1.
Mockup
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In manufacturing and design, a mockup, or mock-up, is a scale or full-size model of a design or device, used for teaching, demonstration, design evaluation, promotion, and other purposes. A mockup is an if it provides at least part of the functionality of a system. Mock-ups are used by designers mainly to acquire feedback from users, mock-ups address the idea captured in a popular engineering one-liner, You can fix it now on the drafting board with an eraser or you can fix it later on the construction site with a sledge hammer. Mockups are used as design tools virtually everywhere a new product is designed, mockups are used in the automotive device industry as part of the product development process, where dimensions, overall impression, and shapes are tested in a wind tunnel experiment. They can also be used to test consumer reaction, mockups, wireframes and prototypes are not so cleanly distinguished in software and systems engineering, where mockups are a way of designing user interfaces on paper or in computer images. A software mockup will thus look like the thing. A software prototype, on the hand, will look. In many cases it is best to design or prototype the user interface before source code is written or hardware is built, to avoid having to go back, early layouts of a World Wide Web site or pages are often called mockups. A large selection of proprietary or open-source software tools are available for this purpose, mockups are an integral part of the military acquisition process. Mockups are often used to test human factors and aerodynamics, for example, in this context, mockups include wire-frame models. They can also be used for display and demonstration purposes prior to the development of a prototype. Mockups are used in the consumer goods industry as part of the development process, where dimensions, human factors, overall impression. Mockups are commonly required by designers, architects, and end users for custom furniture, the intention is often to produce a full-sized replica, using inexpensive materials in order to verify a design. Mockups are often used to determine the proportions of the piece, relating to various dimensions of the piece itself, the ability to see how the design of the piece relates to the rest of the space is also an important factor in determining size and design. When designing a piece of furniture, such as a desk or table. Designs that fail to consider these issues may not be practical to use, mockups can also be used to test color, finish, and design details which cannot be visualized from the initial drawings and sketches. Mockups used for this purpose can be on a reduced scale, the cost of making mockups is often more than repaid by the savings made by avoiding going into production with a design which needs improvement. Software UI mockups can range from very simple hand drawn screen layouts, through realistic bitmaps, mockups are often used to create unit tests - there they are usually called mock objects
2.
Perfume
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Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents - used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces a pleasant scent. Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations, the word perfume derives from the Latin perfumare, meaning to smoke through. Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, the worlds first-recorded chemist is considered a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered, in India, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization. One of the earliest distillations of Ittar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, in 2004 –2005, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the worlds oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years and they were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 4, 000-square-meter factory housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, the book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic. The Persian chemist Ibn Sina introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation and he first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments. The art of perfumery was known in western Europe from 1221, taking account the monks recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence. In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de Medici, Rene the Florentine and his laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume, cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing, partly due to this patronage, the perfume industry developed. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, today best known as eau de cologne, by the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design, Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types, the intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used
3.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
4.
Chulalongkorn University
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Chulalongkorn University, abbreviated either CU or Chula, is a public and autonomous research university in Bangkok, Thailand. It is ranked as Thailands No.1 university from various organizers such as QS world university ranking, Round university ranking, the university was established in 1917, making it the oldest institute of higher education in Thailand. The university began taking shape during King Chulalongkorns reign when he founded the Royal Pages School in 1902 at The Grand Palace of Thailand, during the reign of his son, King Vajiravudh, the Royal Pages School became the Civil Service College of King Chulalongkorn. The Rockefeller Foundation was instrumental in helping the college from its academic foundation, on March 26,1917, King Vajiravudh renamed the college to Chulalongkorn University. Chulalongkorn University is a comprehensive and research-intensive university, according to QS university ranking 2016. CU is placed 252nd in the world, 45th in Asia, 1st in Thailand, Chulalongkorn University is one of the National Research Universities and supported by the Office of Nation Education Standards and Quality Assessment of Thailand. Moreover, CU is the only Thai university which is a member of Association of Pacific Rim Universities, admission to CU is highly selective, and applicants are required to have high test scores. Applicants ranking within the top 10 national scores is chosen for study at CU, CU comprises nineteen faculties, a School of Agriculture, three colleges, ten institutes and two other schools. Its campus occupies a vast area in downtown Bangkok, in 1899, the king founded the Civil Service Training School near the northern gate of the Royal Palace. Those who graduated from the school would become royal pages, being royal pages, they learned how to administer organizations by working closely with the king, which was a traditional way of entrance to Siamese bureaucracy. After being royal pages, they would serve in the Mahattai Ministry or other government ministries. On April 1,1902 the king thought the name of the school should be renamed to increase the dignity of students, Hence the name Royal Pages School was later used. The academic demands, however, increased all over the country as a whole as Siam was modernized, King Vajiravudh then took the remaining funds of Chulalongkorns Royal Equestrian Statue construction, which was collected from people. Then combined with his own funds to subsidize the construction of a university campus, the king organized various schools around the city proper into the Chulalongkorns College. The university firstly granted certificates to its graduates, the education for a degree was then prepared. The Rockefeller Foundation reorganized the curriculum of the Faculty of Medicine, in 1923, the Faculty of Medicine became the first faculty to accept students from the secondary education. The remaining faculties then followed suit, in 1938, the Chulalongkorn Universitys Preparatory School was founded to provide pre-collegiate education for its students. Those who managed to enter the university had to spend two years in the Preparatory School before going on to the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the Preparatory School, however, ceased to be a university-owned preparatory school in 1947 and became independent Triam Udom Suksa School
5.
Shampoo
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Shampoo is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair. Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap, Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the hair, and then rinsing it out. Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner, the goal of using shampoo is to remove the unwanted build-up in the hair without stripping out so much sebum as to make hair unmanageable. Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium sulfate, with a co-surfactant. There are also intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas. The word shampoo entered the English language from India during the colonial era and it dates to 1762, and is derived from Hindi chāmpo, itself derived from the Sanskrit root chapayati. Sake Dean Mahomed is identified as a promoter of the practice in Britain. In India, a variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times, a very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called Ksuna in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains saponins which are a natural surfactant, the extract of soapberries, a tropical tree widespread in India, creates a lather which Indian texts called phenaka. It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable, other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai, soapnuts, hibiscus flowers, ritha and arappu. Guru Nanak, the prophet and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree. Cleansing with hair and body massage during daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India, when they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learnt habits, including hair treatment they called shampoo. During the early stages of shampoo in Europe, English hair stylists boiled shaved soap in water and added herbs to give the hair shine, commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century. A1914 ad for Canthrox Shampoo in American Magazine showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake, magazine ads in 1914 by Rexall featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo. In 1927, liquid shampoo was invented by German inventor Hans Schwarzkopf in Berlin, originally, soap and shampoo were very similar products, both containing the same naturally derived surfactants, a type of detergent. Modern shampoo as it is today was first introduced in the 1930s with Drene. Early shampoos used in Indonesia were made from the husk and straw of rice, the husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes are mixed with water to form lather. The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, afterwards, coconut oil was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it
6.
Cosmetics
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Cosmetics, also known as make-up, are substances or products used to enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of the body. Many cosmetics are designed for use of applying to the face and they are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources, and some being synthetics. Common cosmetics include lipstick, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, rouge, skin cleansers and skin lotions, shampoo, hairstyling products, perfume and this broad definition includes any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category, Egyptian women and men also used makeup. They were very fond of eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colors including blue, red, Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick, about 5,000 years ago. They crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians extracted red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. Six thousand year old relics of the hollowed out tombs of the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs are discovered, according to one source, early major developments include, Kohl used by ancient Egypt as a protective of the eye kohl Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protective balm. Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rose water, vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century. The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics as the Ancient Romans did, Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9,30, where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described. One of the most popular traditional Chinese medicines is the fungus Tremella fuciformis, used as a beauty product by women in China, the fungus reportedly increases moisture retention in the skin and prevents senile degradation of micro-blood vessels in the skin, reducing wrinkles and smoothing fine lines. Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history, for example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared make-up improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors. During the sixteenth century, the attributes of the women who used make-up created a demand for the product among the upper class. As of 2016, the worlds largest cosmetics company is LOréal, the market was developed in the US during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II, during the 18th century, there was a high number of incidences of lead-poisoning because of the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder. This led to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, attacked tooth enamel, heavy use was known to lead to death. Concealer is commonly used by men, Cosmetics brands release products especially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them. Cosmetics are intended to be applied externally, a subset of cosmetics is called make-up, refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the users appearance
7.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
8.
Organic chemistry
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Study of structure includes many physical and chemical methods to determine the chemical composition and the chemical constitution of organic compounds and materials. In the modern era, the range extends further into the table, with main group elements, including, Group 1 and 2 organometallic compounds. They either form the basis of, or are important constituents of, many products including pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and products made from them, plastics, fuels and explosives. Before the nineteenth century, chemists generally believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were endowed with a force that distinguished them from inorganic compounds. According to the concept of vitalism, organic matter was endowed with a vital force, during the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first systematic studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and he separated the different acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats, producing new compounds. In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler produced the chemical urea, a constituent of urine, from inorganic starting materials. The event is now accepted as indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism. In 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine accidentally produced the organic dye now known as Perkins mauve and his discovery, made widely known through its financial success, greatly increased interest in organic chemistry. A crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, ehrlich popularized the concepts of magic bullet drugs and of systematically improving drug therapies. His laboratory made decisive contributions to developing antiserum for diphtheria and standardizing therapeutic serums, early examples of organic reactions and applications were often found because of a combination of luck and preparation for unexpected observations. The latter half of the 19th century however witnessed systematic studies of organic compounds, the development of synthetic indigo is illustrative. The production of indigo from plant sources dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons by 1914 thanks to the methods developed by Adolf von Baeyer. In 2002,17,000 tons of indigo were produced from petrochemicals. In the early part of the 20th Century, polymers and enzymes were shown to be large organic molecules, the multiple-step synthesis of complex organic compounds is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of natural compounds increased in complexity to glucose. For example, cholesterol-related compounds have opened ways to synthesize complex human hormones, since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increased to include molecules of high complexity such as lysergic acid and vitamin B12
9.
Plymouth University
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With 23,155 students, it is the 30th largest in the United Kingdom by total number of students. Whilst the university has been known as Plymouth University since June 2011 as a result of a rebrand, the university was originally a Polytechnic Institute, with its constituent bodies being Plymouth Polytechnic, Rolle College, the Exeter College of Art and Design and Seale-Hayne College. It was renamed Polytechnic South West in 1989 and remained as this until gaining university status in 1992 along with the other polytechnics, the new university absorbed the Plymouth School of Maritime Studies. In 2006 part of the remains of the World War II Portland Square air-raid shelter were rediscovered on the Plymouth campus, on the night of 22 April 1941, during the Blitz, a bomb fell here killing over 70 civilians, including a mother and her six children. The bomb blast was so violent that human remains were found in the tops of trees, only three people escaped alive, all children. The universitys first Vice-Chancellor was John Bull and he was succeeded by Roland Levinsky until his death on 1 January 2007, when he walked into live electrical cables brought down during a storm. He was temporarily replaced by Mark Cleary, and then by Steve Newstead, Wendy Purcell became VC on 1 December 2007. She was placed on leave on 2 July 2014 by the Universitys governors while a review is conducted. A month later the Higher Education Funding Council for England requested an independent external review of the universitys governance, in August 2014, the university was instructed by HEFCE to undertake an external review of its governance after vice-chancellor, Wendy Purcell was placed on leave. Professor Judith Petts, MBE, was appointed the University of Plymouth’s Vice-Chancellor and she joined Plymouth from the University of Southampton where she had been Pro-Vice-Chancellor Research and Enterprise and previously the inaugural Dean of the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences. The university was selected by the Royal Statistical Society in October 2008 to be the home of its Centre for Statistical Education and it also runs courses in maritime business, marine engineering, marine biology, and Earth, ocean & environmental sciences. When university status was gained in 1992, the university was based in various locations, under Vice-Chancellor Levinsky the university began a policy of centralising its campus activities in Plymouth. The Exmouth campus – Rolle College – housed the Faculty of Education, the decision was unpopular with students and the town of Exmouth itself. There were several protest marches and a campaign to keep the campus open, a Marine Building has been constructed behind the Babbage Building to house civil engineering, coastal engineering and marine sciences. An exception to the trend of centralising activities are the extensive activities in education for the health professions. In addition many of its students are taught at Further Education Colleges throughout Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, a building which opened in 2008 is shared between the Peninsula Medical School and the Faculty of Health and Human Sciences. The Faculty of Arts, previously based in Exmouth and Exeter moved here in August 2007, special accommodation arrangements can be made for students with disabilities or medical conditions. Plymouth is a university that has undergone a great deal of development
10.
Symrise
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Symrise is a major producer of flavours and fragrances with sales of €1.572 billion in 2010. Major competitors include Firmenich, Givaudan, International Flavors and Fragrances, Frutarom, Symrise was founded in 2003 by the merger of Haarmann & Reimer and Dragoco, both based in Holzminden. In 2002 private equity firm EQT Northern Private Equity and Bayer reached an agreement on the acquisition of Haarmann & Reimer while acquiring the shares of minority holders of DRAGOCO. Horst-Otto Gerberding, majority holder and Chairman of the Executive Board at DRAGOCO, placed all of his shares into the new corporation, Dragoco was founded in 1919 by Carl-Wilhelm Gerberding and his cousin August Bellmer. Haarman & Reimer was founded in 1874 by Holzminden chemists Ferdinand Tiemann, Holzminden was the site where vanillin was first produced industrially. In 1953, H&R was acquired by Bayer, in April 2005 Symrise acquired Flavours Direct, a UK-based manufacturer of compounded flavours and seasonings. In January 2006 Symrise acquired Hamburg based Kaden Biochemicals GmbH, a producer of specialty botanical extracts, in November 2006, Symrise announced plans to sell shares worth €650 million in an IPO. The firm also announced that its shareholders, including EQT. The IPO would leave well above 50% of Symrise shares in free-float, deutsche Bank and UBS conducted the listing on December 11,2006. Symrise was listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange with the trading symbol SY1, with 81,030,358 shares issued at an issue price of €17.25 for a total volume of €1.4 billion, it was the largest German public offering of 2006. On 19 March 2007, Symrise was added to the MDAX stock index, on 12 April 2014, Symrise had announced the acquisition of Diana Group one of the leading manufacturers of natural flavours and the global number 1 for pet food solutions. The transaction has been closed on July 29,2014 and valued at around EUR1.3 billion and financed through a combination of equity and debt
11.
Corporation
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A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law. Early incorporated entities were established by charter, most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for profit or not are referred to as for profit and not-for-profit corporations, there is some overlap between stock/non-stock and for profit/not-for-profit in that not-for-profit corporations are always non-stock as well. A for profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, registered corporations have legal personality and are owned by shareholders whose liability is limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation, shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity, in American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations. In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. In American English, the company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity. Despite not being human beings, corporations, as far as the law is concerned, are legal persons. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state, Corporations can be dissolved either by statutory operation, order of court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Corporations can even be convicted of offenses, such as fraud. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way humans are. While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock, in Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung or GmbH. In the last quarter of the 20th Century this new form of organization became available in the United States and other countries. Since the GmbH and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations they will not be discussed in this article, the word corporation derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a body of people. By the time of Justinian, Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universitas and these included the state itself, municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of rights were found in ancient Rome. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope, the point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity
12.
Ernest Beaux
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Ernest Beaux was a Russian and French perfumer who is best known for creating Chanel No. 5, which is perhaps the worlds most famous perfume, born in Moscow, Ernest Beaux was the son of Edouard Hyppolite Beaux and Augustine Wilgemina Misfeld, second wife of Edouard Hyppolite Beaux, who was originally from Lille, France. Ernest Beauxs grandmother, Jeanne-Cléophée Beaux, had come to Russia at the beginning of the 1840s, Édouard-Hyppolyte was her son with Jean Joseph Messinger. Edouard Francois Beaux, Ernest Beauxs half-brother by his fathers first wife, Adelaide Fiurth, began as a clerk with the Moscow trading house of Mure and he joined A. Rallet & Co. ultimately becoming a member of the board and Deputy Administrator. Ernest Beaux was born in Moscow, Russia, the brother of Edouard Beaux, in 1898, A. Rallet and Company, with approximately 1500 employees and 675 products, was sold to the French perfume house, Chiris of La Bocca. Ernest completed his education that same year, and from 1898–1900 apprenticed as laboratory technician in the soap works of Rallet. He finished his education in 1907, earned a promotion to senior perfumer. In 1912 Russia celebrated the centennial of the Battle of Borodino, for this celebration Ernest Beaux created the fragrance Bouquet de Napoleon, a floral Eau de Cologne, for Rallet. It proved to be a commercial success. The following year,1913, marked the tercentenary of the founding of the Romanov dynasty, to follow up on his Bouquet de Napoleon success, Ernest Beaux created a now lost fragrance, the Bouquet de Catherine, honoring Catherine the Great. This fragrance is not to be confused with a fragrance from Brocard, Rallets chief competitor in Russia called The Empresss Favorite Bouquet, while born and raised in Russia, Ernest Beauxs French heritage brought him into the French army. While serving in the French military, Ernest Beauxs perfumer colleagues at Rallet fled during Russias October Revolution to La Bocca, France, to continue working with Chiris. In 1919 Ernest Beaux, released now from the army, settled in Paris, in 1912, Ernest Beaux married Iraïde de Schoenaich, who gave birth to their son, Edouard, the following year. During the Russian Civil War, Iraïde escaped from Russia through Finland with her infant son and they reached France by sea following a dangerous two-month-long voyage, during which time Iraïde fell deeply in love with another man. Ernest divorced her and took custody of their son, while Iraïde moved to Nice to work with her lover, Ernest later married Yvonne Girodon, with whom he had a daughter, Madeleine. At that time, Joseph Robert was the chief perfumer at Chiris, with little prospect of being promoted under him, Ernest Beaux tried to use his contacts to the emigrated Russian nobility to get new projects. Chanel chose the No.5 as a Christmas present for her best clients, initially only 100 flacons of Chanel Nº5 were produced, which she gave away on Christmas 1921 for free to her best clients. However, soon the demand was such that she decided to launch the perfume officially for sale in her shops in 1922, however, since this didnt do as well as Nº5, it was withdrawn and only relaunched in 1926
