1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
3.
Districts of Israel
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There are six main administrative districts of Israel, known in Hebrew as mehozot and Arabic as mintaqah and fifteen sub-districts known as nafot. Each sub-district is further divided into Cities, municipalities, and Regional councils it contains, the Judea and Samaria Area, however, is not included in the number of districts and sub-districts as Israel has not applied its civilian jurisdiction in that part of the West Bank. Population,1,358,600 District capital, Nazareth Safed – population,113,700 Kinneret – population,110,500 Yizreel – population,482,300 Akko – population,605,700 Golan – population,46,400. Population,966,700 District capital, Haifa Haifa – population,560,600 Hadera – population,406,000 Central District. Population,2,024,500 District capital, Ramla Sharon – population,446,500 Petah Tikva – population,685,000 Ramla – population,326,400 Rehovot – population,566,600 Tel Aviv District. Population,1,350,000 District capital, Tel Aviv Southern District, currently only the Coordination and Liaison Administration operates there. Jewish Population,407,118, Palestinian population, roughly 1.8 million, largest city, Modiin Illit The name Judea and Samaria for this geographical area is based on terminology from the Hebrew and other sources relating to ancient Israel and Judah/Judea. The territory has been under Israeli control since the 1967 Six-Day War but not annexed by Israel, in Jewish religious terms, it is part of the Land of Israel, which leads to politically contentious issues. However, it is not considered part of the State of Israel by the UN, urban Israel, Details and pictures about many cities in Israel
4.
Central District (Israel)
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The Central District of Israel is one of six administrative districts, including most of the Sharon region. It is further divided into 4 sub-districts, Petah Tikva, Ramla, Sharon, the districts largest city is Rishon LeZion. Its population as of 2014 was 2,024,500, el Al maintains its corporate headquarters on the grounds of Ben Gurion Airport and in the Central District. Districts of Israel List of cities in Israel
5.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
6.
Tel Aviv
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Tel Aviv-Yafo is a major city in Israel, located on the countrys Mediterranean coastline. It is the center and the technology hub of Israel, with a population of 432,892. Tel Aviv is the largest city in the Gush Dan region of Israel, Tel Aviv is also a focal point in the high-tech concentration known as the Silicon Wadi. Tel Aviv is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, headed by Ron Huldai, Tel Aviv is a global city, and is the thirty eighth most important financial center in the world. Tel Aviv is known to have the third-largest economy of any city in the Middle East after Abu Dhabi and Kuwait City, the city receives over a million international visitors annually. Known as The City that Never Sleeps and a party capital, it has a lively nightlife, the city was founded in 1909 by Jewish immigrants on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa. It is named after the Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzls 1902 novel, Altneuland, the modern citys first neighbourhoods had already been established in 1886, the first being Neve Tzedek. Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced Jaffas, Tel Aviv and Jaffa were merged into a single municipality in 1950, two years after the establishment of the State of Israel. Tel Avivs White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, Tel Aviv is the Hebrew title of Theodor Herzls Altneuland, translated from German by Nahum Sokolow. The name was chosen in 1910 from several suggestions, including Herzliya and it was found fitting as it embraced the idea of a renaissance in the ancient Jewish homeland. Aviv is Hebrew for spring, symbolizing renewal, and tel is a man-made mound accumulating layers of civilization built one over the other and symbolizing the ancient. Although founded in 1909 as a settlement on the sand dunes North of Jaffa. The marketing pamphlets advocating for its establishment in 1906, wrote, In this city we will build the streets so they have roads and sidewalks and electric lights. Every house will have water wells that will flow through pipes as in every modern European city. Since 1886, Jewish settlers had founded new neighborhoods outside Jaffa on the current territory of Tel Aviv, the first was Neve Tzedek, built on lands owned by Aharon Chelouche and inhabited primarily by Mizrahi Jews. Other neighborhoods were Neve Shalom, Yafa Nof, Achva, Ohel Moshe, Kerem HaTeimanim, once Tel Aviv received city status in the 1920s, those neighborhoods joined the newly formed municipality, now becoming separated from Jaffa. The Second Aliyah led to further expansion, in 1906, a group of Jews, among them residents of Jaffa, followed the initiative of Akiva Aryeh Weiss and banded together to form the Ahuzat Bayit society. The societys goal was to form a Hebrew urban centre in an environment, planned according to the rules of aesthetics
7.
Old Yishuv
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The Old Yishuv were the Jewish communities of the southern Syrian provinces in the Ottoman period, up to the onset of Zionist aliyah and the consolidation of the New Yishuv by the end of World War I. The Old Yishuv developed after a period of decline in Jewish communities of the Southern Levant during the early Middle Ages. The oldest group consisted of the Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jewish communities in Galilee, a second group was composed of Ashkenazi and Hassidic Jews who had emigrated from Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. A third wave was constituted by Yishuv members who arrived in the late 19th century. Apart from the Old Yishuv centres in the four cities of Judaism, namely Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias and Safed, smaller communities also existed in Jaffa, Haifa, Pekiin, Acre, Nablus. Petah Tikva, although established in 1878 by the Old Yishuv, rishon LeZion, the first settlement founded by the Hovevei Zion in 1882, could be considered the true beginning of the New Yishuv. Jewish communities of the southern Levant under Byzantine rule fell into a decline in the early 7th century. And with the Jewish revolt against Heraclius and Muslim conquest of Syria, despite temporary revival, the Arab Muslim civil wars of the 8th and 9th centuries drove many non-Muslims out of the country, with no evidence of mass conversions, except for Samaritans. The Crusader period marked the most serious decline, lasting through the 12th century, maimonides traveled from Spain to Morocco and Egypt, and stayed in the Holy Land, probably sometime between 1165 and 1167, before settling in Egypt. He had then become a physician of Saladin, escorting him throughout his war campaigns against the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Small Jewish communities were also existent at the time in Gaza, the vast majority of the settlers were wiped out by the Crusaders, who arrived in 1219, and the few survivors were allowed to live only in Acre. Their descendants blended with the original Jewish residents, called Mustarabim or Maghrebim, the Mamluk period saw an increase in the Jewish population, especially in the Galilee, but the black death epidemics had cut the countrys demographics by at least one-third. In 1260, Rabbi Yechiel of Paris arrived in Eretz Israel, at the part of Mamluk Empire, along with his son. There he established the Talmudic academy Midrash haGadol dParis and he is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268, and is buried near Haifa, at Mount Carmel. Nahmanides arrived in 1267 and settled in Acre as well, don Joseph Nasi succeeded in resettling Tiberias and Safed in 1561 with Sephardic Jews, many of them former Anusim. By the late 16th century, Safed had become a center of Kabbalah, inhabited by important rabbis, among them were Rabbi Yakov bi Rav, Rabbi Moshe Cordevero, Rabbi Yosef Karo, and Isaac Luria. At this time there was a community in Jerusalem headed by Rabbi Levi ibn Haviv also known as the Mahralbach. Rabbi Yeshaye Horowitz, the Shelah Hakadosh, arrived in 1620, Galilee, becoming the most important Jewish center, however, didnt last
8.
Edmond James de Rothschild
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Baron Edmond Benjamin James de Rothschild was a French member of the Rothschild banking family. A strong supporter of Zionism, his large donations lent significant support to the movement during its early years and he grew up in the world of the Second Republic and the Second Empire and was a soldier Garde Mobile in the first Franco-Prussian War. Edmond de Rothschild inherited Château Rothschild, Boulogne-Billancourt and owned the Château Rothschild dArmainvilliers in Gretz-Armainvilliers in the Seine-et-Marne département, included in this gift were more than one hundred engravings and drawings by Rembrandt. A portion of his art collection was bequeathed to his son James A. de Rothschild and is now part of the National Trust collection at Waddesdon Manor, however, in 1882 Edmond cut back on his purchases of art and began to buy land in Southern Syria. He became a proponent of the Zionist movement, financing the first site at Rishon LeZion. In his goal for the establishment of a Jewish homeland, he promoted industrialization, in 1924, he established the Palestine Jewish Colonization Association, which acquired more than 125,000 acres of land and set up business ventures. Edmond de Rothschild also played a role in Israels wine industry. Under the supervision of his administrators in Ottoman Palestine, farm colonies and vineyards were established and it is estimated that Rothschild spent over $50 million in supporting the settlements and backed research in electricity by engineers and financed development of an electric generating station. Jews and Arabs lived amicably on Rothschilds land, with no Arab grievances, according to historian Albert M. Hyamson, Rothschild recognised that the overriding interest of the Jews of Palestine was the confidence and the friendship of their Arab neighbours. The interests of the Arab cultivators of the land he bought were never overlooked and he suggested in 1931 to Judah Magnes that We must hold them down with a strong hand. In a 1934 letter to the League of Nations, Edmond de Rothschild stated that the struggle to put an end to the Wandering Jew, could not have as its result, in 1934, Baron de Rothschild died at Château Rothschild, Boulogne-Billancourt. His wife died a year later on 29 December 1935 and they were interred in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris until April 1954 when their remains were transported to Israel aboard a naval frigate. At the port of Haifa, the ship was met with sirens, for his Jewish philanthropy Baron Edmond became known as HaNadiv HaYadua, and in his memory his son bequeathed the funds to construct the building for the Knesset. Israels 1982/5742 Independence Day coin is dedicated to the memory of Edmond de Rothschild, from 1982 until 1986, the Bank of Israel used his portrait on the 500 Israeli sheqel note. Rothschild Boulevard in Tel Aviv is named after him, as well as various localities throughout Israel which he assisted in founding, Rishon LeZion, the city which he helped to found named one of the central streets Rothschild Street, and in 1996 Rothschild Mall was built. Also named after him is the Parc Edmond de Rothschild in Boulogne-Billancourt, Edmond de Rothschild, lhomme qui racheta la terre sainte. Aharonson, Ran. Rothschild and Early Jewish Colonization in Palestine, two Rothschilds and the Land of Israel
9.
Gush Dan
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The area is located along the Israeli Mediterranean coastline. The Gush Dan bloc is the largest conurbation and metropolitan area in Israel and it houses about 45% of Israels population. 2 The core area includes the city of Tel Aviv. 3 The inner ring includes the cities Bat Yam, Holon, Ramat HaSharon, Ramat Gan, Givatayim, Bnei Brak, Herzliya, Or Yehuda, Givat Shmuel and Kiryat Ono, as well as a multitude of smaller towns. 4 The middle ring includes the cities Petah Tikva, Raanana, Rishon LeZion, Hod HaSharon, Kfar Saba, Yehud, Ramla, Lod, Rosh HaAyin, Ness Ziona and Rehovot, as well as many smaller towns. 5 The outer ring includes the cities Tayibe, Netanya, Modiin-Maccabim-Reut, Ashdod, the name Gush Dan means Dan Bloc, and is so named because the area was the territory of the tribe of Dan in the ancient Kingdom of Israel. The camp location became known as Mahaneh Dan, the region they attempted to settle included the area as far north as Joppa and as far south as Shephelah in the area of Timnah. As a result of the pressure from the Philistines, the tribe abandoned hopes of settling near the central coast, after conquering Laish, the tribe refounded it as their capital and renamed it Dan. In remembrance of the original territory assignments, this region is referred to as Gush Dan. The modern city of Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 as a suburb of the Arab coastal city of Jaffa. The city grew rapidly in the ensuing decades thanks to European immigration, with the population reaching 150,000 in 1934, in 1947, the Jewish population of the Gush Dan was nearly 400,000, comprising the majority of the Jewish population of Mandate Palestine. As such almost all of it was included in the Jewish state proposed by the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War the Arab population of the region and they were quickly replaced by a larger number of Jews fleeing from postwar Europe and persecution in Arab countries. However, at this time many new immigrants did not come to Tel Aviv, in the 1950s towns were built on the edges of the Gush Dan, including Ashdod, Rosh HaAyin and Yavne. The nations sole port at the time was located in the city of Haifa. At the same time the new government was trying to disperse the population to the periphery. This slowed the growth of the Gush Dan, but the still more than doubled in population within 20 years of the establishment of the state. Tel Aviv itself witnessed population decreases in the 1970s, and 80s with outer regions of the Gush Dan with lower costs of living absorbing many people who left Tel Aviv
10.
Hosea
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In the Hebrew Bible, Hosea, son of Beeri, was an 8th-century BC prophet in Israel who authored the book of prophecies bearing his name. He is one of the Twelve Prophets of the Jewish Hebrew Bible, Hosea is often seen as a prophet of doom, but underneath his message of destruction is a promise of restoration. The Talmud claims that he was the greatest prophet of his generation, the period of Hoseas ministry extended to some sixty years and he was the only prophet of Israel of his time who left any written prophecy. The name Hosea, meaning salvation, or He saves, or He helps, seems to have been not uncommon and it may be a contraction of a larger form of which the divine name or its abbreviation formed a part, so as to signify YHWH helps. According to the Bible Numbers 13,8,13,16 that was the name of Joshua, son of Nun, until Moses gave him the longer, theophoric name Yehoshua. Little is known about the life or social status of Hosea, according to the Book of Hosea, he married the prostitute Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim, at Gods command. There is a reference to the wars led to the capture of the kingdom by the Assyrians. It is not certain if he had experienced the destruction of Samaria. Hoseas family life reflected the relationship which Israel had built with polytheistic gods. The relationship between Hosea and Gomer parallels the relationship between God and Israel, even though Gomer runs away from Hosea and sleeps with another man, he loves her anyway and forgives her. Likewise, even though the people of Israel worshipped false gods, God continued to love them, similarly, his childrens names made them like walking prophecies of the fall of the ruling dynasty and the severed covenant with God – much like the prophet Isaiah a generation later. The name of Hoseas daughter, Lo-ruhamah, which translates as not pitied, is chosen by God as a sign of displeasure with the people of Israel for following false gods. The name of Hoseas son, Lo-ammi, which translates as not my people, is chosen by the Lord as a sign of the Lords displeasure with the people of Israel for following false gods. One of the writing prophets, Hosea used his own experience as a symbolic representation of God and Israel, God the husband. Hoseas wife left him to go with other men, Israel left the Lord to go with false gods, Hosea searched for his wife, found her and brought her back, God would not abandon Israel and brought them back even though they had forsaken him. The Book of Hosea was a warning to the northern kingdom against the growing idolatry being practiced there. Christians extend the analogy of Hosea to Christ and the church, Christ the husband, christians see in this book a comparable call to the church not to forsake the Lord Jesus Christ. Christians also take the back of Gomer as the redemptive qualities of Jesus Christs sacrifice on the cross
11.
Postage stamp
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Postage stamp may also refer to a formatting artifact in the display of film or video, Windowbox. A postage stamp is a piece of paper that is purchased and displayed on an item of mail as evidence of payment of postage. Typically, stamps are printed on special paper, show a national designation and a denomination on the front. They are sometimes a source of net profit to the issuing agency, stamps are usually rectangular, but triangles or other shapes are occasionally used. The stamp is affixed to an envelope or other postal cover the customer wishes to send, the item is then processed by the postal system, where a postmark, sometimes known as a cancellation mark, is usually applied in overlapping manner to stamp and cover. This procedure marks the stamp as used to prevent its reuse, in modern usage, postmarks generally indicate the date and point of origin of the mailing. The mailed item is delivered to the address the customer has applied to the envelope or parcel. Postage stamps have facilitated the delivery of mail since the 1840s, before then, ink and hand-stamps, usually made from wood or cork, were often used to frank the mail and confirm the payment of postage. The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the Penny Black, was issued in the United Kingdom in 1840, there are varying accounts of the inventor or inventors of the stamp. The postage stamp resolved this issue in a simple and elegant manner, concurrently with the first stamps, the UK offered wrappers for mail. S. Postal service for priority or express mailing, the postage stamp afforded convenience for both the mailer and postal officials, more effectively recovered costs for the postal service, and ultimately resulted in a better, faster postal system. With the conveniences stamps offered, their use resulted in greatly increased mailings during the 19th and 20th centuries, as postage stamps with their engraved imagery began to appear on a widespread basis, historians and collectors began to take notice. The study of stamps and their use is referred to as philately. Stamp collecting can be both a hobby and a form of study and reference, as government-issued postage stamps. The postage for the item was prepaid by the use of a hand-stamp to frank the mailed item. Though this stamp was applied to a letter instead of a piece of paper it is considered by many historians as the worlds first postage stamp. Rowland Hill The Englishman Sir Rowland Hill began interest in postal reform in 1835, in 1836, a Member of Parliament, Robert Wallace, provided Hill with numerous books and documents, which Hill described as a half hundred weight of material. Hill commenced a study of these documents, leading him to the 1837 publication of a pamphlet entitled Post Office Reform its Importance
12.
Yarkon River
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The Yarkon River, also Yarqon River, is a river in central Israel. The source of the Yarkon is at Tel Afek, north of Petah Tikva and it flows west through Gush Dan and Tel Avivs Yarkon Park into the Mediterranean Sea. Its Arabic name, al-Auja, means the meandering, the Yarkon is the largest coastal river in Israel, at 27.5 km in length. The Yarkon formed the border of the vilayet of Beirut during the late Ottoman period. The Arabic name of the river, al-Auja, is shared with another stream that flows into the Jordan Valley north of Jericho. In the Mandatory period, the British government granted to Pinhas Rutenbergs Jaffa Electric Company exclusive rights to generate, distribute and these rights were delivered through the “Auja Concession”, which was formally signed on September 12,1921. The district comprised Jaffa, the oldest and at the time still most important town in the area, the fast growing town of Tel Aviv north of it, and other smaller locations. Yet the plan to generate electricity by hydroelectric means never materialized, the river became increasingly polluted after the 1950s, many blaming this on the construction of the Reading Power Station which is situated near its mouth. When the rivers headwaters were diverted to the Negev via the National Water Carrier for irrigation purposes, as sewage replaced the flow of fresh water, habitats were destroyed and flora and fauna disappeared. This was exacerbated by continuous discharges of industrial effluents and municipal sewage into the rivers, on July 14,1997, the infamous Maccabiah bridge collapse led to the death of four athletes, three of which died due to infections caused by exposure to the polluted river water. In 1988, the Yarkon River Authority was established to revitalize the river and make sections of it suitable for sailing, fishing, swimming, Water quality improved after the construction of modern sewage treatment plants in Hod Hasharon and Ramat Hasharon. The river was dredged to restore its depth and natural flow. On July 14,1997, four members of the Australian delegation to the Maccabiah Games were killed and 60 injured as a result of the collapse of a pedestrian bridge over the Yarkon. The deaths were traced to a fungal infection caused by aspiration of the heavily polluted water. Ayalon River, turned artificially into a tributary of the Yarkon Yarkon River Authority Yarkon River Authority
13.
Yehoshua Stampfer
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Yehoshua Stampfer was a Zionist and one of the founders of the city of Petah Tikva in Israel, and a member of its original municipal council. Petah Tikva was founded in 1878 and is nicknamed Mother of Settlements since it was the first renewed modern Jewish agricultural settlement in Palestine at the time, Stampfer was born in Komárno and then raised in Szombathely, Hungary to a religious family. Seeing the results of the success of the Hungarians in 1867. When he was 17, he started the Aliyah to the Land of Israel by walking all the way to Jerusalem and he later joined forces with several other pioneers and established his dream to revive the land by building new Jewish neighbourhoods outside the Old City of Jerusalem. Initially he purchased 3.2 km2 for Petah Tikva, which began with a few tents, in 1882 there were already 66 people living in Petah Tikva
14.
Lithuania
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Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania, is a country in Northern Europe. One of the three Baltic states, it is situated along the shore of the Baltic Sea, to the east of Sweden. It is bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, Lithuania has an estimated population of 2.9 million people as of 2015, and its capital and largest city is Vilnius. The official language, Lithuanian, along with Latvian, is one of two living languages in the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family. For centuries, the shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s, the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, the King of Lithuania, and the first unified Lithuanian state, with the Lublin Union of 1569, Lithuania and Poland formed a voluntary two-state union, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772–95, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuanias territory. As World War I neared its end, Lithuanias Act of Independence was signed on 16 February 1918, in the midst of the Second World War, Lithuania was first occupied by the Soviet Union and then by Nazi Germany. As World War II neared its end and the Germans retreated, Lithuania is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, a full member of the Eurozone, Schengen Agreement and NATO. It is also a member of the Nordic Investment Bank, the United Nations Human Development Index lists Lithuania as a very high human development country. Lithuania has been among the fastest growing economies in the European Union and is ranked 21st in the world in the Ease of Doing Business Index, the first people settled in the territory of Lithuania after the last glacial period in the 10th millennium BC. Over a millennium, the Indo-Europeans, who arrived in the 3rd – 2nd millennium BC, mixed with the local population, the first written mention of Lithuania is found in a medieval German manuscript, the Annals of Quedlinburg, in an entry dated 9 March 1009. Initially inhabited by fragmented Baltic tribes, in the 1230s the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, after his assassination in 1263, pagan Lithuania was a target of the Christian crusades of the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order. Despite the devastating century-long struggle with the Orders, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania expanded rapidly, by the end of the 14th century, Lithuania was one of the largest countries in Europe and included present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia. The geopolitical situation between the west and the east determined the multicultural and multi-confessional character of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the ruling elite practised religious tolerance and Chancery Slavonic language was used as an auxiliary language to the Latin for official documents. In 1385, the Grand Duke Jogaila accepted Polands offer to become its king, Jogaila embarked on gradual Christianization of Lithuania and established a personal union between Poland and Lithuania. It implied that Lithuania, the fiercely independent land, was one of the last pagan areas of Europe to adopt Christianity, after two civil wars, Vytautas the Great became the Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1392. During his reign, Lithuania reached the peak of its expansion, centralization of the state began
15.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
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Southern Syria
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Southern Syria is the southern part of the Syria region, roughly corresponding to the Southern Levant. Typically it refers chronologically and geographically to the part of Ottoman Syria provinces. Throughout the Ottoman period, prior to World War I, the Levant was administered and viewed locally as one entity, in 1884, the governor of Damascus made a proposal to establish a new Vilayet of Southern Syria, though nothing came out of this. According to the Minutes of the Ninth Session of the League of Nations Permanent Mandate Commission, the reports say the following, Colonel Symes explained that the country was described as Palestine by Europeans and as Falestin by the Arabs. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasize its close relation with another Arab State. In 1927, an Arab party named the Arab Independence Party in Southern Syria was established in Mandatory Palestine to emphasize the reaffirmed support for Arab pan-Syrianism. While the use of the term Southern Syria term was common by the early 20th century, it is occasionally used term in politics, literature. Helsinki. fi−Levant internetcourse, Brief history of Southern Syria
17.
Jericho
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Jericho is a city in the Palestinian Territories and is located near the Jordan River in the West Bank. It is the seat of the Jericho Governorate, and is governed by the Fatah faction of the Palestinian National Authority. In 2007, it had a population of 18,346, the city was occupied by Jordan from 1949 to 1967, and has been held under Israeli occupation since 1967, administrative control was handed over to the Palestinian Authority in 1994. It is believed to be one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world and it was thought to have the oldest stone tower in the world as well, but excavations at Tell Qaramel in Syria have discovered stone towers that are even older. Copious springs in and around the city have attracted human habitation for thousands of years, Jericho is described in the Hebrew Bible as the City of Palm Trees. Jerichos Arabic name, ʼArīḥā, means fragrant and also has its roots in Canaanite Reaẖ, the first excavations of the site were made by Charles Warren in 1868. Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger excavated Tell es-Sultan and Tulul Abu el-Alayiq between 1907–1909 and in 1911, and John Garstang excavated between 1930 and 1936, extensive investigations using more modern techniques were made by Kathleen Kenyon between 1952 and 1958. Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolo Marchetti conducted excavations in 1997-2000, the earliest settlement was located at the present-day Tell es-Sultan, a couple of kilometers from the current city. In both Arabic and Hebrew, tell means mound - consecutive layers of habitation built up a mound over time, as is common for ancient settlements in the Middle East, Jericho is the type site for the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B periods. Jericho has evidence of settlement dating back to 10,000 BCE, during the Younger Dryas period of cold and drought, permanent habitation of any one location was impossible. However, the Ein es-Sultan spring at what would become Jericho was a camping ground for Natufian hunter-gatherer groups. Pre-Pottery Neolithic A The first permanent settlement on the site of Jericho developed near the Ein es-Sultan spring between 9,500 and 9000 BCE, as the world warmed up, a new culture based on agriculture and sedentary dwelling emerged, which archaeologists have termed Pre-Pottery Neolithic A. At Jericho, circular dwellings were built of clay and straw bricks left to dry in the sun, each house measured about 5 metres across, and was roofed with mud-smeared brush. Hearths were located within and outside the homes, by about 9400 BCE, the town had grown to more than 70 modest dwellings. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A phase at Tell es-Sultan is sometimes called Sultanian and this tower and the even older ones excavated at Tell Qaramel in Syria are the oldest ever to be discovered. The wall may have served as a defence against flood-water, with the used for ceremonial purposes. The wall and tower were built during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A period around 8000 BCE, for the tower, carbon dates published in 1981 and 1983 indicate that it was built around 8300 BCE and stayed in use until ca.7800 BCE. The wall and tower would have taken a hundred men more than a hundred days to construct, the town contained round mud-brick houses, yet no street planning
18.
Abdul Hamid II
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Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the last Sultan to exert effective autocratic control over the fracturing state. Abdul Hamids 1909 removal from the throne was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, the most far-reaching of these reforms were in education, professional schools were established. The University of Istanbul, although shut down by Abdul Hamid himself in 1881, was reopened in 1900, and a network of secondary, primary, Railway and telegraph systems were developed by primarily German firms. Between 1871 and 1908, the Sublime Porte thus reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation. Abroad, Abdul Hamid was nicknamed the Red Sultan or Abdul the Damned due to the massacres committed against minorities during his rule and use of a police to silence dissent. These led to an attempt in 1905, contributing to the sultans worsening paranoia until his eventual removal from the throne. Abdul Hamid II was born at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul and he was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid and Tirimüjgan Kadınefendi, originally named Virjin. After the death of his mother, he became the adoptive son of his fathers wife. He was a carpenter and personally crafted some high quality furniture. Abdul Hamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many opera classics and he ascended to the throne following the deposition of his brother Murad on 31 August 1876. At his accession, some commentators were impressed by the fact that he rode practically unattended to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque where he was given the Sword of Osman. Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have ideas. In any event, like many other reforms of the Ottoman Empire change proved to be nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war, however, everything changed when the British fleet approached the capital from the Sea of Marmara. Early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire, Abdul Hamids biggest fear, near dissolution, was realised with the Russian declaration of war on 24 April 1877. In that conflict, the Ottoman Empire fought without help from European allies, Russian chancellor Prince Gorchakov had effectively purchased Austrian neutrality with the Reichstadt Agreement. The Russian victory was quickly realised, the conflict ended in February 1878. After the war with Russia, Abdulhamid suspended the constitution in February 1878, for the next three decades, the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Abdulhamid from Yıldız Palace
19.
Christian
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
20.
Yehud
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Yehud is a city in the Central District in Israel that is part of the joint municipality of Yehud-Monosson. In 2007, Yehuds population is approximately 30,000, Yehud is mentioned in the Bible in a list of towns in the area. The actual size of Yehud during this time remains debated by scholars, in later centuries Yehud became the Arab town of Al-Yehudiya, also called Al-Abbasiyya, but the Arab population left in its entirety during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The town was repopulated in the early 1950s by Ladino-speaking Jews of Turkish extraction and subsequently also by Jews from Białystok, Poland, the replica will be replete with neoclassical columns and colonnades. This project was scheduled to be finished and in fall 2016, in 2003, the Yehud-Monosson Municipality was formed to provide municipal services to Yehud and the neighboring community of Neve Monosson. Under the terms of the merger, Neve Monosson remains with a level of autonomy under the Neve Monosson Local Administration. The Neve Monosson Local Administration was granted status as an autonomous borough by the Interior Minister in 2005 within the implementation of the merger plan. In a practical sense, the Yehud-Monosson Municipality really functions as the municipality of Yehud whilst providing basic statutory municipal services to Neve Monosson on an outsourcing basis, according to CBS, in 2001 the ethnic makeup of the city was all Jewish. According to CBS, in 2001 there were 10,500 males and 11,100 females, the population growth rate in 2001 was 2. 6%. Yehud serves as the base of the large Africa Israel Investments company majority owned by Lev Leviev, according to CBS, there are 10 schools and 5,159 students in the city. They are spread out as 6 elementary schools and 2,252 elementary school students,54. 2% of 12th grade students were entitled to a matriculation certificate in 2001. Football, Hapoel Yehud spent several seasons in the top division of Israeli football during the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, after several relegations the club folded in 1998. A new club, Hapoel Ironi Yehud, was established in 2004 and currently plays in Liga Gimel
21.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign
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The Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was fought between the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire, supported by the German Empire. It started with an Ottoman attempt at raiding the Suez Canal in 1915, fighting began in January 1915, when a German-led Ottoman force invaded the Sinai Peninsula, then part of the British Protectorate of Egypt, to unsuccessfully raid the Suez Canal. After the Gallipoli Campaign, veterans from each side formed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, after a period of stalemate in Southern Palestine from April to October 1917, General Edmund Allenby captured Beersheba from the III Corps. Serious losses on the Western Front in March 1918, during Erich Ludendorffs German Spring Offensive, Damascus and Aleppo were captured during the subsequent pursuit, before the Ottoman Empire agreed to the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, ending the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. The British Mandate of Palestine and the French Mandate for Syria, the campaign was generally not well known or understood during the war. Australia did not have a war correspondent in the area until Captain Frank Hurley, Henry Gullett, the first Official War Correspondent, arrived in November 1917. The Republic of Turkey came into existence in 1923 after the Turkish War of Independence ended the Ottoman Empire, the Suez Canal was of vital strategic importance to the British, reducing the sailing time from India, New Zealand and Australia to Europe. As a result Egypt became a base during the war. To Germany and the Ottoman Empire the canal was the closest and weakest link in British communications, Defence of the canal posed a number of problems, with its sheer size alone making it hard to control. There was no road from Cairo, while only one railway track crossed the 30 miles of desert from Cairo to Ismaïlia on the Canal before branching north to Port Said and south to Suez. At the beginning of hostilities between Britain and the Ottoman Empire in November 1914 the 30,000 strong British defence force evacuated the Sinai Peninsula, instead they concentrated their defences on the western side of the canal. These were supported by the guns of Allied ships in the canal, opposing them were around 25,000 men, including the 25th Division. The Ottoman Empire demonstrated its interest in being reinstated in Egypt in 1915 when Ottoman forces attacked British forces in Egypt, the Germans also helped to foment unrest among the Senussi in what is now Libya, when they attacked western Egypt and threatened the Sudan during the Senussi Campaign. Egypt was neither an independent ally nor a member of the British Empire, the recently appointed High Commissioner Sir Reginald Wingate and Murray agreed that Egypts contributions would be restricted to the use of the countrys railway and Egyptian personnel. However, Maxwell had proclaimed on 6 November 1914 that Egypt would not be required to aid Britains war effort, martial law allowed the British administration to control foreign European residents, monitor foreign agents and intern dangerous persons who were the subjects of hostile nations. The powers were used to police prostitution and the sale of alcohol. The Capitulations, however provided some protection to the Europeans who controlled both these industries, in the autumn of 1917 GHQ was transferred from Cairo to the front leaving garrison battalions. This move took the commander in chief of the EEF, who was responsible for law, out of touch with the civil authorities
22.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
23.
Jaffa
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Jaffa or Yafo, is the southern and oldest part of Tel Aviv-Yafo, an ancient port city in Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the stories of Jonah, Solomon and Saint Peter as well as the mythological story of Andromeda. The town was mentioned in Egyptian sources and the Amarna letters as Yapu, mythology says that it is named for Japheth, one of the sons of Noah, the one who built it after the Flood. The Hellenist tradition links the name to Iopeia, or Cassiopeia, an outcropping of rocks near the harbor is reputed to have been the place where Andromeda was rescued by Perseus. Pliny the Elder associated the name with Iopa, daughter of Aeolus, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi referred to it as Yaffa. The tell of Jaffa rises to a height of 40 metres, with a view of the coastline. The accumulation of debris and landfill over the centuries made the even higher. Archaeological evidence shows that Jaffa was inhabited roughly 7500 BCE, the natural harbour of Jaffa has been in use since the Bronze Age. The city is mentioned in the Amarna letters under its Egyptian name Ya-Pho. The city was under Egyptian rule until around 800 BCE, Jaffa is mentioned in the Book of Joshua as the territorial border of the Tribe of Dan, hence the modern term Gush Dan for the center of the coastal plain. The tribe of Dan did not manage to dislocate the Philistines from Jaffa, in the Song of Deborah the prophetess asks, דן למה יגור אוניות, Why doth Dan dwell in ships. After Canaanite and Philistine dominion, King David and his son King Solomon conquered Jaffa, the city remained in Israelite hands even after the split of the united Kingdom of Israel. In 701 BCE, in the days of King Hezekiah, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, after a period of Babylonian occupation, under Persian rule, Jaffa was governed by Phoenicians from Tyre. Alexander the Greats troops were stationed in Jaffa and it later became a port of the Seleucid Empire until it was taken over by the Maccabees and ruled by the Hasmonean dynasty. During the First Jewish–Roman War, Jaffa was captured and burned by Cestius Gallus, the Roman Jewish historian Josephus writes that 8,400 inhabitants were massacred. Pirates operating from the rebuilt port incurred the wrath of Vespasian, the New Testament account of Saint Peter bringing back to life the widow Dorcas (recorded in Acts of the Apostles,9, 36–42, takes place in Jaffa, then called in Greek Ἰόππη. Peter retells the story of his vision in Acts 11, 4-17, in Midrash Tannaim in its chapter Deuteronomy 33,19, reference is made to Jose ben Halafta traveling through Jaffa. Jaffa seems to have attracted serious Jewish scholars in the 4th and 5th century, the Jerusalem Talmud in Moed Ketan references Rav Acha of Jaffa, and in Pesachim chapter 1 refers to Rav Phineas of Jaffa
24.
Local council (Israel)
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There are 265 local councils in Israel. Local councils should not be confused with local committees, which are lower-level administrative entities, Local council status is determined by passing a minimum threshold, enough to justify operations as independent municipal units, although not large enough to be declared a city. In general this applies to all settlements of over 2,000 people, the Israeli Interior Minister has the authority of deciding whether a locality is fit to become a municipal council. Local councils also have an important role in town planning, the Union of Local Authorities in Israel is the umbrella organization of local councils in Israel. The union represents the local councils vis a vis the national government, ULAI was established in 1938, under the British Mandate, as the League of Local Councils. Regional council City council List of cities in Israel Local Government in Israel
25.
Mandatory Palestine
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Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine
26.
Religious Zionism
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Religious Zionism is an ideology that combines Zionism and observant Judaism. Before the establishment of the State of Israel, Religious Zionists were mainly observant Jews who supported Zionist efforts to build a Jewish state in Palestine and their ideology revolves around three pillars, the Land of Israel, the People of Israel, and the Torah of Israel. In 1862, German Orthodox Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer published his tractate Derishat Zion, positing that the salvation of the Jews, promised by the Prophets, Rabbi Moshe Shmuel Glasner was another prominent rabbi who supported Zionism. Kook saw Zionism as a part of a scheme which would result in the resettlement of the Jewish people in its homeland. This would bring salvation to Jews, and then to the entire world, after world harmony is achieved by the refoundation of the Jewish homeland, the Messiah will come. Although this has not yet happened, Kook emphasized that it would take time, in 1924, when Kook became the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Palestine, he tried to reconcile Zionism with Orthodox Judaism. Religious Jews believe that Eretz Yisrael was promised to the ancient Israelites by God, to generations of diaspora Jews, Jerusalem has been a symbol of the Holy Land and of their return to it, as promised by God in numerous Biblical prophecies. Hastening salvation and the coming of the Messiah was considered religiously forbidden, Rabbi Kook developed a theological answer to that claim, which gave Zionism a religious legitimation, Zionism was not merely a political movement by secular Jews. It was actually a tool of God to promote His divine scheme and to initiate the return of the Jews to their homeland – the land He promised to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Moreover, to cultivate the Land of Israel was a Mitzvah by itself, therefore, settling Israel is an obligation of the religious Jews and helping Zionism is actually following Gods will. Religious Jews also disapproved of the Zionists because many were secular Jews or atheists, socialist Zionism envisaged the movement as a tool for building an advanced socialist society in the land of Israel, while solving the problem of antisemitism. The early kibbutz was a settlement that focused on national goals unencumbered by religion. Socialist Zionists were one of the results of a process of modernisation within the Jewish communities of Europe known as the Haskalah. Without their knowledge, they are contributing to the divine scheme, the role of religious Zionists is to help them to establish a Jewish state and turn the religious spark in them into a great light. They should show them that the source of Zionism and the longed-for Zion is Judaism and teach them Torah with love. In the end, they understand that the laws of Torah are the key to true harmony. Shlomo Avineri explained the last part of Kooks answer, the first rabbis to support Zionism were Yehuda Shlomo Alkalai and Zvi Hirsch Kalischer. The Mizrachi organization was established in 1902 in Vilna at a conference of Religious Zionists
27.
Ein Ganim
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Ein Ganim was the first moshav poalim in Ottoman Palestine. It was established in 1908 near Petah Tikva by members of the Second Aliyah, the moshav poalim was an attempt to combine farming and urban labor. In addition to working in the city, families received land for tending small kitchen gardens, the moshav poalim differed in approach from the moshav ovdim, It was not based on collective ideology or settling national land. The experiment failed because the kitchen gardens did not generate sufficient income, according to the 1931 census Ein Ganim had a population of 335 Jews, in 77 houses. In 1937, Ein Ganim became a neighborhood of Petah Tikva
28.
Bnei Brak
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Bnei Brak is a city located on the central Mediterranean coastal plain in Israel, just east of Tel Aviv. A center of Ultra Orthodox Judaism, Bnei Brak covers an area of 709 hectares and it is one of the poorest and most densely populated cities in Israel. Bnei Brak takes its name from the ancient Biblical city of Beneberak, the name is also cited by some as continuing the name of the Palestinian village of Ibn Ibraq which was located 4 kilometers to the south of where Bnei Barak was founded in 1924. Bnei Brak was founded as a village by Yitzchok Gerstenkorn. Due to a lack of land, many of the founders turned to other occupations, arye Mordechai Rabinowicz, formerly rabbi of Kurów in Poland, was the first rabbi. He was succeeded by Rabbi Yosef Kalisz, a scion of the Vurker dynasty, in the 1931 census of Palestine, the population of Benei Beraq was 956, all Jewish, in 255 houses. Bnei Brak achieved city status in 1950, Rabbi Avrohom Yeshaya Karelitz settled from Belarus to Bnei Brak in its early days, attracting a large following. Notable rabbis who reside in Bnei Brak today are Rabbi Aharon Yehuda Leib Shteinman, Rabbi Nissim Karelitz, Rabbi Shmuel Wosner, beginning in the 1960s, the rebbes of the Ukrainian Ruzhin dynasty, who had formerly lived in Tel Aviv, moved to Bnei Brak. In the 1990s, they were followed by the rebbe of Modzhitz, unlike the former four Gerrer rebbes, who lived in Jerusalem, the current rebbe was a Bnei Brak resident until 2012. The rebbes of Alexander, Biala-Bnei-Brak, Koidenov, Machnovke, Nadvorne, Premishlan, Radzin, slonim-Schwarze, Strykov, Tchernobil, Trisk-Bnei-Brak and Zutshke reside in Bnei Brak. Rabbi Moshe Yehuda Leib Landau is the Rabbi of Bnei Brak, the Rav Landau hechsher is widely accepted. Rabbi Nissim Karelitz, chief Rabbi of the Lithuanian Haredi community, heads a beth din of Lithuanian and Hasidic dayanim, according to figures by the municipality of Bnei Brak, the city has a population of over 181,000 residents, the majority of whom are Haredi Jews. It also has the largest population density of any city in Israel, with 25, in the 2013 Israeli legislative elections, 85% of the voters chose Haredi parties. One of the landmarks of Bnei Brak is the Coca-Cola bottling plant in Kahaneman St and it is owned by the Central Bottling Company, which has held the Israeli franchise for Coca-Cola products since 1968. It is among Coca-Colas ten largest single-plant bottling facilities worldwide, two major factories which dominated the centre of Bnei Brak for many years were the Dubek cigarette factory and the Osem food factory. As the town grew they found themselves in the middle of a residential area, osems main factory is now located on Jabotinsky road in Petah Tikva, just next to Bnei Brak. A business district is being built in Bnei Brak as of 2011, until the 1970s, the Bnei Brak municipality was headed by religious Zionist mayors. After Mayor Gottlieb of the National Religious Party was defeated, Haredi parties grew in status, as the Haredi population grew, the demand for public religious observance increased and more residents requested the closure of their neighbourhoods to vehicular traffic on Shabbat
29.
Haifa
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Haifa, is the third-largest city in the State of Israel, with a population of 278,903 in 2015. The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area and it is also home to the Baháí World Centre, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a destination for Bahai pilgrims. Built on the slopes of Mount Carmel, the settlement has a history spanning more than 3,000 years, the earliest known settlement in the vicinity was Tell Abu Hawam, a small port city established in the Late Bronze Age. In the 3rd century CE, Haifa was known as a dye-making center, over the centuries, the city has changed hands, being conquered and ruled by the Phoenicians, Persians, Hasmoneans, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Ottomans, British, and the Israelis. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the Haifa Municipality has governed the city, as of 2016, the city is a major seaport located on Israels Mediterranean coastline in the Bay of Haifa covering 63.7 square kilometres. It lies about 90 kilometres north of Tel Aviv and is the regional center of northern Israel. According to researcher J. Kis-Lev Haifa is considered a haven for coexistence between Jews and Arabs. Two respected academic institutions, the University of Haifa and the Technion, are located in Haifa, in addition to the largest k-12 school in Israel, the city plays an important role in Israels economy. It is home to Matam, one of the oldest and largest high-tech parks in the country, Haifa also owns the underground rapid transit system located in Israel. Haifa Bay is a center of industry, petroleum refining. Haifa formerly functioned as the terminus of an oil pipeline from Iraq via Jordan. With locals using it to refer to a tell at the foot of the Carmel Mountains that contains its remains. The name Efa first appears during Roman rule, some time after the end of the 1st century, Haifa is also mentioned more than 100 times in the Talmud, a work central to Judaism. Hefa or Hepha in Eusebius of Caesareas 4th-century work, Onomasticon, is said to be another name for Sycaminus, references to this city end with the Byzantine period. Following the Arab conquest in the 7th century, Haifa was used to refer to a site established on Tel Shikmona upon what were already the ruins of Sycaminon. Haifa is mentioned by the mid-11th-century Persian chronicler Nasir Khusraw, the Crusaders, who captured Haifa briefly in the 12th century, call it Caiphas, and believe its name related to Cephas, the Aramaic name of Simon Peter. Other spellings in English have included Caipha, Kaipha, Caiffa, Kaiffa and Khaifa.5 miles to the east. The new village, the nucleus of modern Haifa, was first called al-imara al-jadida by some, but others residing there called it Haifa al-Jadida at first, the ultimate origin of the name Haifa remains unclear
30.
Manufacturers Association of Israel
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The Manufacturers Association of Israel is the representative body of all industrial sectors in Israel, private, public, kibbutz and government industries. The MAI has a membership of over 2,000 organizations and industrial plants, the Manufacturers Association of Israel was founded in 1921 by a group of Jewish industrialists during the British Mandate for Palestine period. MAI is a member of international business and employers organizations such as IOE, BIAC and its local partners are Israeli Ministry of Economy, Israeli Ministry of Finance, Israel Export & International Cooperation Institute and others. Economics, The Economics Division coordinates the Association’s major economic activities, on top of that the Division provides counseling, research and representation services for MAI Members in related topics. Labor, The Division is responsible for representing employers in labor relations aspects and it conducts collective bargaining over labor legislation and agreements, and advocates for improved local curricula of vocational training. The Division employs experts in the fields of labor relations, labor law, human resources, training, productivity, safety and welfare. Foreign Trade & International Relations, The Division of Foreign Trade & International Relations supports MAI activity with a focus on foreign policy, International cooperation. The Division advocates the interests of the industry in terms of foreign trade policy, while promoting international collaborations. The Division is in charge of representing industry and business positions in Intergovernmental and International Organizations, Finance, The Finance & Administration Division is responsible for the Associations financial and reporting systems. It provides professional services to MAI Associations, and ancillary Sub-Associations, the Divisions operations are directed and supervised by the Associations Finance Committee, composed of public officials. The metal and electrical industries produce approximately 25% of the industrial production, export approximately 24% of the industrial export. Electronics & Software, The Association consists of about 300 companies in the fields of electronics, telecommunications, semiconductors, medical devices, IT, membership in the Association is open to any company dealing with design of electronics and software products with minimum added value of 45%. Members include private and public companies, state-owned enterprises and multinational companies, chemical, Pharmaceutical & Environmental Society, Established in 1979, the Society consists of 120 enterprises that represent most of the chemical industrial output in Israel. The main objective is to create a business environment for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries operating in Israel. Food Industries Association, The Association is the body that represents Israel’s food sector. The Association has more than 160 enterprises members, the Association deals with standardization, local legislation, foreign trade, marketing for the domestic market, exports, business intelligence and individual help to members in ad-hoc cases. Textile & Fashion Industries Association, Israel has a thriving textile, the Association comprises more than 120 companies, of which more than 100 are engaged in exports and overseas sales. Israeli fashion began to earn a reputation in the 1960s
31.
High tech
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High technology, often abbreviated to high tech is technology that is at the cutting edge, the most advanced technology available. As of the onset of the 21st century, products considered high tech are often those that incorporate advanced computer electronics, the opposite of high tech is low technology, referring to simple, often traditional or mechanical technology, for example, a calculator is a low-tech calculating device. Perhaps the first occurrence of the phrase is in a 1958 The New York Times story advocating atomic energy for Europe, western Europe, with its dense population and its high technology. By 1969, Robert Metz was using it in a financial column, Metz used the term frequently thereafter, a few months later he was using it with a hyphen, saying that a fund holds computer peripheral. Business equipment, and high-technology stocks, and in a 1971 article in its first occurrence in the abbreviated form high tech, because the high-tech sector of the economy develops or uses the most advanced technology known, it is often seen as having the most potential for future growth. This perception has led to investment in high-tech sectors of the economy. High tech is often viewed as high risk, but offering the opportunity for high profits, like Big Science, high technology is an international phenomenon, spanning continents, epitomized by the worldwide communication of the Internet. There are several high technology definitions that can be found, moreover, there are many problems with identifying high technology. There are large diversity of definitions that are used, here is a short overview of a number of different techniques to define high technology. OECD has two different approaches, sector and product, the sector approach classifies industries according their technology intensity, product approach according to finished products. The OECD does not only take the manufacturing but also the rate of technology into account. The OECDs classification is as follows, Furthermore, OECD’s product-based classification supports the technology intensity approach and it can be concluded that companies in a high-tech industry do not necessarily produce high-tech products and vice versa. When speaking of a society in a non-literal way, it is usually in reference to an overall society based in high-tech. However, this is something generally unattainable by the definition comprising its scarcity among every technology available, one website, belonging to Carver Networks, owned by entrepreneur and founder Kimberly Carver, adopted the term as a legal name in June 2012. An organizations department dealing with the latest technology in their projects, may also be considered a high-tech microsociety within the organizations, students and faculty related with ENAEE or ABET accredited programs might be considered high-tech society members, regarding other traditional degrees. In industry, companies working in the edge may be considered high-tech societies along with its main competitors. Low technology Intermediate technology - sometimes used to technology between low and high technology Industrial design List of emerging technologies
32.
Oracle Corporation
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Oracle Corporation is a multinational computer technology corporation, headquartered in Redwood Shores, California. In 2015 Oracle was the second-largest software maker by revenue, after Microsoft, larry Ellison co-founded Oracle Corporation in 1977 with Bob Miner and Ed Oates under the name Software Development Laboratories. Ellison took inspiration from the 1970 paper written by Edgar F. Codd on relational database management systems named A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks and he heard about the IBM System R database from an article in the IBM Research Journal provided by Oates. Also derived from Codds theories, Ellison wanted to make Oracles product compatible with System R, SDL changed its name to Relational Software, Inc in 1979, then again to Oracle Systems Corporation in 1982, to align itself more closely with its flagship product Oracle Database. At this stage Bob Miner served as the senior programmer. In 1995, Oracle Systems Corporation changed its name to Oracle Corporation, officially named Oracle, but sometimes referred to as Oracle Corporation, part of Oracle Corporations early success arose from using the C programming language to implement its products. This eased porting to different operating systems, many of the products have been added to Oracles portfolio through acquisitions. Oracles E-delivery service provides generic downloadable Oracle software and documentation, Oracle Database Release 10, In 2004, Oracle Corporation shipped release 10g as the then latest version of Oracle Database. Release 11, Release 11g became the current Oracle Database version in 2007, Oracle Corporation released Oracle Database 11g Release 2 in September 2009. This version was available in four commercial editions—Enterprise Edition, Standard Edition, Standard Edition One, the licensing of these editions shows various restrictions and obligations that are considered complex. The Enterprise Edition, the most expensive of the Database Editions, has the fewest restrictions —, Oracle Corporation constrains the Standard Edition and Standard Edition One with more licensing restrictions, in accordance with their lower price. Release 12, Release 12c became available on July 1,2013, Oracle acquired Rdb in 1994 from Digital Equipment Corporation. Oracle has since made many enhancements to product and development continues as of 2008. Released in 2008, the Oracle Beehive collaboration software provides team workspaces, email, calendar, instant messaging, customers can use Beehive as licensed software or as software as a service. Oracle also sells a suite of business applications, users can access these facilities through a browser interface over the Internet or via a corporate intranet. The Social Engagement and Monitoring cloud provides the most effective and efficient responses across social, SEM is able to route correct responses to the right team, member, or customer-experience channel to ensure the best customer service. The analysis helps vendors to understand what is important to customers and it identifies trends, spikes, and anomalies to make real-time course corrections. It also can identify brand advocates, the SEM cloud identifies customer intention and interests by analyzing the common ways customers talk about a product or a service
33.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
34.
Intel
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Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California that was founded by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. It is the worlds largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers based on revenue, and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple, Lenovo, HP, and Dell. Intel Corporation was founded on July 18,1968, by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, the companys name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics. The fact that intel is the term for intelligence information made the name appropriate. Intel was a developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips. Although Intel created the worlds first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, during the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, and Threading Building Blocks. Client Computing Group – 55% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in desktop, data Center Group – 29% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in server, network, and storage platforms. Internet of Things Group – 5% of 2016 revenues – offers platforms designed for retail, transportation, industrial, buildings, non-Volatile Memory Solutions Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – manufactures NAND flash memory products primarily used in solid-state drives. Intel Security Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – produces software, particularly security, programmable Solutions Group – 3% of 2016 revenues – manufactures programmable semiconductors. In 2016, Dell accounted for 15% of Intels total revenues, Lenovo accounted for 13% of total revenues, in the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since, other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics. Competitors in PC chip sets include Advanced Micro Devices, VIA Technologies, Silicon Integrated Systems, however, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover. Some smaller competitors such as VIA Technologies produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers, however, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent years led to a decline in PC sales. Since over 95% of the worlds smartphones currently use processors designed by ARM Holdings, ARM is also planning to make inroads into the PC and server market. Intel has been involved in disputes regarding violation of antitrust laws. Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore, a chemist, and Robert Noyce, arthur Rock helped them find investors, while Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage. Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, Rock was not an employee, but he was an investor and was chairman of the board
35.
Alcatel-Lucent
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Alcatel-Lucent S. A. was a French global telecommunications equipment company, headquartered in Boulogne-Billancourt, France. As of January 2016, the company is part of Nokia, the company focused on fixed, mobile and converged networking hardware, IP technologies, software and services, with operations in more than 130 countries. Alcatel-Lucents chief executive officer was Michel Combes and the chairman of the board was Philippe Camus. Camus joined the company in the quarter of 2008, alongside Ben Verwaayen as CEO, after Alcatel-Lucents first CEO Patricia Russo. For 2010, the company had revenues of €16 billion and a net loss of €334 million. For 2011, revenues were €15 billion, net loss of €1.1 billion, for 2012, revenues were €14.4 billion and net loss of €1.4 billion. On October 1,2014, it announced that it had closed the sale of its subsidiary Alcatel-Lucent Enterprise to China Huaxin Post & Telecommunication Economy Development Center, Alcatel-Lucent was formed when Alcatel merged with Lucent Technologies on December 1,2006. However, the predecessors of the company have been a part of industry since the late 19th century. The company has roots in two early telecommunications companies, La Compagnie Générale dElectricité and the Western Electric Manufacturing Company, Western Electric began in 1869 when Elisha Gray and Enos N. Barton started a manufacturing firm based in Cleveland, Ohio. By 1880, the company had relocated to Chicago, Illinois, CGE would become a leader in digital communications and would also be known for producing the TGV high-speed trains in France. Bell Telephone Laboratories was created in 1925 from the consolidation of the R&D organizations of Western Electric, Bell Labs researchers have won 7 Nobel Prizes. Also in 1925, Western Electric sold its International Western Electric Company subsidiary to ITT Corporation, CGE purchased the telecommunications part of ITT in the mid-1980s. AT&T re-entered the European telecommunications market in 1984 following the Bell System divestiture, Philips promoted the venture in part because its PRX public switching technology was ageing and it sought a partner to help fund the development costs of digital switching. In 1987, AT&T increased its holding to 60% and in 1990 it purchased the remainder of the Philips holding, in 1998, Alcatel Alsthom shifted its focus to the telecommunications industry, spinning off its Alsthom activities and changing the companys name to Alcatel. AT&T spun off Lucent Technologies in April 1996 with a public offering. In April 2004, TCL Corporation and Alcatel announced the creation of a mobile phone manufacturing joint venture, facing intense competition in the telecommunications industry, Alcatel and Lucent Technologies merged on November 30,2006. On April 5,2006, Alcatel announced that it would swap its shares of Alcatel Alenia Space and Telespazio for €673 million and a 12. 1% stake in Thales and this increased Alcatels stake in Thales to 20. 8%
36.
ECI Telecom
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ECI Telecom Ltd delivers networking solutions to service providers. ECI was founded in 1961 as a manufacturer of telecommunications equipment, the company provides packet optical transport products, a variety of SDN/NFV applications, a cybersecurity solution and a range of professional services. The focus is on providing solutions for multi-play services, business services, voice services, cellular backhaul, utelco. ECI has over 1,700 employees, offices in more than 20 countries and development centers in India, China, the company was founded as the Electronics Corporation of Israel in 1961. It specialized in telephone transmission products that manipulated the signals carried on telephone lines, the Electronics Corporation of Israel became ECI Telecom in 1981, and had its first trading on NASDAQ in 1982. ECtel - provider of Revenue assurance solution sold to cVidya in 2010, Veraz Networks - provider of Softswitch solutions merged with NexVerse Networks to form a new company called Veraz Networks in 2002. The companys website Acquisition of the company in 2007 ECI Telecom history
37.
GlaxoSmithKline
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GlaxoSmithKline plc is a British pharmaceutical company headquartered in Brentford, London. Andrew Witty has been the executive officer since 2008. Emma Walmsley became CEO on 31 March 2017 and is the first female CEO of the company, the company has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. As of August 2016 it had a capitalisation of £81 billion. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. GSKs drugs and vaccines earned £21.3 billion in 2013 and its top-selling products that year were Advair, Avodart, Flovent, Augmentin, Lovaza and Lamictal. GSKs consumer products, which earned £5, the company developed the first malaria vaccine, RTS, S, which it said in 2014 it would make available for five percent above cost. Legacy products developed at GSK include several listed in the World Health Organization Model List of Essential Medicines, such as amoxicillin, Glaxo was founded in the 1850s as a general trading company in Bunnythorpe, New Zealand, by a Londoner, Joseph Edward Nathan. In 1904 it began producing baby food, first known as Defiance, then as Glaxo. The Glaxo Laboratories sign is visible on what is now a car repair shop on the main street of Bunnythorpe. The companys first pharmaceutical product, produced in 1920, was vitamin D, Glaxo Laboratories opened new units in London in 1935. The company bought two companies, Joseph Nathan and Allen & Hanburys in 1947 and 1958 respectively, the Scottish pharmacologist David Jack was working for Allen & Hanburys when Glaxo took it over, he went on to lead the companys R&D until 1987. After the company bought Meyer Laboratories in 1978, it began to play an important role in the US market, in 1983 the American arm, Glaxo Inc. moved to Research Triangle Park and Zebulon in North Carolina. Burroughs Wellcome & Company was founded in 1880 in London by the American pharmacists Henry Wellcome, the Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories opened in 1902. The Nobel Prize winning scientists Gertrude B, elion and George H. Hitchings worked there and invented drugs still used many years later, such as mercaptopurine. In 1959 the Wellcome Company bought Cooper, McDougall & Robertson Inc to become active in animal health. Glaxo and Burroughs Wellcome merged in 1995 to form Glaxo Wellcome, Glaxo restructured its R&D operation that year, cutting 10,000 jobs worldwide, closing its R&D facility in Beckenham, Kent, and opening a Medicines Research Centre in Stevenage, Hertfordshire. Also that year, Glaxo Wellcome acquired the California-based Affymax, a leader in the field of combinatorial chemistry, by 1999 Glaxo Wellcome had become the worlds third-largest pharmaceutical company by revenues, with a global market share of around 4 per cent
38.
Data center
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A data center is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and storage systems. It generally includes redundant or backup power supplies, redundant data communications connections, environmental controls, large data centers are industrial scale operations using as much electricity as a small town. Data centers have their roots in the computer rooms of the early ages of the computing industry. Early computer systems, complex to operate and maintain, required an environment in which to operate. Many cables were necessary to all the components, and methods to accommodate and organize these were devised such as standard racks to mount equipment, raised floors. A single mainframe required a deal of power, and had to be cooled to avoid overheating. Security became important – computers were expensive, and were used for military purposes. Basic design-guidelines for controlling access to the room were therefore devised. During the boom of the industry, and especially during the 1980s, users started to deploy computers everywhere. However, as information technology operations started to grow in complexity, the advent of Unix from the early 1970s led to the subsequent proliferation of freely available Linux-compatible PC operating-systems during the 1990s. These were called servers, as timesharing operating systems like Unix rely heavily on the model to facilitate sharing unique resources between multiple users. The use of the data center, as applied to specially designed computer rooms. The boom of data centers came during the bubble of 1997–2000. Companies needed fast Internet connectivity and non-stop operation to deploy systems, installing such equipment was not viable for many smaller companies. Many companies started building very large facilities, called Internet data centers, New technologies and practices were designed to handle the scale and the operational requirements of such large-scale operations. These practices eventually migrated toward the data centers, and were adopted largely because of their practical results. Data centers for cloud computing are called cloud data centers, but nowadays, the division of these terms has almost disappeared and they are being integrated into a term data center. Standards documents from accredited professional groups, such as the Telecommunications Industry Association, well-known operational metrics for data-center availability can serve to evaluate the commercial impact of a disruption
39.
Teva Pharmaceutical Industries
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Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. is an Israeli multinational pharmaceutical company headquartered in Petah Tikva, Israel. It specializes primarily in generic drugs, but other business interests include active pharmaceutical ingredients and, to a lesser extent and it is the largest generic drug manufacturer in the world and one of the 15 largest pharmaceutical companies worldwide. Tevas facilities are located in Israel, North America, Europe, Teva shares trade on both the New York Stock Exchange and the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange. The company is a member of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America, Tevas earliest predecessor was Salomon, Levin, and Elstein Ltd. a wholesale distributor based in Palestine that was founded in 1901, and used camels to make deliveries. During the 1930s, new immigrants from Europe founded several companies including Teva, Assia. In 1951, Teva raised capital through the newly founded Tel-Aviv Stock Exchange after the formation of the new country, in 1964, Assia and Zori merged and acquired a controlling interest in Teva. In 1976, these three companies merged into the modern-day Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd, in 1980, Teva continued to follow its vision of becoming one of the worlds biggest pharmaceutical companies by acquiring Ikapharm, then Israels second largest drug manufacturer. In 1982, Teva was granted approval by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration for its Kfar Saba manufacturing plant, in 2005, Teva opened a new, state-of-the-art pharmaceutical manufacturing plant in Har Hotzvim, a technology park in Jerusalem. The plant received FDA approval in early 2007, Teva entered the Japanese market in 2005, and in 2008 established a generics joint venture with Kowa. In 2008, sales totalled $11.08 billion, $13.9 billion in 2009, Teva acquired its U. S. rival Ivax Corporation in January 2006, Barr in 2007 and Ratiopharm in 2010. In 2010, Teva announced that it would build its main center for the Americas in Philadelphia, PA. In 2010, it had 39,660 employees, in Israel, the number of workers rose 7. 5% by 6,774. In March 2010, Teva acquired German-based company Ratiopharm in a deal worth almost $5 billion, in May 2011 Teva announced it would purchase Cephalon for US$6.8 billion, to help expand its presence in the proprietary pharmaceuticals sector. Teva Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients operates within Teva as a business unit. As well as providing for Tevas own needs, the TAPI division is a competitor in world markets. In 2009, TAPIs sales to third parties totaled $565 million, in 2000 Teva acquired Canada-based Novopharm. In January 2006, Teva said it had completed the acquisition of IVAX Corporation for around $7.4 billion, the acquisition price was $7.4 billion. On December 23,2008, Teva acquired Barr Pharmaceuticals for $7.5 billion, making Barr, on March 18,2010, Teva said it planned to acquire German generic Ratiopharm for US$5 billion
40.
Osem (company)
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Osem Investments Ltd. is one of the largest food manufacturers and distributors in Israel. The group is owned by Nestlé S. A. of Switzerland, the company used to be listed on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the TA-25 Index. In 1942, Eugen Propper and his partner merged Hadagan with two other factories - Assisit and Itrit - to create Osem, the name is taken from an ancient Jewish prayer. In 1946, the company built its first factory in Bnei Brak and it originally produced noodles and ptitim. In 1964, Osems snack factory was founded in Holon, in 1970, the company started producing baked food in addition to introducing the Bissli snacks, which come in several flavours such as falafel, mesquite, BBQ, pizza, and onion. Osem also produces soup powders which now markets MSG-free versions of its soup mixes under a label as opposed to the traditional red one. The companys main factory was built in 1976 in Petah Tikva, in which the administration offices, distribution centre. Osem has acquired several smaller companies and expanded their product lines, such as Froumine, Argal Bakery Shop. Other products manufactured by Osem are Cheerios breakfast cereal and hummus, in 1995, Osem began to market Nestlés products such as coffee, chocolate, and breakfast cereals. That year, Nestlé acquired 10% of Osems shares, followed by an additional 41% in 1997. All Osem products produced in Israel are produced under the supervision of the Chief Rabbinate of Israel. The company holds a number of subsidiaries which make up the Osem Group, the companys subsidiaries include Sabra Salads, Tivall, Of Tov, Nestlé Ice Creams, Beit Hashita, Asamim, Nestlé-Purina, Materna Ltd. and Foodtec. In 2008, the company bought Tribe Mediterranean Foods Ltd. a Mediterranean food producer, the group operates 10 different production facilities in Israel, and distributes its produce through its distribution centers. In 2007, the completed the construction of a nationwide distribution. In addition, the group exports its produce to Europe and the United States through its overseas subsidiaries, Osem U. K. Ltd. and Osem USA Inc. In August 2015, Israels Health Ministry ruled that Heinz Tomato Ketchup does not contain enough tomato solids to qualify as ketchup and must be referred to as tomato seasoning. Osem, a rival ketchup manufacturer, had Heinz product tested and found that it only contained 21% tomato concentrate, Osem successfully petitioned the government to force Heinz to change the Hebrew labelling on their ketchup. The ruling does not affect the English language labelling, Osem official web site Osem official recipes site
41.
Strauss (company)
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Strauss Group Ltd. formerly known as Strauss-Elite, is the largest food products manufacturer in Israel. It is the trademark of two companies – Strauss and Elite, that merged in 2004. Strauss focuses mostly on dairy products while Elite focuses on chocolate, coffee, Strauss was founded in the 1930s as a commercial dairy by Richard and Hilda Strauss, German Jewish immigrants from Nieder-Olm who moved to Nahariya at the time of the British Mandate of Palestine. At first, the milking business wasnt successful enough so they started making cheese, in the 1950s, Strauss grew and began focusing on ice cream products, with about 50 employees in their Nahariya factory. In 1975, Michael Strauss, son of the founders, became the CEO of the company, in 1995, the company went into the prepared salads business. The Strauss hummus brand, Achla, became popular in Israel. In 1997, the company purchased 50% of the ownership of the Yotvata dairy, the same year, Strauss purchased Elite and grew to over 7000 employees and a US$1 billion/year turnover. In 2001, Ofra Strauss, Michaels daughter, became the CEO of the company, after criticism for supporting the Golani Brigade of the Israeli Defence Forces through giving care packages, a boycott campaign was launched against the Max Brenner brand in America and Australia. Eliyahu Fromenchenko, a Russian Jew, with his family launched a business in 1918 after preparing confections in his home kitchen. Fleeing the economic and political chaos that followed the rise of Communism in the Soviet Union, he moved to Latvia and founded a new company, Laima, in Riga. In 1933, after the Nazis came to power, Fromenchenko sold Laima and immigrated to Palestine, bought property in Ramat Gan, production began in the spring of 1934, with the first product reaching the stores in time for Passover. The most popular brand was Shokolad Para, whose name came from the image of the cow on the packaging, as the company grew, factories were opened in Safed and Nazareth Illit. In 1958, Elite launched Israels first coffee company and its major competition both for chocolates and coffee was Lieber, which it bought out in March 1970. In 1982, Elite launched its popular Pesek Zman line of chocolate bars, the Israeli snack food market had been traditionally divided by Elite in the sweets market and Osem in the salty market. Elite became the licensee of Frito-Lay products, producing the best-selling brand Tapuchips. Later, Elite started selling coffee outside of Israel, especially in Europe, the initiative, Café3 Corações, did not reach its objectives, but it signaled Elites start as an international company. Similar to Strauss, Elite was also labeled a monopoly by the Israel AntiTrust Authority, in Elites case the instant coffee, black coffee, in 2006, Elite paid 5 million NIS to the country without admitting to these allegations. Strauss and Elite merged in 2004 under the name Strauss-Elite, in 2007, they renamed the entire company to Strauss
Israel
