1.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
2.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
3.
Flagstaff, Arizona
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Flagstaff is a city in northern Arizona, in the southwestern United States. In 2015, the estimated population was 70,320. Flagstaffs combined metropolitan area has an population of 139,097. It is the county seat of Coconino County, the city is named after a ponderosa pine flagpole made by a scouting party from Boston to celebrate the United States Centennial on July 4,1876. Flagstaff lies near the edge of the Colorado Plateau, along the western side of the largest contiguous Ponderosa Pine forest in the continental United States. Flagstaff is located adjacent to Mount Elden, just south of the San Francisco Peaks, humphreys Peak, the highest point in Arizona at 12,633 feet, is located about 10 miles north of Flagstaff in Kachina Peaks Wilderness. Flagstaffs early economy was based on the lumber, railroad, Flagstaff has a strong tourism sector, due to its proximity to Grand Canyon National Park, Oak Creek Canyon, the Arizona Snowbowl, Meteor Crater, and historic Route 66. The city is also a center for medical device manufacturing, since Flagstaff is home to W. L. Gore, there exist several stories and legends regarding the origin of the citys name. It is said that, because of the flag that was raised, the first permanent settlement was in 1876, when Thomas F. McMillan built a cabin at the base of Mars Hill on the west side of town. During the 1880s, Flagstaff began to grow, opening its first post office, the early economy was based on timber, sheep, and cattle. By 1886, Flagstaff was the largest city on the line between Albuquerque and the west coast of the United States. A circa 1900 diary entry by journalist Sharlot Hall described the houses in the city at the time as a third rate mining camp, with unkempt air, in 1894, Massachusetts astronomer Percival Lowell hired A. E. Douglass to scout an ideal site for a new observatory. Douglass, impressed by Flagstaffs elevation, named it as a location for the now famous Lowell Observatory, saying, other things being equal. Two years later, the specially designed 24-inch Clark telescope that Lowell had ordered was installed, in 1930, Pluto was discovered using one of the observatorys telescopes. During the Apollo program in the 1960s, the Clark Telescope was used to map the moon for the lunar expeditions, in homage to the citys importance in the field of astronomy, asteroid 2118 Flagstaff is named for the city, and 6582 Flagsymphony for the Flagstaff Symphony Orchestra. The Northern Arizona Normal School was established in 1899, renamed Northern Arizona University in 1966, Flagstaffs cultural history received a significant boost on April 11,1899, when the Flagstaff Symphony made its concert debut at Babbitts Opera House. The orchestra continues today as the Flagstaff Symphony Orchestra, with its venue at the Ardrey Auditorium on the campus of Northern Arizona University. The city grew rapidly, primarily attributable to its location along the east–west transcontinental railroad line in the United States, in the 1880s, the railroads purchased land in the west from the federal government, which was then sold to individuals to help finance the railroad projects
4.
Noble and Greenough School
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The Noble and Greenough School, commonly known as Nobles, is a coeducational, nonsectarian day and five-day boarding school for students in grades seven through twelve. It is located near Boston on a 187-acre campus that borders the Charles River in Dedham, the current enrollment of 603 students includes a balance of boys and girls. The boarding program hosts 45 students who live on five days a week. The majority of students are from Massachusetts, neighboring states and occasionally from abroad, after graduation, all members of the senior class go on to accredited four-year colleges and universities. In 2010, Nobles was ranked as the 18th best prep school in the United States by Forbes, Nobles has 95 faculty members, with a student to faculty ratio of approximately 6,1. The average class size is 12.5, tuition for the 2013-2014 academic year is $42,600 for day students and $48,400 for 5-day boarding students. Nobles historic athletic rival is Milton Academy, Nobles was founded in 1866 by George Washington Copp Noble, in Boston, Massachusetts, as an all-boys preparatory school for Harvard University. It became known as Noble & Greenough in 1892, during World War I, the school merged with Boston-based Volkman School, which had faced a drastically declining student population due to the headmasters German origins. There is a monument to the Volkman School on the Nobles campus, in 1922, the school moved from Boston to its current location in Dedham. The property had been a familys estate, the grounds were designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. The school discontined the lower school at this time, though the school still operates today as the Dexter School. Noble and Greenough School includes grades 7-12, Students in grade 12 are known as members of Class I, this continues on down to seventh grade students who are known as members of Class VI, or more informally as the sixies. The eighth grade students, members of class V, are informally known as fifthies. The Upper School, grades 9-12, is in the main building, the school covers 187 acres in Dedham, Massachusetts. The grounds include nine athletic fields, two gyms, and a length of the Charles River, upon which the schools crew team practices. Nobles alumni have been featured in recent news coverage. Sarah Parsons 05 scored 4 goals in the 2006 Winter Olympic Games for the USAs Olympic womens hockey team, helen Resor 04 was also on this team. Ayla Brown 06 was on the American television show American Idol as one of the final 13 contestants, andrea Ross 09 sang in the Concert for Diana and is currently on tour performing in a musical produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber
5.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
6.
Martian canal
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For a time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was erroneously believed that there were canals on Mars. These were a network of straight lines in the equatorial regions from 60° N. to 60° S. Lat. on the planet Mars observed by astronomers using early low-resolution telescopes without photography. They were first described by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli during the opposition of 1877, Schiaparelli called these canali, which was translated into English as canals. The Irish astronomer Charles E. Burton made some of the earliest drawings of features on Mars. Some observers drew maps in which if not hundreds of canals were shown with an elaborate nomenclature for all of them. Some observers saw a phenomenon they called gemination, or doubling - two parallel canals, other observers disputed the notion of canals. The observer E. E. Barnard did not see them, in 1903, Joseph Edward Evans and Edward Maunder conducted visual experiments using schoolboy volunteers that demonstrated how the canals could arise as an optical illusion. This is because when a poor-quality telescope views many point-like features they appear to join up to form lines, in 1907 the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace published the book Is Mars Habitable. that severely criticized Lowells claims. He concluded that life was impossible, let alone the planet-girding irrigation system claimed by Lowell. Around this time spectroscopic analysis also began to show that no water was present in the Martian atmosphere, however, as of 1916 Waldemar Kaempffert was still vigorously defending the Martian canals theory against skeptics. A surface atmospheric pressure of 4.1 to 7.0 millibars, no magnetic field or Martian radiation belts were detected. William Kenneth Hartmann, a Mars imaging scientist from the 1960s to the 2000s, explains the canals as streaks of dust caused by wind on the side of mountains. The Italian word canale can mean canals or channels or gullies and it is not necessarily odd that the idea of Martian canals was so readily accepted by many. At this time in the late 19th century, astronomical observations were made without photography, astronomers had to stare for hours through their telescopes, waiting for a moment of still air when the image was clear, and then draw a picture of what they had seen. They saw some lighter or darker features and believed that they were seeing oceans. They also believed that Mars had a substantial atmosphere. They could also see Mars polar ice caps shrinking and growing with these changing seasons and it was only when they interpreted changes in surface features as being due to the seasonal growth of plants that life was hypothesized by them. By the late 1920s, however, it was known that Mars was very dry and had a very low atmospheric pressure, in addition, the late 19th century was a time of great canal building on Earth
7.
Asteroid
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Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The larger ones have also been called planetoids and these terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, in this article, the term asteroid refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with Jupiter. There are millions of asteroids, many thought to be the remnants of planetesimals. The large majority of known asteroids orbit in the belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with Jupiter. However, other orbital families exist with significant populations, including the near-Earth objects, individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic spectra, with the majority falling into three main groups, C-type, M-type, and S-type. These were named after and are identified with carbon-rich, metallic. The size of asteroids varies greatly, some reaching as much as 1000 km across, asteroids are differentiated from comets and meteoroids. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition, while asteroids are composed of mineral and rock, comets are composed of dust. In addition, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of the aforementioned cometary ice, the difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size, meteoroids have a diameter of less than one meter, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials, only one asteroid,4 Vesta, which has a relatively reflective surface, is normally visible to the naked eye, and this only in very dark skies when it is favorably positioned. Rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be visible to the eye for a short time. As of March 2016, the Minor Planet Center had data on more than 1.3 million objects in the inner and outer Solar System, the United Nations declared June 30 as International Asteroid Day to educate the public about asteroids. The date of International Asteroid Day commemorates the anniversary of the Tunguska asteroid impact over Siberia, the first asteroid to be discovered, Ceres, was found in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, and was originally considered to be a new planet. In the early half of the nineteenth century, the terms asteroid. Asteroid discovery methods have improved over the past two centuries. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, the expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernible by observers
8.
Astronomy
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Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets, while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, more generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earths atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole, Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, during the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can play an active role, especially in the discovery. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, Astronomy means law of the stars. Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. Generally, either the term astronomy or astrophysics may be used to refer to this subject, however, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Few fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics, some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field includeThe Astronomical Journal, The Astrophysical Journal and Astronomy and Astrophysics. In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye, in some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical purpose. Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye, most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon, the Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a cycle known as a saros
9.
Astronomer
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An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside of the scope of Earth. They look at stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, as well as other celestial objects — either in observational astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers work on include, planetary science, solar astronomy, there are also related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fit into two types, Observational astronomers make direct observations of planets, stars and galaxies, and analyze the data, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial bodies work, there are further subcategories inside these two main branches of astronomy such as planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy or physical cosmology. Today, that distinction has disappeared and the terms astronomer. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a Ph. D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments. The number of astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other such as physics, geology. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in research at the Ph. D. level. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year, analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes, most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a background in maths, sciences. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable, in college/university most astronomers get a Ph. D. in astronomy or physics. Keeping in mind how few there are it is understood that graduate schools in this field are very competitive
10.
Mars
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Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, after Mercury. Named after the Roman god of war, it is referred to as the Red Planet because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. Mars is a planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet, Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Mars trojan, there are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers, liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is about 6⁄1000 that of the Earths, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be largely of water. The volume of ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted. On November 22,2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior, Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye, as can its reddish coloring. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.91, which is surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometers across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earths atmosphere. Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth with an area only slightly less than the total area of Earths dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earths volume and 11% of Earths mass, the red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron oxide, or rust. It can look like butterscotch, other common colors include golden, brown, tan. Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a metallic core overlaid by less dense materials. Current models of its interior imply a core with a radius of about 1,794 ±65 kilometers, consisting primarily of iron and this iron sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements than Earths. The core is surrounded by a mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet
11.
Lowell Observatory
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Lowell Observatory is an astronomical observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, United States. Lowell Observatory was established in 1894, placing it among the oldest observatories in the United States, in 2011, the Observatory was named one of The Worlds 100 Most Important Places by TIME. It was at the Lowell Observatory that the dwarf planet Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh, the Observatorys original 61-centimeter Alvan Clark & Sons Telescope is still in use today for public education. It was founded by astronomer Percival Lowell of Bostons well-known Lowell family and is overseen by a sole trustee, the first trustee was Lowells third cousin Guy Lowell. Percivals nephew Roger Putnam served from 1927–1967, followed by Rogers son Michael, Michaels brother William Lowell Putnam III, the observatory operates several telescopes at three locations in the Flagstaff area. The telescope, built in 1896 for $20,000, was assembled in Boston by Alvan Clark & Sons, also located on the Mars Hill campus is the 33-centimeter Pluto Discovery Telescope, used by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 to discover the dwarf planet Pluto. Lowell is a partner with the United States Naval Observatory and Naval Research Laboratory in the Navy Precision Optical Interferometer also located at that site, the Observatory also operates smaller research telescopes at its historic site on Mars Hill and in Australia and Chile. Past Anderson Mesa, on the peak of Happy Jack, Lowell Observatory has also built and is commissioning the 4. 28-meter Discovery Channel Telescope in partnership with Discovery Communications, Inc. Aside from the array of research and discoveries listed below. When Harold L. Johnson took over as the director in 1952, in 1953, the current 53 cm telescope was erected. Beginning in 1954, this telescope began monitoring the brightness of two planets, and comparing these measurements with a reference set of sunlike stars. Lowell Observatory is building a major new reflecting telescope in partnership with Discovery Communications, located near Happy Jack, the primary mirror of the Discovery Channel Telescope will be 4.28 m in diameter. It will be notable for its uncommon meniscus design for such a large mirror. This mirror was ground and polished into its parabolic shape at the Optical Fabrication, Lowell Observatorys astronomers conduct research on a wide range of solar system and astrophysical topics using ground-based, airborne, and space-based telescopes. In addition, the Observatory staff designs and builds custom instrumentation for use on Lowells telescopes, for example, Lowell staff built a sophisticated high-speed camera for use on the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy. SOFIA is a joint project of the United States and German space agencies, Lowell, Percival, Pickering, W. H. and the founding of the Lowell Observatory. National Historic Landmarks Program, Lowell Observatory+ Historic American Buildings Survey No, aZ-206, Lowell Observatory,1400 West Mars Hill Road, Flagstaff, Coconino County, AZ HABS No. AZ-206-A, Lowell Observatory, Slipher Building HABS No, aZ-206-B, Lowell Observatory, Clark Dome HABS No
12.
Pluto
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Pluto is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond Neptune. It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered, Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 and was originally considered to be the ninth planet from the Sun. After 1992, its planethood was questioned following the discovery of objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt. In 2005, Eris, which is 27% more massive than Pluto, was discovered and this led the International Astronomical Union to define the term planet formally in 2006, during their 26th General Assembly. That definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it as a dwarf planet, Pluto is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris, like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small—about one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. It has an eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU from the Sun. This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune, light from the Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance. Pluto has five moons, Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body. The IAU has not formalized a definition for binary dwarf planets, on July 14,2015, the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto. During its brief flyby, New Horizons made detailed measurements and observations of Pluto, on October 25,2016, at 05,48 pm ET, the last bit of data was received from New Horizons from its close encounter with Pluto on July 14,2015. In the 1840s, Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then-undiscovered planet Neptune after analysing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that Uranuss orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune, by 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet. Lowell and his observatory conducted his search until his death in 1916, unknown to Lowell, his surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on March 19 and April 7,1915, but they were not recognized for what they were. There are fourteen other known prediscovery observations, with the oldest made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20,1909. Percivals widow, Constance Lowell, entered into a legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her late husbands legacy. Tombaughs task was to image the night sky in pairs of photographs, then examine each pair
13.
Augustus Lowell
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Augustus Lowell was a businessman and philanthropist from Massachusetts. He was born in Boston to John Amory Lowell and his second wife Elizabeth Cabot Putnam and his great-grandfather, John Lowell, was among the first Judges for the newly created federal courts, appointed by Presidents George Washington and John Adams. Augustus elder brother, Judge John Lowell, would be appointed to hold the seats held by their great-grandfather, by Presidents Abraham Lincoln. Lowell was amongst the generation in his family to graduate from Harvard College. On June 1,1854 he married Katherine Bigelow Lawrence, the daughter of Hon. Abbott Lawrence, Augustus and Katherine Lowell had seven children and thus named their 10-acre, Brookline, Massachusetts estate, Sevenels. The Lowells lost two of their children during infancy but their children went on to great public prominence. Eldest son Percival Lowell wrote several books on the Far East and on the planet Mars and their second son, Abbott Lawrence Lowell, succeeded Augustus as Trustee at the Lowell Institute in 1900, and became President of Harvard College in 1909, serving in that capacity until 1933. One of their daughters, Katharine Lowell, married James Alfred Roosevelt, of the Long Island clan, and T. James Bowlker, and their youngest daughter, Amy Lowell,20 years younger than her brothers, would become the second celebrated poet in the Lowell family. Augustus was Treasurer of the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, a mill in Lowell, Massachusetts. In 1875, he became Treasurer of The Boott Cotton Mill, and in 1883, he was Director of The Winnipiseogee Lake Cotton and Woolen Manufacturing Company. All were positions his father, John Amory, had held within the same companies. He was also, as of 1878, a director of the Pacific Mills in Lawrence, Massachusetts, Lowell was also a member of the Corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Vice President of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1881, Augustus was appointed as the sole Trustee of the Lowell Institute, upon his fathers death, Lowell family First Families of Boston Lowell Institute Lowell, Massachusetts Works by or about Augustus Lowell at Internet Archive
14.
Lowell family
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The Lowell family is one of the Boston Brahmin families of New England, known for both intellectual and commercial achievements. They originally settled on the North Shore at Cape Ann after they arrived in Boston on June 23,1639, the patriarch, Percival Lowle, described as a solid citizen of Bristol, determined at the age of 68 that the future was in the New World. By the 19th and 20th centuries, the Lowells descended from John Lowell were widely considered to be one of Americas most accomplished families, many suggestions about the origins of the medieval name Lowle were offered during the late 20th century. Some argued that it was Welsh or Saxon while others supported the name was of Norman origin, one possibility is that it originates from the Latin word lupellus from Latin lupus. It is during this period, in 1288, that the earliest documentation for the name Lowle appears, william Lowle of Yardley in Worcestershire is documented as a yeoman, and standing as a witness to a border dispute between two of his neighbours. It is from this period that Delmar Lowell traces the descent of the Lowles through England until their departure for the colonies, documentation for this period also exists in The National Archives of England showing that there were also Lowels in the Welsh Marches. A peninsula, part of Glamorgan in Wales, members named in this band of men included Ieuan and Griffith Lowel for the attack at Eynon. Blazon, Sable, a hand couped at the wrist grasping three darts, one in pale and two in saltire, all in argent. Crest, A Stags head cabossed, between the attires a pheon azure, a loose translation of the family motto is Know Your Opportunity. It is mentionable that some believe that the Lowle Coat of Arms fell into abeyance when Percival Lowle and they were still subjects of the Crown and its favor until the colonies declared Independence from Britain in 1776 and were entitled to bear their Coat of Arms. Also, there were a number of Lowles who remained in England who could claim the right, after Percival Lowle emigrated to the New World with his sons and after some subsequent generations Lowle became Lowell. Delmar Lowell suggests that Rev. John Lowell was the catalyst in getting the Lowell family into cohesion regarding the spelling of the surname sometime after 1721, at the time, Lowells all over New England spelled their names as many different ways as there were branches. Some spelled their surname Lowel, Lowle, Lowell, Lowl, and some spelled it Louell, spelling was so poorly controlled that some early wills show one son with the name Lowle while another son is Lowel and the wife as Lowell all in the same document. Its unlikely that one member of the family had such a big impact on the name and he may well have influenced many Lowells in America to be consistent, but documentation shows that Lowles in England started spelling their name Lowell around this time as well. By the mid 18th century in England there are plenty of documents for Lowells and this suggests that the proliferation of literacy and a trend to standardize the English language caused members of the family on both sides of the Atlantic to adopt the phonetic spelling. The Lowell family of Boston was traditionally known as the descendants of John Lowell of Newburyport and his descendants were the Lowells well known as members the Boston Brahmins. Unitarian pastor, son of The Old Judge, father of James Russell, S. Domesday Books The National Archives, England The Ragman Roll Lowell, John. Lowell, the name of a family of Massachusetts
15.
Amy Lowell
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Amy Lawrence Lowell was an American poet of the imagist school from Brookline, Massachusetts, who posthumously won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1926. Lowell was born into Brooklines Lowell family, sister to astronomer Percival Lowell, school was a source of considerable despair for the young Amy Lowell. She considered herself to be developing masculine and ugly features and she was a social outcast and she had a reputation among her classmates for being outspoken and opinionated. Lowell never attended college because her family did not consider it proper for a woman to do so and she compensated for this lack with avid reading and near-obsessive book collecting. She lived as a socialite and travelled widely, turning to poetry in 1902 after being inspired by a performance of Eleonora Duse in Europe, Lowell was said to be lesbian, and in 1912 she and actress Ada Dwyer Russell were reputed to be lovers. Russell is reputed to be the subject of Lowells more erotic works, most notably the love poems contained in Two Speak Together, a subsection of Pictures of the Floating World. The two women traveled to England together, where Lowell met Ezra Pound, who at once became a major influence, Pound considered Lowells embrace of Imagism to be a kind of hijacking of the movement. Lowell has been linked romantically to writer Mercedes de Acosta, Lowell was a short but imposing figure who kept her hair in a bun and wore a pince-nez. Lowell smoked cigars constantly, claiming that they lasted longer than cigarettes. She was associated with her cigar-smoking habit publicly, since newspapers frequently mentioned it and her admirers defended her, however, even after her death. One rebuttal was written by Heywood Broun in his tribute to Amy. He wrote, She was upon the surface of things a Lowell, a New Englander, but inside everything was molten like the core of the earth. Given one more gram of emotion, Amy Lowell would have burst into flame, Lowell died of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1925, at the age of 51. The following year, she was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for Whats OClock and that collection included the patriotic poem Lilacs, which Louis Untermeyer said was the poem of hers he liked best. Her first published work appeared in 1910 in Atlantic Monthly, the first published collection of her poetry, A Dome of Many-Coloured Glass, appeared two years later, in 1912. Though she sometimes wrote sonnets, Lowell was an adherent to the free verse method of poetry. To understand vers libre, one must abandon all desire to find in it the rhythm of metrical feet. One must allow the lines to flow as they will read aloud by an intelligent reader. Or, to put it another way, unrhymed cadence is built upon organic rhythm, or the rhythm of the voice with its necessity for breathing
16.
Abbott Lawrence Lowell
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Abbott Lawrence Lowell was a U. S. educator and legal scholar. He served as President of Harvard University from 1909 to 1933, with an aristocratic sense of mission and self-certainty, Lowell cut a large figure in American education and to some extent in public life as well. At Harvard University his years as president saw an expansion of the university in terms of the size of its physical infrastructure, its student body. His reform of education established the system of majoring in a particular discipline that became the standard in American education. He took the side on certain public issues as well. In one instance, he tried to limit Jewish enrollment to 15% of the student body, in the other, he tried to ban African-American students from living in the Freshman Halls when all Harvards new students were required to room there. In both cases the Harvard Board of Overseers insisted on the consistent application of principles and overruled him. The interplay of democratic and patrician instincts, and especially his insistence on defending his positions when others found then indefensible, as one historian posed the question, How could a consensus form around one who exasperated his friends as often as he confounded his enemies. Lowell was born on December 13,1856 in Boston, Massachusetts and his siblings included the poet Amy Lowell, the astronomer Percival Lowell, and Elizabeth Lowell Putnam, an early activist for prenatal care. They were the great-grandchildren of John Lowell and, on their mothers side, while at Harvard, he was a member of the Hasty Pudding and was later made an honorary member of the Phoenix S. K. Club. On June 19,1879, while a law student, he married a distant cousin, Anna Parker Lowell in Kings Chapel in Boston and his first scholarly publications appeared before he undertook an academic career. Essays on Government appeared in 1889, designed to counter the arguments Woodrow Wilson made in his Congressional Government, the two volumes of Governments and Parties in Continental Europe followed in 1896. Lowell was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, joining his father and brother and he became a trustee of MIT in 1897. In 1897, Lowell became lecturer, and in 1898, professor of government at Harvard and his publishing career continued with the appearance of Colonial Civil Service in 1900, and The Government of England in two volumes in 1908. In December 1901, Lowell and his wife donated funds anonymously to erect a building housing a lecture hall. It became the New Lecture Hall, at the corner of Oxford and Kneeland Streets, from relatively early in his professional career, Lowell worried about the role of racial and ethnic minorities in American society. As early as 1887, he wrote of the Irish, What we need is not to dominate the Irish and we want them to become rich, and send their sons to our colleges, to share our prosperity and our sentiments. We do not want to feel that they are among us and he believed that only a homogeneous society could safeguard the achievements of American democracy
17.
John Lowell
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John Lowell was an American lawyer, selectman, jurist, delegate to the Congress of the Confederation and federal judge. Known within his family as “The Old Judge, ” distinguishing him from the proliferation of Johns, John Lowell, his descendants, and many other well established New England families defined American life in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. John Lowells ancestor, Percival, a merchant, came from Bristol, England, to Newbury, Massachusetts, in 1639, and his father, John, was the first minister of Newburyport, where he officiated 1726-67. The minister married Sarah Champney, and “The Old Judge” was their second son and he was the only child to survive infancy. John was among the generation in the Lowell family to be born in the New World. Like his father before him, Lowell graduated at the age of 17, John was admitted to the bar in 1763 and soon established his law practice in Newburyport, Massachusetts. Lowell married his first wife, Sarah, sister of Stephen Higginson and sister-in-law of Elizabeth Cabot, John and Sarah had three children, Anna Cabot, John Lowell, Jr. and Sarah Champney Lowell. Lowells wife Sarah died on May 5,1772, Lowell married his second wife, Susanna, daughter of Francis Cabot and Mary Fitch, on May 31,1774. Together they had two children, Francis Cabot and Susanna Cabot, Francis Cabot became a leader and innovator in American industry, the city of Lowell, Massachusetts, is named in his honor. Descendants of Francis Cabot include businessman and philanthropist John Lowell, Jr. federal judge Francis Cabot Lowell, Susanna died on March 30,1777. On December 25,1778, John married his wife, Rebecca, widow of James Tyng and daughter of Judge James Russell. John and Rebecca had four children, Rebecca Russell, Charles Russell, Mary and his great-great-grandson was the poet Robert Lowell. and U. S. Supreme Court Justice and Civil War hero Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Other notable children of the daughters and granddaughters of John Lowell include mathematician Julian Lowell Coolidge, after establishing his law practice in Newburyport in 1763, Lowell served as a town Selectman in 1771–1772,1774 and 1776. In the spring of 1774 he signed addresses complimenting royal governors Thomas Hutchinson and Thomas Gage, thereafter, Lowell was an enthusiastic patriot and served for a time as a lieutenant of the Massachusetts militia. In 1776, he was elected Representative to the General Court from Newburyport and, in 1778, Lowell elected to the same post from Boston. Lowell was chosen to be a member of the convention that was tasked with framing the Massachusetts Constitution in 1779. ”Lowells son, the Rev. Charles Lowell, D. D. wrote in a personal letter eight decades later, “My father introduced into the Bill of Rights the clause by which Slavery was abolished in Massachusetts. In 1782–83, Lowell was elected to represent the Commonwealth of Massachusetts as a Delegate to the Third Congress of the Confederation in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ”Lowell returned to Boston with after being elected to serve as a judge on the Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture. In 1784, he was appointed commissioner to settle the dispute between Massachusetts and the State of New York
18.
Abbott Lawrence
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Abbott Lawrence was a prominent American businessman, politician, and philanthropist. On the conclusion of his apprenticeship, in 1814, the Lawrences formed a partnership, specializing in imports from Britain and China, initially called A. & A. Lawrence, the firm later was named A. & A. Lawrence and Co. It continued until Amoss death, and became the greatest wholesale mercantile house in the United States and it was successful even in the hard times of 1812-1815. The firm did much for the establishment of the textile industry in New England. In 1830, it came to the aid of financially distressed mills of Lowell, in that year, the Suffolk, Tremont and Lawrence companies were established in Lowell, and Luther Lawrence, the eldest brother, represented the firms interests there. When Amos retired from the business in 1831 due to ill health, many cite the Lawrence brothers as the founders of New Englands influential textile industry. In the 1820s, Lawrence became a prominent public figure—a vocal supporter of railroad construction for economic benefit and he was an ardent protectionist, and represented Massachusetts at the Harrisburg convention in 1827. Lawrence was highly influential among Massachusetts Whigs and in 1834 was elected to the 24th Congress as a Whig and he did not run for renomination to the 25th Congress, but was re-elected to the 26th Congress. In 1842, he was appointed commissioner to settle the Northeastern Boundary Dispute between Canada and the United States, Lawrence was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1846, and subsequently was also elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1847. In 1848, Lawrence was a candidate for vice president on the Whig ticket. With Taylors presidential victory, he offered Lawrence a choice of positions in the administration, after rejecting a cabinet appointment, Lawrence chose the post of minister to Great Britain. Lawrence was active in Bostons Unitarian Church and donated money to various causes and he supported Lawrence Academy, affordable housing in Boston, and the Boston Public Library. He also provided $50,000 to establish the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard College and he died in Boston on August 18,1855, aged 62, and was interred in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, retrieved on 2008-02-15 Beach, Chandler B. ed. Lawrence, Abbott. Chicago, F. E. Compton and Co, wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, rines, George Edwin, ed. Lawrence, Abbott. Luthin, Richard H. Abraham Lincoln and the Massachusetts Whigs in 1848
19.
Nebular hypothesis
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The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field of cosmogony to explain the formation and evolution of the Solar System. It suggests that the Solar System formed from nebulous material, the theory was developed by Immanuel Kant and published in his Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels, published in 1755. Originally applied to the Solar System, the process of planetary formation is now thought to be at work throughout the Universe. The widely-accepted modern variant of the hypothesis is the solar nebular disk model or solar nebular model. It offered explanations for a variety of properties of the Solar System, including the circular and coplanar orbits of the planets. Some elements of the hypothesis are echoed in modern theories of planetary formation. According to the hypothesis, stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen—giant molecular clouds. These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which rotate, collapse. Star formation is a process, which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk, proplyd. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well known, thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form, the protoplanetary disk is an accretion disk that feeds the central star. Initially very hot, the disk later cools in what is known as the T tauri star stage, here, formation of small dust grains made of rocks, the grains eventually may coagulate into kilometer-sized planetesimals. If the disk is massive enough, the runaway accretions begin, near the star, the planetary embryos go through a stage of violent mergers, producing a few terrestrial planets. The last stage takes approximately 100 million to a billion years, the formation of giant planets is a more complicated process. It is thought to occur beyond the frost line, where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice, as a result, they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk. What follows after the formation is not completely clear. Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5–10 Earth masses—the threshold value, jupiter- and Saturn-like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10,000 years. The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted, the formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation
20.
Amherst College
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Amherst College is a private liberal arts college located in Amherst, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1821 as an attempt to relocate Williams College by its president, Zephaniah Swift Moore, the institution was named after the town, which in turn had been named after Lord Jeffery Amherst. Amherst was established as a college and became coeducational in 1975. Amherst is an exclusively undergraduate four-year institution and enrolled 1,849 students in the fall of 2016, students choose courses from 38 major programs in an open curriculum. Students are not required to study a curriculum or fulfill any distribution requirements. Freshmen may take advanced courses, and seniors may take introductory ones, for the class of 2020, Amherst received 8,406 applications and accepted 1,161 yielding a 13. 8% acceptance rate. Amherst was ranked as the second best liberal arts college in the country by U. S. News & World Report, Amherst competes in the New England Small College Athletic Conference. Amherst has historically had close relationships and rivalries with Williams College, the college is a member of the Five College Consortium, which allows its students to attend classes at four other Pioneer Valley institutions. These include Mount Holyoke College, Smith College, Hampshire College, founded in 1821, Amherst College developed out of the secondary school Amherst Academy. The college was originally suggested as an alternative to Williams College, although Williams remained open, Amherst was formed and diverged from its Williams roots into an individual institution. In 1812, funds were raised in Amherst for a school, Amherst Academy. This required an investment from benefactors. During the fundraising for the project, it clear that without larger designs. This led the committee overseeing the project to conclude that a new institution should be created, on August 18,1818, the Amherst Academy board of trustees accepted this conclusion and began building a new college. At its opening, Amherst had forty-seven students, fifteen of these had followed Moore from Williams College. Those fifteen represented about one-third of the number at Amherst. President Moore died on June 29,1823, and was replaced with a Williams College trustee, Williams alumni are fond of an apocryphal story ascribing the removal of books from the Williams College library to Amherst College, but there is no contemporaneous evidence to verify the story. In 1995, Williams president Harry C. Payne declared the story false, Amherst grew quickly, and for two years in the mid-1830s it was the second largest college in the United States, second only to Yale
21.
Clark University
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Clark University is an American private research university located in Worcester, Massachusetts, the second largest city in New England. It is adjacent to University Park about 50 miles west of Boston, founded in 1887 with a large endowment from its namesake Jonas Gilman Clark, a prominent businessman, Clark was one of the first modern research universities in the United States. Originally an all-graduate institution, Clarks first undergraduates entered in 1902. S, News & World Report and as one of 40 Colleges That Change Lives. The university competes intercollegiately in 17 NCAA Division III varsity sports as the Clark Cougars and is a part of the New England Womens and Mens Athletic Conference, intramural and club sports are also offered in a wide range of activities. Clark was ranked no.27 on the U. S. News list of Best Value Schools, the university is also the alma mater of at least three living billionaires, in addition to its alumni having won two Pulitzer Prizes and an Emmy Award. An Act of Incorporation was duly enacted by the legislature and signed by the governor on March 31 of that same year. Opening on October 2,1889, Clark was the first all-graduate university in the United States, with departments in mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, G. Stanley Hall was appointed the first president of Clark University in 1888. He had been a professor of psychology and pedagogy at Johns Hopkins University, Hall spent seven months in Europe visiting other universities and recruiting faculty. He became the founder of the American Psychological Association and earned the first Ph. D. in psychology in the United States at Harvard, Clark has played a prominent role in the development of psychology as a distinguished discipline in the United States ever since. This had been opposed by President Hall in years past but Clark College opened in 1902. Clark College and Clark University had different presidents until Halls retirement in 1920, Clark University began admitting women after Clarks death, and the first female Ph. D. in psychology was awarded in 1908. Early Ph. D. students in psychology were ethnically diverse, in 1920, Francis Sumner became the first African American to earn a Ph. D. in psychology. Clark withdrew its membership in 1999, citing a conflict with its mission, in order to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Clarks opening, President Hall invited a number of leading thinkers to the University. This was Freuds only set of lectures in the United States, in the 1920s Robert Goddard, a pioneer of rocketry, considered one of the founders of space and missile technology, served as a professor and chairman of the Physics Department. On November 23,1929, noted aviator Charles Lindbergh visited campus, the Robert H. Goddard Library, a distinctive modern building in the brutalist style by architect John M. Johansen, was completed in 1969. In 1963, student DArmy Bailey invited Malcolm X to campus to speak and he delivered a speech in Atwood Hall. On March 15,1968, The Jimi Hendrix Experience performed at Clark University as part of the bands American tour in support of Axis, the Experience played in the Atwood Hall, which could accommodate more than six hundred students. Tickets for the concerts, which sold out, were priced, with seats priced at $3.00, $3.50
22.
Cotton mill
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Although some were driven by animal power, most early mills were built in rural locations near to fast-flowing rivers and streams and had water wheels to power them. The mechanisation of the process in the early factories was instrumental in the growth of the machine tool industry. Limited companies were developed to construct mills, and the floors of the cotton exchange in Manchester. Mills generated employment, drawing workers from rural areas and expanding urban populations. They provided incomes for girls and women, child labour was used in the mills, and the factory system led to organised labour. Poor conditions became the subject of exposés, and in England, the cotton mill, originally a Lancashire phenomenon, was copied in New England and later in the southern states of America. In the 20th century, North West England lost its supremacy to the United States, then to India, in the mid-16th century Manchester was an important manufacturing centre for woollens and linen and market for textiles made elsewhere. The fustian district of Lancashire, from Blackburn to Bolton, west to Wigan and Leigh and south towards Manchester, used flax and raw cotton imported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation. During the Industrial Revolution cotton manufacture changed from a domestic to an industry, made possible by inventions. The weaving process was the first to be mechanised by the invention of John Kays flying shuttle in 1733, the manually-operated spinning jenny was developed by James Hargreaves in about 1764 speeded up the spinning process. The roller spinning principle of Paul and Bourne became the basis of Richard Arkwrights spinning frame and water frame, the principles of the spinning jenny and water frame were combined by Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule of 1779, but water power was not applied to it until 1792. Many mills were built after Arkwrights patent expired in 1783 and by 1788, the development of cotton mills was linked to the development of the machinery they contained. By 1774,30,000 people in Manchester were employed using the system in cotton manufacture. The first cotton mills were established in the 1740s to house roller spinning machinery invented by Lewis Paul, the machines were the first to spin cotton mechanically without the intervention of human fingers. They were driven by a single power source which allowed the use of larger machinery. The Paul-Wyatt mills spun cotton for several decades but were not very profitable, Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for his water frame spinning machinery in 1769. Arkwrights first mill – powered by horses in Nottingham in 1768 – was similar to Paul and Wyatts first Birmingham mill although by 1772 it had expanded to four storeys and employed 300 workers. Arkwright recruited large, highly disciplined workforces for his mills, managed credit and supplies, by 1782 his annual profits exceeded £40,000, and by 1784 he had opened 10 more mills
23.
Joseon
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The Kingdom of Joseon was a Korean kingdom founded by Yi Seonggye that lasted for approximately five centuries, from July 1392 to October 1897. It was officially renamed the Korean Empire in October 1897 and it was founded following the aftermath of the overthrow of Goryeo in what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul, the kingdoms northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the Yalu and Tumen Rivers through the subjugation of the Jurchens. Joseon was the last dynasty of Korea and its longest-ruling Confucian dynasty, during its reign, Joseon encouraged the entrenchment of Chinese Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society. Neo-Confucianism was installed as the new state ideology. Buddhism was accordingly discouraged and occasionally faced persecutions by the dynasty, Joseon consolidated its effective rule over the territory of current Korea and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, science, literature, and technology. After the end of invasions from Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace, by the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old Goryeo established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war and de facto occupation from the disintegrating Mongol Empire. Following the emergence of the Ming dynasty, the court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, the group led by General Yi and the camp led by General Choe. Goryeo claimed to be the successor of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo, as such, Yi was chosen to lead the attack, however, he revolted and swept back to Gaegyeong and initiated a coup détat, overthrowing King U in favor of his son, Chang of Goryeo. He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration, in 1392, Yi eliminated Jeong Mong-ju, highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to Wonju, and before he ascended the throne. The Goryeo Dynasty had come to an end after almost 500 years of rule. After much deliberation, the Taejo Emperor declared the name of the new dynasty to be Joseon, after the ancient Korean state of Gojoseon and he also moved the capital to Hanyang from Kaesong. When the new dynasty was promulgated and officially brought into existence, with Taejos support, Jeong Dojeon kept limiting the royal familys power by prohibiting political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were aware of each others great animosity and were getting ready to strike first. This incident became known as the First Strife of Princes, one of King Jeongjongs first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Kaesong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bangwon retained real power and was soon in conflict with his older brother. Yi Banggan, who yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bangwons faction and Yi Banggans camp escalated into a conflict that came to be known as the Second Strife of Princes
24.
Lafcadio Hearn
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In the United States, Hearn is also known for his writings about the city of New Orleans based on his ten-year stay in that city. Hearn was born in and named after the island of Lefkada, one of the Greek Ionian Islands and he was the son of Surgeon-Major Charles Bush Hearn and Rosa Antoniou Kassimatis, a Greek woman of noble Kytheran lineage through her father, Anthony Kassimatis. His father was stationed in Lefkada during the British occupation of the islands, Lafcadio was baptized Patricios Lefcadios Hearn in the Greek Orthodox Church, but he seems to have been called Patrick Lefcadio Kassimati Charles Hearn in English. George Hearn died on 17 August 1850, two months after Lafcadios birth, in 1850 Hearns father was promoted to Staff Surgeon Second Class and was reassigned from Lefkada to the British West Indies. In 1852, he arranged to send his son and wife to live with his family in Dublin, Ireland, Charles Hearns mother, Elizabeth Holmes Hearn, had difficulty accepting Rosa Hearns Catholicism and lack of education. Despite Sarah Brenanes efforts, Rosa suffered from homesickness, when her husband returned to Ireland on medical leave in 1853, it became clear that the couple had become estranged. Charles Hearn was assigned to the Crimean Peninsula, again leaving his pregnant wife, when he came back in 1856, severely wounded and traumatized, Rosa had returned to her home island of Cerigo in Greece, where she gave birth to their third son, Daniel James Hearn. Lafcadio had been left in the care of Sarah Brenane, Charles Hearn petitioned to have the marriage with Rosa annulled, on the basis of her lack of signature on the marriage contract, which made it invalid under English law. After being informed of the annulment, Rosa almost immediately married Giovanni Cavallini, Cavallini required as a condition of the marriage that Rosa give up custody of both Lafcadio and James. As a result, James was sent to his father in Dublin, neither Lafcadio nor James saw their mother again, who had four children with her second husband. Rosa was eventually committed to the National Mental Asylum on Corfu, Charles Hearn, who had left Lafcadio in the care of Sarah Brenane for the past 4 years, now appointed her as Lafcadios permanent guardian. He married his sweetheart, Alicia Goslin, in July 1857, and left with his new wife for a posting in Secunderabad. Lafcadio never saw his father again, Charles Hearn died of malaria in the Gulf of Suez in 1866, in 1857, at age seven and despite the fact that both his parents were still alive, Hearn became the permanent ward of his great aunt, Sarah Brenane. She divided her residency between Dublin in the months, her husbands estate at Tramore, County Waterford on the southern Irish coast. Brenane also engaged a tutor during the year to provide basic instruction. Hearn began exploring Brenanes library and read extensively in Greek literature, Hearn became fluent in French and would later translate into English the works of Guy de Maupassant, who coincidentally attended the school shortly after Hearns departure. In 1863, again at the suggestion of Molyneux, Hearn was enrolled at St. Cuthberts College, Ushaw, in this environment, Hearn adopted the nickname Paddy to try to fit in better, and was the top student in English composition for three years. At age 16, while at Ushaw, Hearn injured his eye in a schoolyard mishap
25.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
26.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
27.
Camille Flammarion
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Nicolas Camille Flammarion FRAS was a French astronomer and author. He was an author of more than fifty titles, including popular science works about astronomy, several notable early science fiction novels. He also published the magazine LAstronomie, starting in 1882 and he maintained a private observatory at Juvisy-sur-Orge, France. Camille Flammarion was born in Montigny-le-Roi, Haute-Marne, France and he was the brother of Ernest Flammarion, founder of the Groupe Flammarion publishing house. He was a founder and the first president of the Société astronomique de France, in January,1895, after 13 volumes of LAstronomie and 8 of BSAF, the two merged, making L’Astronomie the Bulletin of the Societé. The Flammarion engraving first appeared in Flammarion’s 1888 edition of L’Atmosphère, in 1907, he wrote that he believed that dwellers on Mars had tried to communicate with the Earth in the past. He also believed in 1907 that a comet was heading toward Earth. In 1910, for the appearance of Halleys Comet, he believed the gas from the tail would impregnate atmosphere. He has been described as an astronomer, mystic and storyteller who was obsessed by life after death, and on other worlds, and seemed to see no distinction between the two. He was influenced by Jean Reynaud and his Terre et ciel and he was convinced that souls after the physical death pass from planet to planet, progressively improving at each new incarnation. In Real and Imaginary Worlds and Lumen, he describes a range of species, including sentient plants which combine the processes of digestion and respiration. ”His psychical studies also influenced some of his science fiction. Other than that, his writing about other worlds adhered fairly closely to then current ideas in evolutionary theory, among other things, he believed that all planets went through more or less the same stages of development, but at different rates depending on their sizes. Flammarion’s influence was great, not just on the thought of his day. Both George Griffith and Edgar Rice Burroughs are referring to him in their writing, in the English translation of Lumen, Brian Stapleford argues that both Olaf Stapledon and William Hope Hodgson have likely been influenced by Flammarion. Arthur Conan Doyles The Poison Belt, published 1913, also have a lot in common with Flammarions worries that the tail of Halleys Comet would be poisonous for earth life, Camille was a brother of Ernest Flammarion and Berthe Martin-Flammarion and uncle of a woman named Zelinda. His first wife was Sylvie Petiaux-Hugo Flammarion, and his wife was Gabrielle Renaudot Flammarion. Camille, a contemporary of Giovanni Schiaparelli, extensively researched the so-called canals during the 1880s and 1890s and he assumed the planet was in an advanced stage of its habitability, and the canals were the product of an intelligent species attempting to survive on a dying world. Religious belief must not take the place of impartial analysis and we must be constantly on our guard against illusions
28.
Giovanni Schiaparelli
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Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli was an Italian astronomer and science historian. He was educated at the University of Turin, and later studied at Berlin Observatory, in 1859–1860 he worked in Pulkovo Observatory near St Petersburg, and then worked for over forty years at Brera Observatory in Milan. Among Schiaparellis contributions are his telescopic observations of Mars, in his initial observations, he named the seas and continents of Mars. While the term indicates an artificial construction, the term channels connotes that the observed features were natural configurations of the planetary surface. Later, with thanks to the observations of the Italian astronomer Vincenzo Cerulli. I have already pointed out that, in the absence of rain on Mars and he proved, for example, that the orbit of the Leonid meteor shower coincided with that of the comet Tempel-Tuttle. These observations led the astronomer to formulate the hypothesis, subsequently proved to be correct and he was also a keen observer of the inner planets Mercury and Venus. He made several drawings and determined their rotation periods, in 1965, it was shown that his and most other subsequent measurements of Mercurys period were incorrect. Schiaparelli was a scholar of the history of classical astronomy, lalande Prize Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Bruce Medal The main-belt asteroid 4062 Schiaparelli, named on 15 September 1989. The lunar crater Schiaparelli The Martian crater Schiaparelli Schiaparelli Dorsum on Mercury The 2016 ExoMars Schiaparelli lander and his niece, Elsa Schiaparelli, became a noted designer or maker of haute couture. 1873 – Le stelle cadenti 1893 – La vita sul pianeta Marte 1925 – Scritti sulla storia della astronomia antica in three volumes, Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio, biography from www. daviddarling. info. Obituaries, G. V. Schiaparelli, J. G. Galle, J. B. N. Hennessey J. Coles, J. E. Gore, The Observatory, Vol.33, p. 311–318, August 1910 Source texts from Wikisource in Italian and English. Le Mani su Marte, I diari di G. V, Works by Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Giovanni Schiaparelli at Internet Archive AN185 193/194 ApJ32313 MNRAS71282 PASP22164
29.
Mariner 4
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Mariner 4 was the fourth in a series of spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode. It was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of Mars and to transmit these observations to Earth, launched on November 28,1964, Mariner 4 performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from space, their depiction of a cratered. On December 21,1967 communications with Mariner 4 were terminated, the Mariner 4 spacecraft consisted of an octagonal magnesium frame,127 cm across a diagonal and 45.7 cm high. Four solar panels were attached to the top of the frame with a span of 6.88 meters. A116.8 cm diameter parabolic antenna was mounted at the top of the frame as well. An omnidirectional low-gain antenna was mounted on a seven foot, four inch tall mast next to the high-gain antenna, the overall height of the spacecraft was 2.89 meters. The octagonal frame housed the equipment, cabling, midcourse propulsion system. A trapped radiation detector, mounted on the body with counter-axes pointing 70° and 135° from the direction, to measure the intensity. A cosmic ray telescope, mounted inside the body pointing in direction, to measure the direction and energy spectrum of protons. A solar plasma probe, mounted on the body pointing 10° from the solar direction, a cosmic dust detector, mounted on the body with microphone plate approximately perpendicular to the plane of orbit, to measure the momentum, distribution, density, and direction of cosmic dust. A television camera, mounted on a platform at the bottom center of the spacecraft. This subsystem consisted of 4 parts, a Cassegrain telescope with a 1. 05° by 1. 05° field of view, a rechargeable 1200 W·h silver-zinc battery was also used for maneuvers and backup. Monopropellant hydrazine was used for propulsion, via a four-jet vane vector control motor, with 222-newton thrust, the space probes attitude control was provided by 12 cold nitrogen gas jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels and three gyros. Solar pressure vanes, each with an area of 0.65 square meter, were attached to the tips of the solar panels. Positional information was provided by four Sun sensors, and a sensor for either the Earth, Mars, or the star Canopus, during this flight, both the Earth and Mars would be too dim to lock onto. Another bright source at an angle away from the Sun was needed. Subsequently, Canopus was used as a point in many following missions
30.
Mariner program
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The program included a number of firsts, including the first planetary flyby, the first planetary orbiter, and the first gravity assist maneuver. Of the ten vehicles in the Mariner series, seven were successful, other Mariner-based spacecraft, launched since Voyager, included the Magellan probe to Venus, and the Galileo probe to Jupiter. A second-generation Mariner spacecraft, called the Mariner Mark II series, eventually evolved into the Cassini–Huygens probe, the total cost of the Mariner program was approximately $554 million. Mariner 2 was based on the Ranger Lunar probe, all of the Mariners launched after Mariner 2 had four solar panels for power, except for Mariner 10, which had two. Additionally, all except Mariner 1, Mariner 2 and Mariner 5 had TV cameras, the first five Mariners were launched on Atlas-Agena rockets, while the last five used the Atlas-Centaur. All Mariner-based probes after Mariner 10 used the Titan IIIE, Titan IV unmanned rockets or the Space Shuttle with a solid-fueled Inertial Upper Stage and multiple planetary flybys. Mariners, Mariner 1 Mariner 2 Mariner 3 Mariner 4 Mariner 5 Mariner 6 Mariner 7 Mariner 8 Mariner 9 Mariner 10 Mariner 1, a secondary objective was to make interplanetary magnetic field and/or particle measurements on the way to, and in the vicinity of, Venus. Mariner 1 was launched on July 22,1962, but was destroyed approximately 5 minutes after liftoff by the Air Force Range Safety Officer when its malfunctioning Atlas-Agena rocket went off course. Mariner 2 was launched on August 27,1962, sending it on a 3½-month flight to Venus, the mission was a success, and Mariner 2 became the first spacecraft to have flown by another planet. Mariner 2 – Defunct after successful mission, occupies a heliocentric orbit, sisterships Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were Mars flyby missions. Mariner 3 was lost when the vehicles nose fairing failed to jettison. Mariner 4, launched on November 28,1964, was the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, Mariner 4 – Communications lost after bombardment by micrometeoroids. The Mariner 5 spacecraft was launched to Venus on June 14,1967, Mariners 6 and 7 were identical teammates in a two-spacecraft mission to Mars. Mariner 6 was launched on February 24,1969, followed by Mariner 7 on March 21,1969 and they flew over the equator and southern hemisphere of the planet Mars. Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 were identical sister craft designed to map the Martian surface simultaneously and its identical sister craft, Mariner 9, was launched in May 1971 and became the first artificial satellite of Mars. It entered Martian orbit in November 1971 and began photographing the surface and analyzing the atmosphere with its infrared, in Areocentric orbit until at least 2022 when it is projected to fall out of orbit and into the Martian atmosphere. It was also the first spacecraft to encounter two planets at close range, and for 33 years the spacecraft to photograph Mercury in closeup. Mission, plasma, charged particles, magnetic fields, radio occultation and celestial mechanics Status, Mariner Jupiter-Saturn was approved in 1972 after the cancellation of the Grand Tour program, which proposed visiting all the outer planets with multiple spacecraft
31.
Mariner 9
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Mariner 9 was an unmanned NASA space probe that contributed greatly to the exploration of Mars and was part of the Mariner program. After months of dust storms it managed to send clear pictures of the surface. Mariner 9 returned 7329 images over the course of its mission, an infrared radiometer was included to detect heat sources in search of evidence of volcanic activity. It was to study changes in the Martian atmosphere and surface. Mars two moons were also to be analyzed, Mariner 9 more than met its objectives. NASA still held out hope that another Mariner probe and Atlas-Centaur could be readied before the 1971 Mars launch window closed, Convair also had an available Centaur stage on hand and could have an Atlas readied in time, but the idea was ultimately abandoned for lack of funding. Mariner 9 was mated to Atlas-Centaur AC-23 on May 9 with investigation into Mariner 8s failure ongoing, all testing came back negative and on May 22, a tested and verified rate gyro package arrived from Convair and was installed in the Centaur. Liftoff took place on May 30 at 5,23 PM EST, all launch vehicle systems performed normally and the Mariner separated from the Centaur at 13 minutes and 18 seconds after launch. Mariner 9 was the first spacecraft to orbit another planet, when Mariner 9 arrived at Mars on November 14,1971, planetary scientists were surprised to find the atmosphere was thick with a planet-wide robe of dust, the largest storm ever observed. Mariner 9s computer was reprogrammed from Earth to delay imaging of the surface for a couple of months until the dust settled. The main surface imaging did not get underway until mid-January 1972 and this unexpected situation made a strong case for the desirability of studying a planet from orbit rather than merely flying past. It also highlighted the importance of flexible mission software, the images revealed river beds, craters, massive extinct volcanoes, canyons, evidence of wind and water erosion and deposition, weather fronts, fogs, and more. Mars small moons, Phobos and Deimos, were also photographed, the findings from the Mariner 9 mission underpinned the later Viking program. The enormous Valles Marineris canyon system is named after Mariner 9 in honor of its achievements, after depleting its supply of attitude control gas, the spacecraft was turned off on October 27,1972. The ultraviolet spectrometer aboard Mariner 9 was constructed by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado, Boulder, the ultraviolet spectrometer team was led by Professor Charles Barth. The Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer team was led by Dr. Rudolf A. Hanel from NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center, the IRIS instrument was built by Texas Instruments, Dallas, Texas. The Infrared Radiometer team was led by Professor Gerald Neugebauer from the California Institute of Technology, to control for errors in the reception of the grayscale image data sent by Mariner 9, the data had to be encoded before transmission using a so-called error-correcting code. Each image pixel was represented as a 6-bit binary value, which had 64 possible grayscale levels, because of limitations of the transmitter, the maximum useful data length was about 30 bits
32.
Gestalt psychology
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Gestalt psychology or gestaltism is a philosophy of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. Gestalt psychology is an attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to acquire, the central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. The assumed physiological mechanisms on which Gestalt theory rests are poorly defined, the Gestalt theory of perception has been criticized as being descriptive of the end products of perception without providing much insight into the processes that lead to perception. What happened to the Gestalt school that always aspired to provide a vision of psychology. Perhaps there is, in fact, little that holds the classic phenomena of Gestalt psychology together and this principle maintains that when the human mind forms a percept or gestalt, the whole has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. Koffka did not like the translation and he firmly corrected students who replaced other with greater. This is not a principle of addition he said, the whole has an independent existence. In the study of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are the products of complex interactions among various stimuli, contrary to the behaviorist approach to focusing on stimulus and response, gestalt psychologists sought to understand the organization of cognitive processes. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism, Gestalt theory, it is proposed, allows for the deconstruction of the whole situation into its elements. The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels, the idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory and this gestalt or whole form approach sought to define principles of perception—seemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way things are seen, images can be divided into figure or ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance, the figure in front and these laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, in any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology and his work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. There are clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the field, foremost in Europe. The school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research, principle of psychophysical isomorphism – A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity
33.
Cognitive psychology
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Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking. Philosophically, ruminations of the mind and its processes have been around since the times of the ancient Greeks. In 387 BCE, Plato is known to have suggested that the brain was the seat of the mental processes. In 1637, René Descartes posited that humans are born with ideas, and forwarded the idea of mind-body dualism. From that time, major debates ensued through the 19th century regarding whether human thought was solely experiential, some of those involved in this debate included George Berkeley and John Locke on the side of empiricism, and Immanuel Kant on the side of nativism. With the philosophical debate continuing, the mid to late 19th century was a time in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline. Problems such as how to best train soldiers to use new technology, developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of psychological thought. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon spent years developing the concept of artificial intelligence and this encouraged a conceptualization of mental functions patterned on the way that computers handled such things as memory storage and retrieval. Noam Chomskys 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research institutions such as George Mandlers Center for Human Information Processing in 1964. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images, given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do, that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. But although cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity rather than some fraction of it, other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary. Dynamic psychology, which begins with rather than with sensory input, is a case in point. Instead of asking how a mans actions and experiences result from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the main focus of cognitive psychologists is on the mental processes that affect behavior. Those processes include, but are not limited to, the following, a key function of attention is to identify irrelevant data and filter it out, enabling significant data to be distributed to the other mental processes. For example, the brain may simultaneously receive auditory, visual, olfactory, taste. The brain is able to only a small subset of this information. Endogenous control works top-down and is the more deliberate attentional system, responsible for attention, divided attention, local and global attention. Attention tends to be visual or auditory
34.
Venus
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Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. It has the longest rotation period of any planet in the Solar System and it is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. It is the second-brightest natural object in the sky after the Moon, reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6. Because Venus orbits within Earths orbit it is a planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun. Venus is a planet and is sometimes called Earths sister planet because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun. It is radically different from Earth in other respects and it has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than 96% carbon dioxide. The atmospheric pressure at the surface is 92 times that of Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a surface temperature of 735 K. Venus is shrouded by an layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid. It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a greenhouse effect. The water has probably photodissociated, and the hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field. Venuss surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism. As one of the brightest objects in the sky, Venus has been a fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed. It has been sacred to gods of many cultures, and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the morning star. Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky, as the closest planet to Earth, Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration. It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft, Venuss thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light, and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991. Plans have been proposed for rovers or more missions. Venus is one of the four planets in the Solar System
35.
Alvan Clark & Sons
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Alvan Clark & Sons was an American maker of optics that became famous for crafting lenses for some of the largest refracting telescopes of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Founded in 1846 in Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, by Alvan Clark, five times, the firm built the largest refracting telescopes in the world. The Clark firm gained worldwide fame and distribution, wrote one author on astronomy in 1899, the 18. 5-inch Dearborn telescope was commissioned in 1856 by the University of Mississippi. The outbreak of war prevented them from ever taking ownership. As a result, it was being tested in Cambridgeport when Alvan Graham observed Sirius B in 1862, in 1873 they built the 26-inch objective lens for the refractor at the United States Naval Observatory. The company also built a number of instruments, which are still highly prized among collectors. The companys assets were acquired by the Sprague-Hathaway Manufacturing Company in 1933, most of Clarks equipment was disposed of as scrap during World War II, and Sprague-Hathaway itself was liquidated in 1958. Alvan Clark & Sons Telescopes Chabot Space & Science Center, Oakland, California Charles Sumner Tainter Deborah Jean Warner, ariail, Alvan Clark & Sons, artists in optics Richmond, VA. Willmann-Bell, in association with National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution,1995,298 p. ISBN 0-943396-46-8 Timothy Ferris, Seeing in the Dark Simon & Schuster 2002, 117p
36.
Sky & Telescope
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The articles are intended for the informed lay reader and include detailed discussions of current discoveries, frequently by participating scientists. The magazine is illustrated in color, with both amateur and professional photography of celestial sights, as well as tables and charts of upcoming celestial events. In 2005, Sky Publishing Corporation was acquired by New Track Media, in 2014, New Track was sold to F+W Media. The magazine played an important role in the dissemination of knowledge about telescope making, Amateur astronomy Amateur telescope making Official website
37.
Exit pupil
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In optics, the exit pupil is a virtual aperture in an optical system. Only rays which pass through this virtual aperture can exit the system, the exit pupil is the image of the aperture stop in the optics that follow it. In a telescope or compound microscope, this image is the image of the element as produced by the eyepiece. The size and shape of disc is crucial to the instruments performance. The term exit pupil is sometimes used to refer to the diameter of the virtual aperture. Older literature on optics sometimes refers to the pupil as the Ramsden disc. To use an instrument, the entrance pupil of the viewers eye must be aligned with. This properly couples the optical system to the eye and avoids vignetting, the location of the exit pupil thus determines the eye relief of an eyepiece. Good eyepiece designs produce an exit pupil of diameter approximating the eyes apparent pupil diameter, if the disc is larger than the eyes pupil, light will be lost instead of entering the eye, if smaller, the view will be vignetted. Since the eyes pupil varies in diameter with viewing conditions, the exit pupil diameter depends on the application. A set of 7×50 binoculars has a pupil just over 7.1 mm. The emergent light at the eyepiece then fills the eyes pupil, in daylight, when the eyes pupil is only 4 mm in diameter, over half the light will be blocked by the iris and will not reach the retina. However, the loss of light in the daytime is not significant since there is so much light to start with. By contrast, 8×32 binoculars, often sold with emphasis on their compactness, have a pupil of only 4 mm. That is sufficient to fill a typical daytime eye pupil, making these binoculars better suited to daytime than night-time use. The maximum pupil size of an eye is typically 5–9 mm for individuals below 25 years old. The optimum eye relief distance also varies with application, for example a rifle scope needs a very long eye relief to prevent recoil from causing it to strike the observer. The exit pupil can be visualized by focusing the instrument on a bright, nondescript field and this projects a disc of light onto the card
38.
Eyepiece
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An eyepiece, or ocular lens, is a type of lens that is attached to a variety of optical devices such as telescopes and microscopes. It is so named because it is usually the lens that is closest to the eye when someone looks through the device, the objective lens or mirror collects light and brings it to focus creating an image. The eyepiece is placed near the point of the objective to magnify this image. The amount of magnification depends on the length of the eyepiece. An eyepiece consists of several elements in a housing, with a barrel on one end. The barrel is shaped to fit in an opening of the instrument to which it is attached. The image can be focused by moving the eyepiece nearer and further from the objective, most instruments have a focusing mechanism to allow movement of the shaft in which the eyepiece is mounted, without needing to manipulate the eyepiece directly. The eyepieces of binoculars are usually mounted in the binoculars, causing them to have a pre-determined magnification. With telescopes and microscopes, however, eyepieces are usually interchangeable, by switching the eyepiece, the user can adjust what is viewed. For instance, eyepieces will often be interchanged to increase or decrease the magnification of a telescope, eyepieces also offer varying fields of view, and differing degrees of eye relief for the person who looks through them. Several properties of an eyepiece are likely to be of interest to a user of an optical instrument, eyepieces are optical systems where the entrance pupil is invariably located outside of the system. They must be designed for optimal performance for a distance to this entrance pupil. In a refracting astronomical telescope the entrance pupil is identical with the objective and this may be several feet distant from the eyepiece, whereas with a microscope eyepiece the entrance pupil is close to the back focal plane of the objective, mere inches from the eyepiece. Microscope eyepieces may be corrected differently from telescope eyepieces, however, elements are the individual lenses, which may come as simple lenses or singlets and cemented doublets or triplets. When lenses are cemented together in pairs or triples, the elements are called groups. The first eyepieces had only a lens element, which delivered highly distorted images. Two and three-element designs were invented soon after, and quickly became standard due to the image quality. Today, engineers assisted by computer-aided drafting software have designed eyepieces with seven or eight elements that deliver exceptionally large, internal reflections, sometimes called scatter, cause the light passing through an eyepiece to disperse and reduce the contrast of the image projected by the eyepiece
39.
Planets beyond Neptune
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Following the discovery of the planet Neptune in 1846, there was considerable speculation that another planet might exist beyond its orbit. In 1978, Pluto was conclusively determined to be too small for its gravity to affect the giant planets, resulting in a brief search for a tenth planet. As of March 2014, observations with the WISE telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn-sized object out to 10,000 AU, and a Jupiter-sized or larger object out to 26,000 AU. In 2016 further work showed this unknown distant planet is likely on an inclined, eccentric orbit that goes no closer than about 200 AU, the orbit is predicted to be anti-aligned to the clustered extreme trans-Neptunian objects. Because Pluto is no longer considered a planet by the International Astronomical Union, Le Verrier predicted the position of this new planet and sent his calculations to German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle. On 23 September 1846, the following his receipt of the letter, Galle and his student Heinrich dArrest discovered Neptune. There remained some slight discrepancies in the giant planets orbits and these were taken to indicate the existence of yet another planet orbiting beyond Neptune. Even before Neptunes discovery, some speculated that one alone was not enough to explain the discrepancy. Hansens opinion was that a body could not adequately explain the motion of Uranus. In 1848, Jacques Babinet raised an objection to Le Verriers calculations, claiming that Neptunes observed mass was smaller and its orbit larger than Le Verrier had initially predicted. He postulated, based largely on simple subtraction from Le Verriers calculations, that another planet of roughly 12 Earth masses, which he named Hyperion, must exist beyond Neptune. Le Verrier denounced Babinets hypothesis, saying, absolutely nothing by which one could determine the position of another planet, astronomer George Forbes concluded on the basis of this evidence that two planets must exist beyond Neptune. These elements concorded suggestively with those made independently by another astronomer named David Peck Todd, however, sceptics argued that the orbits of the comets involved were still too uncertain to produce meaningful results. In 1900 and 1901, Harvard College Observatory director William Henry Pickering led two searches for trans-Neptunian planets, the second was launched when Gabriel Dallet suggested that a single trans-Neptunian planet lying at 47 AU could account for the motion of Uranus. Pickering agreed to examine plates for any suspected planets, in neither case were any found. In 1909, Thomas Jefferson Jackson See, an astronomer with a reputation as a contrarian, opined that there is certainly one. Tentatively naming the first planet Oceanus, he placed their respective distances at 42,56 and 72 AU from the Sun and he gave no indication as to how he determined their existence, and no known searches were mounted to locate them. In 1911, Indian astronomer Venkatesh P, the three inner Galilean moons of Jupiter, Io, Europa and Ganymede, are locked in a complicated 1,2,4 resonance called a Laplace resonance
40.
Uranus
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Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System, Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both have different bulk chemical composition from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. For this reason, scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as ice giants to distinguish them from the gas giants, the interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ices and rock. Uranus is the planet whose name is derived from a figure from Greek mythology. Like the other giant planets, Uranus has a system, a magnetosphere. The Uranian system has a unique configuration among those of the planets because its axis of rotation is tilted sideways and its north and south poles, therefore, lie where most other planets have their equators. In 1986, images from Voyager 2 showed Uranus as an almost featureless planet in visible light, observations from Earth have shown seasonal change and increased weather activity as Uranus approached its equinox in 2007. Wind speeds can reach 250 metres per second, like the classical planets, Uranus is visible to the naked eye, but it was never recognised as a planet by ancient observers because of its dimness and slow orbit. Uranus had been observed on many occasions before its recognition as a planet, possibly the earliest known observation was by Hipparchos, who in 128 BCE might have recorded it as a star for his star catalogue that was later incorporated into Ptolemys Almagest. The earliest definite sighting was in 1690 when John Flamsteed observed it at least six times, the French astronomer Pierre Lemonnier observed Uranus at least twelve times between 1750 and 1769, including on four consecutive nights. Sir William Herschel observed Uranus on March 13,1781 from the garden of his house at 19 New King Street in Bath, Somerset, England, Herschel engaged in a series of observations on the parallax of the fixed stars, using a telescope of his own design. Herschel recorded in his journal, In the quartile near ζ Tauri, either Nebulous star or perhaps a comet. On March 17 he noted, I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet, the sequel has shown that my surmises were well-founded, this proving to be the Comet we have lately observed. Herschel notified the Astronomer Royal, Nevil Maskelyne, of his discovery and received this flummoxed reply from him on April 23,1781, I dont know what to call it. It is as likely to be a planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis. I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it, although Herschel continued to describe his new object as a comet, other astronomers had already begun to suspect otherwise. Finnish-Swedish astronomer Anders Johan Lexell, working in Russia, was the first to compute the orbit of the new object and its nearly circular orbit led him to a conclusion that it was a planet rather than a comet. Berlin astronomer Johann Elert Bode described Herschels discovery as a star that can be deemed a hitherto unknown planet-like object circulating beyond the orbit of Saturn
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Neptune
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Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun in the Solar System. In the Solar System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter, the planet. Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth and is more massive than its near-twin Uranus. Neptune orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at a distance of 30.1 astronomical units. It is named after the Roman god of the sea and has the astronomical symbol ♆, Neptune is not visible to the unaided eye and is the only planet in the Solar System found by mathematical prediction rather than by empirical observation. Unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led Alexis Bouvard to deduce that its orbit was subject to perturbation by an unknown planet. Neptune was subsequently observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846 by Johann Galle within a degree of the predicted by Urbain Le Verrier. Its largest moon, Triton, was discovered shortly thereafter, though none of the remaining known 14 moons were located telescopically until the 20th century. The planets distance from Earth gives it a small apparent size. Neptune was visited by Voyager 2, when it flew by the planet on 25 August 1989, the advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics has recently allowed for additional detailed observations from afar. Neptunes composition can be compared and contrasted with the Solar Systems other giant planets, however, its interior, like that of Uranus, is primarily composed of ices and rock, which is why Uranus and Neptune are normally considered ice giants to emphasise this distinction. Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part account for the blue appearance. In contrast to the hazy, relatively featureless atmosphere of Uranus, Neptunes atmosphere has active, for example, at the time of the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989, the planets southern hemisphere had a Great Dark Spot comparable to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. These weather patterns are driven by the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System, because of its great distance from the Sun, Neptunes outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System, with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching 55 K. Temperatures at the centre are approximately 5,400 K. Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system. On both occasions, Galileo seems to have mistaken Neptune for a star when it appeared close—in conjunction—to Jupiter in the night sky, hence. At his first observation in December 1612, Neptune was almost stationary in the sky because it had just turned retrograde that day and this apparent backward motion is created when Earths orbit takes it past an outer planet. Because Neptune was only beginning its yearly cycle, the motion of the planet was far too slight to be detected with Galileos small telescope
) – the first two letters of the new planet's name and also Lowell's initials – was chosen as Pluto's astronomical symbol.[21] However, it would subsequently emerge that the Planet X theory was mistaken.
The Evolution of Worlds.)
Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "
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