments are normally held each Wednesday beginning at 10,00 a. m. in Dover, occasionally, the Court will hear arguments in special locations, such as the Widener University School of Law. The Court has a courtroom in Wilmington, but it is rarely used, the Court in its current form was established by means of a constitutional amendment in 1951. In 1978, the Courts size was expanded from three to five, prior to 1897, Delawares highest court was the Court of Errors & Appeals, which operated under a similar leftover-judge system. Cheff v. Mathes, The first time the Delaware Supreme Court addressed problems of board of director conflict of interest in a takeover setting, unocal v. Revlon v. McAndrews & Forbes Holdings, Inc. If a company is up for sale, the board of directors has a duty to maximize the value of sale for the shareholders benefit. Mills Acquisition Co. v. Macmillan, Inc, a board of directors may refuse a takeover attempt without submitting the matter to a vote of shareholders. Paramount v. John Doe No.1 v and this decision has the practical effect of prohibiting SLAPP suits or similar litigation designed to quell dissent or unpopular comment. Cahill was the first suit of its kind in the nation, amicus briefs were filed on behalf of the anonymous blogger by the American Civil Liberties Union. Unitrin, Inc. v. American General Corp
29.
Ron Brown (U.S. politician)
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Ronald Harmon Ron Brown was the United States Secretary of Commerce, serving during the first term of President Bill Clinton. He was the first African American to hold this position and he was killed, along with 34 others, in a 1996 plane crash in Croatia. Ron Brown was born in Washington, D. C. and was raised in Harlem, New York and he was a member of an African-American social and philanthropic organization, Jack and Jill of America, where he met many African-American friends. Brown attended Hunter College Elementary School and Rhodes Preparatory School and his father managed the Theresa Hotel in Harlem, where Ron lived growing up. His best friend John R. Nailor moved into the penthouse while a student at Rhodes, Nailor was one of the other few black students who attended Rhodes Prep. As a child, Brown appeared in an advertisement for Pepsi-Cola, while at Middlebury College, Ron Brown became the first African-American member of Sigma Phi Epsilon, collegiate fraternity. As a result, the charter of SPE at Middlebury was rescinded. Brown joined the United States Army in 1962, after graduating from Middlebury, and served in South Korea and Europe, after being discharged in 1967, Brown joined the National Urban League, a leading economic equality group in the United States. Meanwhile, Brown enrolled in law school at St. Johns University, by 1976, Brown had been promoted to Deputy Executive Director for Programs and Governmental Affairs of the National Urban League. However, he resigned in 1979 to work as a deputy manager for Senator Edward M. Kennedy. Brown was hired in 1981 by the Washington, D. C. law firm Patton Boggs as a lawyer, in May 1988, Brown was named by Jesse L. Jackson to head Jacksons convention team at the Democratic National Convention in Atlanta. Brown was named along with other experienced party insiders to Jacksons convention operation. By June, it was apparent that Brown was also running Jacksons campaign, President Clinton then appointed Brown to the position of Secretary of Commerce in 1993. During his tenure Brown was involved in the Commerce Department trade mission controversy. On April 3,1996, when Brown was 54 and on a trade mission. While attempting an instrument approach to Dubrovniks Čilipi airport, the airplane crashed into a mountainside, everyone aboard was killed instantly except Air Force Tech. Shelly Kelly, an attendant, who died while being transported to a hospital. The final Air Force investigation attributed the crash to pilot error, of specific concern was a trip Brown had made to Vietnam on behalf of the Clinton Administration
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African American
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
31.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Edward F. Boyd
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Boyd, an African American himself, was born and grew up in Riverside, California. After high school, he trained at an opera company. After graduating from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1938, he enjoyed a film career, playing minor roles. During his time in Hollywood, he escorted Hattie McDaniel to the 1939 Academy Awards ceremony when she became the first African American performer to win the prestigious award. When Boyd joined Pepsi in 1947, most U. S. businesses either ignored the African American market or depicted them using ethnic stereotypes such as the Mammy archetype. But Walter S. Mack, president of Pepsi at the time, in fact, he had previously established an all-black sales team in 1940, but had to drop it due to the onset of World War II. Boyds idea, revolutionary at the time, was to create advertisements that showed black Americans as normal, one such ad featured a smiling mother holding a six pack of Pepsi while her son reaches up for one. Another ad campaign, titled Leaders in Their Fields, profiled twenty prominent African Americans such as Nobel Peace Prize winner Ralph Bunche, Boyd also led a sales team composed entirely of African Americans around the country to promote Pepsi. Racial segregation and Jim Crow laws were still in place much of the U. S. Not only did they have to ride on segregated trains and stay in black-only hotels, as a result, Pepsis market share shot up dramatically. After the sales team visited Chicago, Pepsis share in the city overtook that of Coke for the first time and this focus on the African American market caused some consternation within the company and among its affiliates. They did not want to seem focused on black customers for fear that whites would be pushed away, Boyd understood that those were not Macks sentiments. I didnt forget it, but I didnt hold it against him either, after Mack left the company in 1950, support for the black sales team faded and Boyd was let go. By doing the work and competing for the same jobs as white people. There were few opportunities for a man as a business executive at that time. He was a chief for CARE, worked with the Society of Ethical Culture. Howard, a surgeon, entrepreneur, and civil leader in Mississippi who was a mentor to Medgar Evers. Boyd died in Los Angeles due to complications including a stroke he had suffered nearly two months earlier
33.
Six pack rings
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Six pack rings or six pack yokes are a set of connected plastic rings that are used in multi-packs of beverage, particularly six packs of beverage cans. The six pack rings in most common use today are the descendants of a design by ITW Hi-Cone. Within 10 years, plastic rings had completely replaced the paper, today several other manufacturers continue to produce six pack rings. Since the late 1970s, six pack rings were cited as a dangerous form of marine litter as marine wildlife were found entangled in the rings. This is in accordance with the U. S. Federal regulation for testing plastic photo-degradation, six-pack rings are now a relatively minor contributor to marine litter and wildlife fatalities. Fishing gear and other plastic wastes are a larger problem
34.
Ad campaign
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An advertising campaign is a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme which make up an integrated marketing communication. Advertising campaigns utilize diverse media channels over a time frame and are often mandated to be rationally defined. Advertising campaigns are built to accomplish an objective or a set of objectives. Such objectives usually include establishing a brand, raising brand awareness, the rate of success or failure in accomplishing these goals is reckoned via effectiveness measures. There are 5 key points at which an advertising campaign must consider to ensure an effective campaign and these points are, integrated marketing communications, media channels, positioning, the communications process diagram and touch points. Integrated marketing communication is an approach used by majority of organisations to develop a strategic plan on how they are going to broadcast their marketing and advertising campaigns. Nowadays there has been a shift in the way marketers and advertisers interact with their consumers, IMC has emerged as a key strategy for organisations to manage customer experiences in the digital age. The more traditional advertising practices such as newspapers, billboards and magazines are still used, advantages of using IMC are that it has the ability to communicate the same message down several channels to create brand awareness. IMC is the most cost effective solution when compared to media advertising to interact with target consumers on a personal level. In store sales promotions are tactics such as ‘30% off’ sales or offering loyalty cards to consumers to build a relationship, Television and radio advertisement are also a form of advertising strategy derived from IMC. Traditional methods of communication with the consumer include newspapers, magazines, Radio, television, billboards, telephone, post, some of these traditional methods are still very effective for some industries and not so for others. With advancements in digital channels, marketing communications allow for the possibility of two-way communications where an immediate consumer response can be elicited. Digital communications tools include, websites, blogs, social media, email, mobile and it is important for an advertising campaign to carefully select channels based on where their target consumer spends time to ensure market and advertising efforts are maximised. In the rapidly changing marketing and advertising environment, exposure to certain consumer groups and these traditional media channels are defined as print, broadcast, out-of-home and direct mail. The introduction of various new media channels has altered their traditional advantages and disadvantages. Print media is mainly defined as newspapers and magazines, with the transition in last decade to digital information on phones, computers and tablets, the demographic that still are exposed to traditional print media is going to be older. It is also estimated that there will be a reduction of print material in coming years and this has to be taken into account by the advertisers and in some cases they could use this to their advantage. Newspapers advantages would be that it is low cost, timely, disadvantages would obviously be the aging demographic, short life, clutter and low attention-getting capabilities
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Nobel Peace Prize
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Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
36.
Ralph Bunche
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Ralph Johnson Bunche was an American political scientist, academic, and diplomat who received the 1950 Nobel Peace Prize for his late 1940s mediation in Israel. He was the first African American to be so honored in the history of the prize and he was involved in the formation and administration of the United Nations. In 1963, he was awarded the Medal of Freedom by President John F. Kennedy, for more than two decades, Bunche served as chair of the Department of Political Science at Howard University, where he also taught generations of students. Bunche was born in Detroit, Michigan in 1903 or 1904 and his father Fred Bunche was a barber and his mother, Olive Agnes, was an amateur musician, from a large and talented family. Her siblings included Charlie and Ethel Johnson and his maternal grandfather, Thomas Nelson Johnson, was mixed-race African American, the son of Eleanor Madden and her husband. Eleanor was the daughter of an African-American slave mother and Irish planter father. Thomas Nelson Johnson graduated from Shurtleff College in Alton, Illinois in 1875, in September 1875 he married Lucy Taylor, one of his students. Genealogist Paul Heinegg thinks that Fred Bunche were probably descended from the South Carolina branch of the family and he said that the censuses of 1900 and 1910 for Detroit list several members of the Bunch family who were born in South Carolina, but Fred Bunch was not among them. He believes that Bunche was descended from Bunch ancestors established as people of color in Virginia before the American Revolution. There were men of the Bunch surname in South Carolina by the end of the 18th century, the Bunch/Bunche surname was extremely rare. Several generations of the Bunch men, free men of color, married white women colonists from the British Isles, when Ralph was a child, his family moved to Toledo, Ohio, where his father looked for work. They returned to Detroit in 1909 after his sister Grace was born, with the help of their maternal aunt and their father did not live with the family again after Ohio and had not been a good provider. But he followed them when they moved to New Mexico, because of the declining health of his mother and uncle, Ralph moved with his maternal grandmother, Lucy Taylor Johnson, to Albuquerque, New Mexico in 1915. His mother died in 1917, his uncle committed suicide three months later, in 1918, Lucy Taylor Johnson moved with the two Bunche grandchildren to the South Central neighborhood of Los Angeles, which was then mostly white. Fred Bunche later remarried, and Ralph never saw him again, Bunche was a brilliant student, a debater, and the valedictorian of his graduating class at Jefferson High School. He attended the University of California, Los Angeles, and graduated cum laude. Using the money his community raised for his studies and a scholarship at Harvard University. To help with living expenses at Harvard, Bunche sought a job at a local bookstore, the owner offered him a part-time job, and Bunche ran the store to his employers satisfaction
37.
Gordon Parks
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Gordon Roger Alexander Buchanan Parks was an American photojournalist in the 1940s through 1970s—particularly in issues of civil rights, poverty and African-Americans—and in glamour photography. He is best remembered for his photos of poor Americans during the 1940s, for his photographic essays for Life magazine. Parks also was an author, poet and composer, Parks was born in Fort Scott, Kansas, the son of Sarah and Jackson Parks, on Nov.30,1912. He was the youngest of fifteen children and his father was a farmer who grew corn, beets, turnips, potatoes, collard greens, and tomatoes. They also had a few ducks, chickens, and hogs and he attended a segregated elementary school. Parks related in a documentary on his life that his teacher told him that his desire to go to college would be a waste of money, when Parks was eleven years old, three white boys threw him into the Marmaton River, knowing he couldnt swim. He had the presence of mind to duck underwater so they wouldnt see him make it to land and his mother died when he was fourteen. He spent his last night at the family home sleeping beside his mothers coffin, seeking not only solace, soon after, he was sent to St. Paul, Minnesota, to live with a sister and her husband. He and his uncle argued frequently and Parks was finally turned out onto the street to fend for himself at age 15, struggling to survive, he worked in brothels, and as a singer, piano player, bus boy, traveling waiter, and semi-pro basketball player. In 1929, he worked in a gentlemens club, the Minnesota Club. There he not only observed the trappings of success, but was able to read books from the club library. When the Wall Street Crash of 1929 brought an end to the club, he jumped a train to Chicago, while working as a waiter in a railroad dining car, he began seeing the portfolios of photographers in picture magazines, and decided to become a photographer. At the age of 25, Parks was struck by photographs of migrant workers in a magazine and he bought his first camera, a Voigtländer Brillant, for $7.50 at a Seattle, Washington, pawnshop and taught himself how to take photos. The photography clerks who developed Parks first roll of film applauded his work and prompted him to seek a fashion assignment at a clothing store in St. Paul, Minnesota. Those photographs caught the eye of Marva Louis, wife of boxing champion Joe Louis. She encouraged Parks to move to Chicago in 1940, where he began a portrait business and he began to chronicle the citys South Side black ghetto and, in 1941, an exhibition of those photographs won Parks a photography fellowship with the Farm Security Administration. Upon viewing the photograph, Stryker said that it was an indictment of America, and he urged Parks to keep working with Watson, however, which led to a series of photographs of her daily life. After the FSA disbanded, Parks remained in Washington, D. C. as a correspondent with the Office of War Information and he was unable to follow the group in the overseas war theatre, so he resigned from the O. W. I
38.
Racial segregation
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Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life. As a result, the act of separating oneself from other people on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not constitute segregation. Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental, in the United States, segregation was mandated by law in some states and came with anti-miscegenation laws. Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. Wherever there have been multiracial communities, there has been racial segregation, only areas with extensive miscegenation, or mixing, such as Hawaii and Brazil, despite some social stratification, seem to be exempt. Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has described as quasi-apartheid. Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates and this internal system of apartheid met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection and ensuing independence war. In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i. e. Slavic, according to Wilhelm Raabe, down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend. The ban on marriage was a part of the Nuremberg Laws. At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were extended to Gypsies, Negroes. Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty. To preserve the purity of the German blood, after the war began. In an effort to split Polish identity they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of Kashubians and Gorals, based on these groups alleged Germanic component. During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients nor were Jewish professors permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition, Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, after Kristallnacht, the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members. Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as undesirable racial groups in the Holocaust, the Nazis established ghettos to confine Jews and sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe, turning them into de facto concentration camps. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people, the Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000. Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens were transported to the Reich for forced labour, although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles, along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior, were subject to deeper discriminatory measures
