1.
Order of the Companions of Honour
–
The Order of the Companions of Honour is an order of the Commonwealth realms. Founded on the date as the Order of the British Empire. The order consists of the Sovereign plus no more than 65 members, additionally, foreigners from outside the realms may be added as honorary members. Membership confers no title or precedence, but those inducted into the order are entitled to use the post-nominal letters CH. Appointments can be made on the advice of Commonwealth realm prime ministers, for Canadians, the advice to the Sovereign can come from a variety of officials. The quota numbers were altered in 1970 to 47 for the United Kingdom,7 for Australia,2 for New Zealand, the quota was adjusted again in 1975 by adding 2 places to the New Zealand quota and reducing the 9 for the other countries to 7. While able to nominate candidates to the Order, New Zealand, as of 2016 those countries have nominated only politicians who have served as Prime Minister or Deputy Prime Minister. Men wear the badge on a ribbon and women on a bow at the left shoulder. Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II List of Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour List of honorary British Knights List of people who have declined a British honour
2.
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
3.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
–
Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh is an award granted to individuals that the Royal Society of Edinburgh judges to be eminently distinguished in their subject. Around 50 new fellows are elected each year in March, as of 2016 there are around 1650 Fellows, including 71 Honorary Fellows and 76 Corresponding Fellows. Fellows are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRSE, examples of fellows include Peter Higgs and Jocelyn Bell Burnell. Previous fellows have included Melvin Calvin and Benjamin Franklin, see the Category, Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for more examples
4.
Newcastle upon Tyne
–
Newcastle is the most populous city in the North East and forms the core of the Tyneside conurbation, the eighth most populous urban area in the United Kingdom. Newcastle is a member of the English Core Cities Group and is a member of the Eurocities network of European cities. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it became a county of itself, the regional nickname and dialect for people from Newcastle and the surrounding area is Geordie. Newcastle also houses Newcastle University, a member of the Russell Group, the city developed around the Roman settlement Pons Aelius and was named after the castle built in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. The city grew as an important centre for the trade in the 14th century. The port developed in the 16th century and, along with the lower down the River Tyne, was amongst the worlds largest shipbuilding and ship-repairing centres. Newcastles economy includes corporate headquarters, learning, digital technology, retail, tourism and cultural centres, among its icons are Newcastle United football club and the Tyne Bridge. Since 1981 the city has hosted the Great North Run, a marathon which attracts over 57,000 runners each year. The first recorded settlement in what is now Newcastle was Pons Aelius and it was given the family name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who founded it in the 2nd century AD. This rare honour suggests Hadrian may have visited the site and instituted the bridge on his tour of Britain, Pons Aelius population at this period was estimated at 2,000. Fragments of Hadrians Wall are visible in parts of Newcastle, particularly along the West Road, the course of the Roman Wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort in Wallsend—the walls end—and to the supply fort Arbeia in South Shields. After the Roman departure from Britain, completed in 410, Newcastle became part of the powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, conflicts with the Danes in 876 left the river Tyne and its settlements in ruin. After the conflicts with the Danes, and following the 1088 rebellion against the Normans, Monkchester was all, because of its strategic position, Robert Curthose, son of William the Conqueror, erected a wooden castle there in the year 1080. The town was known as Novum Castellum or New Castle. The wooden structure was replaced by a castle in 1087. The castle was again in 1172 during the reign of Henry II. Much of the keep which can be seen in the city dates from this period. Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was Englands northern fortress, incorporated first by Henry II, the city had a new charter granted by Elizabeth in 1589
5.
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
6.
British people
–
British people, or Britons, are the citizens of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown dependencies, and their descendants. British nationality law governs modern British citizenship and nationality, which can be acquired, for instance, although early assertions of being British date from the Late Middle Ages, the creation of the united Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 triggered a sense of British national identity. The notion of Britishness was forged during the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and the First French Empire, and developed further during the Victorian era, because of longstanding ethno-sectarian divisions, British identity in Northern Ireland is controversial, but it is held with strong conviction by unionists. Modern Britons are descended mainly from the ethnic groups that settled in the British Isles in and before the 11th century, Prehistoric, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Norse. The British are a diverse, multi-national and multicultural society, with regional accents, expressions. Although none of his own writings remain, writers during the time of the Roman Empire made much reference to them, the group included Ireland, which was referred to as Ierne inhabited by the different race of Hiberni, and Britain as insula Albionum, island of the Albions. The term Pritani may have reached Pytheas from the Gauls, who used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands. Greek and Roman writers, in the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, name the inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland as the Priteni, the origin of the Latin word Britanni. It has been suggested that name derives from a Gaulish description translated as people of the forms. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, the term Britannia persisted as the Latin name for the island, during the Middle Ages, and particularly in the Tudor period, the term British was used to refer to the Welsh people and Cornish people. At that time, it was the held belief that these were the remaining descendants of the ancient Britons. This notion was supported by such as the Historia Regum Britanniae. Wales and Cornwall, and north, i. e. Cumbria, Strathclyde and this legendary Celtic history of Great Britain is known as the Matter of Britain. The indigenous people of the British Isles have a combination of Celtic, Norse, Anglo-Saxon, oppenheimer continues that the majority of the people of the British Isles share genetic commonalities with the Basques, ranging from highs of 90% in Wales to lows of 66% in East Anglia. Oppenheimers opinion is that. by far the majority of male gene types in the British Isles derive from Iberia, ranging from a low of 59% in Fakenham, Norfolk to highs of 96% in Llangefni, north Wales. The English had been unified under a single state in 937 by King Athelstan of Wessex after the Battle of Brunanburh. However, historian Simon Schama suggested that it was Edward I of England who was responsible for provoking the peoples of Britain into an awareness of their nationhood in the 13th century
7.
King's College London
–
Kings College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom, and a founding constituent college of the federal University of London. Kings was established in 1829 by King George IV and the Duke of Wellington, in 1836, Kings became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. Kings has five campuses, its main campus on the Strand in central London. In 2015/16, Kings had an income of £738.4 million, of which £193.2 million was from research grants and contracts and as of 2014/15. It has the fifth largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, and its academic activities are organised into nine faculties which are subdivided into numerous departments, centres and research divisions. Kings is home to six Medical Research Council centres and is a member of the Kings Health Partners academic health sciences centre, Francis Crick Institute. Kings College London, so named to indicate the patronage of King George IV, was founded in 1829 in response to the controversy surrounding the founding of London University in 1826. The need for such an institution was a result of the religious and social nature of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which then educated solely the sons of wealthy Anglicans. The secular nature of London University was disapproved by The Establishment, indeed, thus, the creation of a rival institution represented a Tory response to reassert the educational values of The Establishment. Winchilsea and about 150 other contributors withdrew their support of Kings College London in response to Wellingtons support of Catholic emancipation. In a letter to Wellington he accused the Duke to have in mind insidious designs for the infringement of our liberty, the letter provoked a furious exchange of correspondence and Wellington accused Winchilsea of imputing him with disgraceful and criminal motives in setting up Kings College London. The result was a duel in Battersea Fields on 21 March 1829, Winchilsea did not fire, a plan he and his second almost certainly decided upon before the duel, Wellington took aim and fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether Wellington missed on purpose, Wellington, noted for his poor aim, claimed he did, other reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology, duel Day is still celebrated on the first Thursday after 21 March every year, marked by various events throughout Kings, including reenactments. Kings opened in October 1831 with the cleric William Otter appointed as first principal, despite the attempts to make Kings Anglican-only, the initial prospectus permitted, nonconformists of all sorts to enter the college freely. William Howley, the governors and the professors, except the linguists, had to be members of the Church of England but the students did not, though attendance at chapel was compulsory. Kings was divided into a department and a junior department, also known as Kings College School
8.
Higgs boson
–
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics. It is the excitation of the Higgs field, a fundamental field of crucial importance to particle physics theory first suspected to exist in the 1960s. Unlike other known fields such as the field, it has a non-zero constant value in vacuum. The question of the Higgs fields existence became the last unverified part of the Standard Model of particle physics and it also resolves several other long-standing puzzles, such as the reason for the weak forces extremely short range. Although the Higgs field is believed to permeate the entire Universe, in principle, it can be proved to exist by detecting its excitations, which manifest as Higgs particles, but these are extremely difficult to produce and to detect. On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a mass between 125 and 127 GeV/c2 was announced, physicists suspected that it was the Higgs boson and this also means it is the first elementary scalar particle discovered in nature. The Higgs boson is named after Peter Higgs, one of six physicists who, in the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers, on December 10,2013, two of them, Peter Higgs and François Englert, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work and prediction. Although Higgss name has come to be associated with this theory, in the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a boson with no spin, electric charge, or colour charge. It is also unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately. It is an excitation of one of the four components of the Higgs field. The latter constitutes a field, with two neutral and two electrically charged components that form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU symmetry. The Higgs field is tachyonic, which does not refer to faster-than-light speeds, the Higgs field has a Mexican hat shaped potential with nonzero strength everywhere, which in its vacuum state breaks the weak isospin symmetry of the electroweak interaction. When this happens, three components of the Higgs field are absorbed by the SU and U gauge bosons to become the longitudinal components of the now-massive W and Z bosons of the weak force. The remaining electrically neutral component either manifests as a Higgs particle, or can couple separately to other known as fermions. Some versions of the theory predicted more than one kind of Higgs fields, alternative Higgsless models might have been considered if the Higgs boson had not been discovered. In this model, the forces in nature arise from properties of our universe called gauge invariance. The forces themselves are transmitted by particles known as gauge bosons, field theories had been used with great success in understanding the electromagnetic field and the strong force. The problem was that the requirements in gauge theory predicted that both electromagnetisms gauge boson and the weak forces gauge bosons should have zero mass
9.
Higgs field
–
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics. It is the excitation of the Higgs field, a fundamental field of crucial importance to particle physics theory first suspected to exist in the 1960s. Unlike other known fields such as the field, it has a non-zero constant value in vacuum. The question of the Higgs fields existence became the last unverified part of the Standard Model of particle physics and it also resolves several other long-standing puzzles, such as the reason for the weak forces extremely short range. Although the Higgs field is believed to permeate the entire Universe, in principle, it can be proved to exist by detecting its excitations, which manifest as Higgs particles, but these are extremely difficult to produce and to detect. On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a mass between 125 and 127 GeV/c2 was announced, physicists suspected that it was the Higgs boson and this also means it is the first elementary scalar particle discovered in nature. The Higgs boson is named after Peter Higgs, one of six physicists who, in the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers, on December 10,2013, two of them, Peter Higgs and François Englert, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work and prediction. Although Higgss name has come to be associated with this theory, in the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a boson with no spin, electric charge, or colour charge. It is also unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately. It is an excitation of one of the four components of the Higgs field. The latter constitutes a field, with two neutral and two electrically charged components that form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU symmetry. The Higgs field is tachyonic, which does not refer to faster-than-light speeds, the Higgs field has a Mexican hat shaped potential with nonzero strength everywhere, which in its vacuum state breaks the weak isospin symmetry of the electroweak interaction. When this happens, three components of the Higgs field are absorbed by the SU and U gauge bosons to become the longitudinal components of the now-massive W and Z bosons of the weak force. The remaining electrically neutral component either manifests as a Higgs particle, or can couple separately to other known as fermions. Some versions of the theory predicted more than one kind of Higgs fields, alternative Higgsless models might have been considered if the Higgs boson had not been discovered. In this model, the forces in nature arise from properties of our universe called gauge invariance. The forces themselves are transmitted by particles known as gauge bosons, field theories had been used with great success in understanding the electromagnetic field and the strong force. The problem was that the requirements in gauge theory predicted that both electromagnetisms gauge boson and the weak forces gauge bosons should have zero mass
10.
Higgs mechanism
–
In the Standard Model of particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property mass for gauge bosons. Without the Higgs mechanism, all bosons would be massless, but measurements show that the W+, W−, the Higgs field resolves this conundrum. The simplest description of the mechanism adds a quantum field that permeates all space, below some extremely high temperature, the field causes spontaneous symmetry breaking during interactions. The breaking of symmetry triggers the Higgs mechanism, causing the bosons it interacts with to have mass, in the Standard Model, the phrase Higgs mechanism refers specifically to the generation of masses for the W±, and Z weak gauge bosons through electroweak symmetry breaking. The Higgs mechanism was incorporated into modern particle physics by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, in the standard model, at temperatures high enough that electroweak symmetry is unbroken, all elementary particles are massless. At a critical temperature, the Higgs field becomes tachyonic, the symmetry is broken by condensation. Fermions, such as the leptons and quarks in the Standard Model, can acquire mass as a result of their interaction with the Higgs field. In the standard model, the Higgs field is an SU doublet, the Higgs field, through the interactions specified by its potential, induces spontaneous breaking of three out of the four generators of the gauge group U. This is often written as SU × U, because the phase factor also acts on other fields in particular quarks. Three out of its four components would ordinarily amount to Goldstone bosons, the gauge group of the electroweak part of the standard model is SU × U. The group SU is the group of all 2-by-2 unitary matrices with unit determinant, rotating the coordinates so that the second basis vector points in the direction of the Higgs boson makes the vacuum expectation value of H the spinor. The generators for rotations about the x, y, and z axes are by half the Pauli matrices σx, σy, while the Tx and Ty generators mix up the top and bottom components of the spinor, the Tz rotations only multiply each by opposite phases. This phase can be undone by a U rotation of angle 1/2θ, consequently, under both an SU Tz-rotation and a U rotation by an amount 1/2θ, the vacuum is invariant. This combination of generators preserves the vacuum, and defines the unbroken gauge group in the standard model, the part of the gauge field in this direction stays massless, and amounts to the physical photon. In spite of the introduction of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the mass terms preclude chiral gauge invariance, for these fields the mass terms should always be replaced by a gauge-invariant Higgs mechanism. The quantities γμ are the Dirac matrices, and Gψ is the already-mentioned Yukawa coupling parameter, already now the mass-generation follows the same principle as above, namely from the existence of a finite expectation value | ⟨ ϕ ⟩ |, as described above. Again, this is crucial for the existence of the property mass, spontaneous symmetry breaking offered a framework to introduce bosons into relativistic quantum field theories. However, according to Goldstones theorem, these bosons should be massless, the only observed particles which could be approximately interpreted as Goldstone bosons were the pions, which Yoichiro Nambu related to chiral symmetry breaking
11.
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
12.
Hughes Medal
–
The Hughes Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London in recognition of an original discovery in the physical sciences, particularly electricity and magnetism or their applications. Named after David E. Hughes, the medal is awarded with a gift of £1000, unlike other Royal Society medals, the Hughes Medal has never been awarded to the same individual more than once. J. Whelan for their contributions to the theory of diffraction and microscopy. As of 2011, the Hughes Medal has been awarded biennially, archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Hughes archive winners 1989 -1902, archived from the original on 19 June 2010
13.
Copley Medal
–
The Copley Medal is a scientific award given by the Royal Society, London, for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science. It alternates between the physical and the biological sciences, the medal was created following a donation of £100 to be used for carrying out experiments by Sir Godfrey Copley, for which the interest on the amount was used for several years. A second donation of £1666 13s, 4d. was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal. The medal in its current format is made of silver gilt, since its inception, it has been awarded to many notable scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize,17 in Physics,21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry. John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, winning in 1734,1736 and 1741, in 1976, Dorothy Hodgkin became the first and as of 2015 the only female recipient
14.
Theoretical physics
–
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
15.
University of Edinburgh
–
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
16.
Imperial College London
–
Imperial College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area comprised of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall, the Imperial Institute was opened by his wife, Queen Victoria, who laid the foundation stone in 1888. Imperial College London was granted a charter in 1907. In the same year, the joined the University of London. The curriculum was expanded to include medicine after merging with several medical schools. In 2004, Queen Elizabeth II opened the Imperial College Business School, Imperial is organized through faculties for Science, Engineering, Medicine, and Business. The main campus is located in South Kensington, the universitys emphasis is on emerging technology and its practical application. Imperials contributions to society include the discovery of penicillin, the development of fibre optics, Imperial is consistently ranked among the top universities in the world. In 2017, it ranked 8th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, 9th in the QS World University Rankings, in 2015, Imperial was also ranked the most innovative university in Europe, and in 2017 as the 5th most international university in the world. Staff and alumni include 15 Nobel laureates,2 Fields Medalists,70 Fellows of the Royal Society,82 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering, and 78 Fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences. The Great Exhibition in 1851 was organised by Prince Albert, Henry Cole, Francis Fuller and other members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. The Great Exhibition made a surplus of £186,000 used in creating an area in the South of Kensington encouraging culture and education for everyone. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area composed of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall. Several royal colleges and the Imperial Institute merged to form what is now Imperial College London, as a result of a movement earlier in the decade, many politicians donated funds to establish the college, including Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone and Robert Peel. It was also supported by Prince Albert, who persuaded August Wilhelm von Hofmann to be the first professor, William Henry Perkin studied and worked at the college under von Hofmann, but resigned his position after discovering the first synthetic dye, mauveine, in 1856. It is considered the highest honour given in the chemical industry. The Royal School of Mines was established by Sir Henry de la Beche in 1851, developing from the Museum of Economic Geology and he created a school which laid the foundations for the teaching of science in the country, and which has its legacy today at Imperial. The Royal College of Science was established in 1881, the main objective was to support the training of science teachers and to develop teaching in other science subjects alongside the Royal School of Mines earth sciences specialities
17.
University College London
–
University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
18.
Thesis
–
A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
19.
David Wallace (physicist)
–
Sir David James Wallace, CBE, FRS, FRSE, FREng is a British physicist and academic. He was the Vice-Chancellor of Loughborough University from 1994 to 2005, Wallace was born on 7 October 1945. After postdoctoral research work as a Harkness Fellow at Princeton University, in 1979, he became Tait Professor of Mathematical Physics at the University of Edinburgh. He became Director of the Edinburgh Parallel Computing Centre and in 1996 he was awarded the CBE for his computing work, Wallace is currently Vice-President for Physical Sciences of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of which he was made a Fellow of in 1982. He was formerly Vice-President and Treasurer of the Royal Society and Chair of the Council for the Mathematical Sciences, from 1994 to January 2006 he was the Vice-Chancellor of Loughborough University. From 2006 to 2011 he was the Director of the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences in Cambridge, Wallace has also been President of the Institute of Physics and Deputy Lieutenant of Leicestershire. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1998 and he has a wife, Elizabeth and a daughter, Sara. Cam. ac. uk, Master Appointed to Churchill College Number-10. gov
20.
Subatomic particle
–
In the physical sciences, subatomic particles are particles much smaller than atoms. There are two types of particles, elementary particles, which according to current theories are not made of other particles. Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact, in particle physics, the concept of a particle is one of several concepts inherited from classical physics. But it also reflects the understanding that at the quantum scale matter. The idea of a particle underwent serious rethinking when experiments showed that light could behave like a stream of particles as well as exhibit wave-like properties and this led to the new concept of wave–particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale particles behave like both particles and waves. Another new concept, the uncertainty principle, states that some of their properties taken together, such as their simultaneous position and momentum, in more recent times, wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to increasingly massive particles as well. Interactions of particles in the framework of field theory are understood as creation and annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions. This blends particle physics with field theory, any subatomic particle, like any particle in the 3-dimensional space that obeys laws of quantum mechanics, can be either a boson or a fermion. Various extensions of the Standard Model predict the existence of a graviton particle. Composite subatomic particles are bound states of two or more elementary particles, for example, a proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while the atomic nucleus of helium-4 is composed of two protons and two neutrons. The neutron is made of two quarks and one up quark. Composite particles include all hadrons, these include baryons and mesons, in special relativity, the energy of a particle at rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared, E = mc2. That is, mass can be expressed in terms of energy, if a particle has a frame of reference where it lies at rest, then it has a positive rest mass and is referred to as massive. Baryons tend to have greater mass than mesons, which in turn tend to be heavier than leptons and it is also certain that any particle with an electric charge is massive. These include the photon and gluon, although the latter cannot be isolated, through the work of Albert Einstein, Satyendra Nath Bose, Louis de Broglie, and many others, current scientific theory holds that all particles also have a wave nature. This has been verified not only for elementary particles but also for compound particles like atoms, interactions between particles have been scrutinized for many centuries, and a few simple laws underpin how particles behave in collisions and interactions. These are the basics of Newtonian mechanics, a series of statements and equations in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. The negatively charged electron has an equal to 1⁄1837 or 1836 of that of a hydrogen atom
21.
Electroweak interaction
–
In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature, electromagnetism and the weak interaction. Although these two forces appear very different at low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force. Above the unification energy, on the order of 246 GeV, thus, if the universe is hot enough, then the electromagnetic force and weak force merge into a combined electroweak force. During the electroweak epoch, the electroweak force separated from the strong force, during the quark epoch, the electroweak force split into the electromagnetic and weak force. In 1999, Gerardus t Hooft and Martinus Veltman were awarded the Nobel prize for showing that the theory is renormalizable. Mathematically, the unification is accomplished under an SU × U gauge group, the corresponding gauge bosons are the three W bosons of weak isospin from SU, and the B boson of weak hypercharge from U, respectively, all of which are massless. In the Standard Model, the W± and Z0 bosons, UY and Uem are different copies of U, the generator of Uem is given by Q = Y/2 + I3, where Y is the generator of UY, and I3 is one of the SU generators. The spontaneous symmetry breaking makes the W3 and B bosons coalesce into two different bosons – the Z0 boson, and the photon, = Where θW is the mixing angle. The axes representing the particles have essentially just been rotated, in the plane and this also introduces a mismatch between the mass of the Z0 and the mass of the W± particles, M Z = M W cos θ W. The W1 and W2 bosons, in turn, combine to give massive charged bosons W ± =12, the Lagrangian for the electroweak interactions is divided into four parts before electroweak symmetry breaking L E W = L g + L f + L h + L y. The L g term describes the interaction between the three W particles and the B particle, L f is the kinetic term for the Standard Model fermions. The interaction of the bosons and the fermions are through the gauge covariant derivative. The h term describes the Higgs field F. L h = | D μ h |2 − λ2 The y term gives the Yukawa interaction that generates the masses after the Higgs acquires a nonzero vacuum expectation value. The Lagrangian reorganizes itself after the Higgs boson acquires a vacuum expectation value, due to its complexity, this Lagrangian is best described by breaking it up into several parts as follows. The neutral current L N and charged current L C components of the Lagrangian contain the interactions between the fermions and gauge bosons, the charged current part of the Lagrangian is given by L C = − g 2 W μ + + h. c. L H contains the Higgs three-point and four-point self interaction terms, L H = − g m H24 m W H3 − g 2 m H232 m W2 H4 L H V contains the Higgs interactions with gauge vector bosons. L H V = L W W V contains the gauge three-point self interactions. L Y = − ∑ f g m f 2 m W f ¯ f H Note the 1 − γ52 factors in the weak couplings and this is why electroweak theory is commonly said to be a chiral theory
22.
Mass
–
In physics, mass is a property of a physical body. It is the measure of a resistance to acceleration when a net force is applied. It also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies. The basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram, Mass is not the same as weight, even though mass is often determined by measuring the objects weight using a spring scale, rather than comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity and this is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that determines the strength of this force. In Newtonian physics, mass can be generalized as the amount of matter in an object, however, at very high speeds, special relativity postulates that energy is an additional source of mass. Thus, any body having mass has an equivalent amount of energy. In addition, matter is a defined term in science. There are several distinct phenomena which can be used to measure mass, active gravitational mass measures the gravitational force exerted by an object. Passive gravitational mass measures the force exerted on an object in a known gravitational field. The mass of an object determines its acceleration in the presence of an applied force, according to Newtons second law of motion, if a body of fixed mass m is subjected to a single force F, its acceleration a is given by F/m. A bodys mass also determines the degree to which it generates or is affected by a gravitational field and this is sometimes referred to as gravitational mass. The standard International System of Units unit of mass is the kilogram, the kilogram is 1000 grams, first defined in 1795 as one cubic decimeter of water at the melting point of ice. Then in 1889, the kilogram was redefined as the mass of the prototype kilogram. As of January 2013, there are proposals for redefining the kilogram yet again. In this context, the mass has units of eV/c2, the electronvolt and its multiples, such as the MeV, are commonly used in particle physics. The atomic mass unit is 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, the atomic mass unit is convenient for expressing the masses of atoms and molecules. Outside the SI system, other units of mass include, the slug is an Imperial unit of mass, the pound is a unit of both mass and force, used mainly in the United States
23.
Elementary particle
–
In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle whose substructure is unknown, thus, it is unknown whether it is composed of other particles. A particle containing two or more elementary particles is a composite particle, soon, subatomic constituents of the atom were identified. As the 1930s opened, the electron and the proton had been observed, along with the photon, via quantum theory, protons and neutrons were found to contain quarks—up quarks and down quarks—now considered elementary particles. And within a molecule, the three degrees of freedom can separate via wavefunction into three quasiparticles. Yet a free electron—which, not orbiting a nucleus, lacks orbital motion—appears unsplittable. Meanwhile, an elementary boson mediating gravitation—the graviton—remains hypothetical, all elementary particles are—depending on their spin—either bosons or fermions. These are differentiated via the theorem of quantum statistics. Particles of half-integer spin exhibit Fermi–Dirac statistics and are fermions, Particles of integer spin, in other words full-integer, exhibit Bose–Einstein statistics and are bosons. In the Standard Model, elementary particles are represented for predictive utility as point particles, though extremely successful, the Standard Model is limited to the microcosm by its omission of gravitation and has some parameters arbitrarily added but unexplained. According to the current models of big bang nucleosynthesis, the composition of visible matter of the universe should be about 75% hydrogen. Neutrons are made up of one up and two down quark, while protons are made of two up and one down quark. Since the other elementary particles are so light or so rare when compared to atomic nuclei. Therefore, one can conclude that most of the mass of the universe consists of protons and neutrons. Some estimates imply that there are roughly 1080 baryons in the observable universe, the number of protons in the observable universe is called the Eddington number. Other estimates imply that roughly 1097 elementary particles exist in the universe, mostly photons, gravitons. However, the Standard Model is widely considered to be a theory rather than a truly fundamental one. The 12 fundamental fermionic flavours are divided into three generations of four particles each, six of the particles are quarks. The remaining six are leptons, three of which are neutrinos, and the three of which have an electric charge of −1, the electron and its two cousins, the muon and the tau
24.
W and Z bosons
–
The W and Z bosons are together known as the weak or more generally as the intermediate vector bosons. These elementary particles mediate the interaction, the respective symbols are W+, W−. The W bosons have either a positive or negative charge of 1 elementary charge and are each others antiparticles. The Z boson is electrically neutral and is its own antiparticle, the three particles have a spin of 1. The W bosons have a moment, but the Z has none. All three of these particles are very short-lived, with a half-life of about 3×10−25 s and their experimental discovery was a triumph for what is now known as the Standard Model of particle physics. The W bosons are named after the weak force, the physicist Steven Weinberg named the additional particle the Z particle, and later gave the explanation that it was the last additional particle needed by the model. The W bosons had already named, and the Z bosons have zero electric charge. The two W bosons are verified mediators of neutrino absorption and emission, during these processes, the W boson charge induces electron or positron emission or absorption, thus causing nuclear transmutation. The Z boson is not involved in the absorption or emission of electrons and positrons, the Z boson mediates the transfer of momentum, spin and energy when neutrinos scatter elastically from matter. Such behavior is almost as common as inelastic neutrino interactions and may be observed in bubble chambers upon irradiation with neutrino beams, in this process, the neutrino simply strikes the electron and then scatters away from it, transferring some of the neutrinos momentum to the electron. Thus, this requires a Z boson. These bosons are among the heavyweights of the elementary particles, with masses of 80.4 GeV/c2 and 91.2 GeV/c2, respectively, the W and Z bosons are almost 100 times as large as the proton – heavier, even, than entire iron atoms. The masses of these bosons are significant because they act as the carriers of a quite short-range fundamental force. By way of contrast, the force has an infinite range, because its force carrier, the photon, has zero mass. All three bosons have particle spin s =1, the emission of a W+ or W− boson either raises or lowers the electric charge of the emitting particle by one unit, and also alters the spin by one unit. At the same time, the emission or absorption of a W boson can change the type of the particle – for example changing a strange quark into an up quark. The neutral Z boson cannot change the charge of any particle
25.
CERN
–
The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. The main site at Meyrin hosts a large computing facility, which is used to store and analyse data from experiments. Researchers need remote access to facilities, so the lab has historically been a major wide area network hub. CERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web, the convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the council was dissolved. CERNs first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General was Felix Bloch. The laboratory was originally devoted to the study of atomic nuclei, therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics, which better describes the research being performed there. Several important achievements in physics have been made through experiments at CERN. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia, the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate the sharing of information between researchers, the first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, a copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortiums website as a historical document. Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, a short history of this period can be found at CERN. ch. More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. 48×10−5, a measurement with 6. 0-sigma significance. However, on 23 February, CERN stated in a release that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable. In March 2012, the ICARUS Collaboration reported that the measurement would be reproduced by both OPERA and ICARUS, further tests, after fixing the GPS connector, showed speed measurements consistent with the speed of light from four experiments at Gran Sasso, including OPERA
26.
Standard Model
–
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory concerning the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, as well as classifying all the elementary particles known. It was developed throughout the half of the 20th century. The current formulation was finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks, since then, discoveries of the top quark, the tau neutrino, and the Higgs boson have given further credence to the Standard Model. Because of its success in explaining a wide variety of experimental results and it does not incorporate the full theory of gravitation as described by general relativity, or account for the accelerating expansion of the Universe. The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology. It also does not incorporate neutrino oscillations, the development of the Standard Model was driven by theoretical and experimental particle physicists alike. For theorists, the Standard Model is a paradigm of a field theory. The first step towards the Standard Model was Sheldon Glashows discovery in 1961 of a way to combine the electromagnetic, in 1967 Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam incorporated the Higgs mechanism into Glashows electroweak interaction, giving it its modern form. The Higgs mechanism is believed to rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, the W± and Z0 bosons were discovered experimentally in 1983, and the ratio of their masses was found to be as the Standard Model predicted. The theory of the interaction, to which many contributed, acquired its modern form around 1973–74. At present, matter and energy are best understood in terms of the kinematics, to date, physics has reduced the laws governing the behavior and interaction of all known forms of matter and energy to a small set of fundamental laws and theories. The Standard Model includes members of classes of elementary particles. All particles can be summarized as follows, The Standard Model includes 12 elementary particles of spin known as fermions. According to the theorem, fermions respect the Pauli exclusion principle. Each fermion has a corresponding antiparticle, the fermions of the Standard Model are classified according to how they interact. There are six quarks, and six leptons, pairs from each classification are grouped together to form a generation, with corresponding particles exhibiting similar physical behavior. The defining property of the quarks is that they carry color charge, a phenomenon called color confinement results in quarks being very strongly bound to one another, forming color-neutral composite particles containing either a quark and an antiquark or three quarks
27.
Particle physics
–
Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. By our current understanding, these particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model, in more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum field theory. All particles and their interactions observed to date can be described almost entirely by a field theory called the Standard Model. The Standard Model, as formulated, has 61 elementary particles. Those elementary particles can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of species of particles that have been discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is a description of nature. In recent years, measurements of mass have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model. The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates from at least the 6th century BC, in the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a variety of particles were found in collisions of particles from increasingly high-energy beams. It was referred to informally as the particle zoo, the current state of the classification of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, the species of gauge bosons are the gluons, W−, W+ and Z bosons, and the photons. The Standard Model also contains 24 fundamental particles, which are the constituents of all matter, finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson. Early in the morning on 4 July 2012, physicists with the Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced they had found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is expected from the Higgs boson, the worlds major particle physics laboratories are, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, which collides heavy ions such as gold ions and it is the worlds first heavy ion collider, and the worlds only polarized proton collider. Its main projects are now the electron-positron colliders VEPP-2000, operated since 2006 and its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider, which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the worlds most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions and its main facility is the Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage, which collides electrons and positrons with protons
28.
Royal Society
–
Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
29.
Institute of Physics
–
The Institute of Physics is a scientific charity that works to advance physics education, research and application. It has a membership of over 50,000. The IOP supports physics in education, research and industry, the IOPs publishing company, IOP Publishing, publishes more than 70 academic journals and magazines. The Institute of Physics was formed in 1960 from the merger of the Physical Society, founded as the Physical Society of London in 1874, the Physical Society of London had been officially formed on 14 February 1874 with John Hall Gladstone as its first president. From its beginning, the society held meetings and demonstrations. In the early part of the 20th century, the profession of physicist emerged, in 1920, the Institute of Physics was created under special license from the Board of Trade. Sir Richard Glazebrook was elected first President of the Institute, as with the Physical Society, dissemination of knowledge was fundamental to the Institute, which began publication of the Journal of Scientific Instruments in 1922. The annual Reports on Progress in Physics began in 1934 and is published today. In 1952, the Institute began the Graduateship course and examination, upon being granted a royal charter in 1970, the organization renamed itself to Institute of Physics. There are four grades of membership, iMember, Associate Member, Member, qualification for AMInstP is normally by completion of an undergraduate degree that is recognised by the Institute – this covers almost all UK physics degrees. An AMInstP can become an MInstP by gaining experience as a physicist. MInstP and FInstP are the two grades of membership, granting the right to vote in Institute elections. The Institute grants academic dress to the grades of membership. Those who have passed the Institutes graduateeship examination are entitled to a violet damask Oxford burgon-shaped hood, corporate members are entitled to wear a hood of Toronto full shape in violet damask, lined in violet and faced on the cowl with 2/5 cm shot crimson silk. Fellows wear a doctors bonnet in bkack velvet with red tassels, until 1998 CPhys was granted automatically with MInstP, however since then it has become a separate qualification that is equal in stature to Chartered Engineer. From 2012, it requires re-validation every three years, the IOP accredits undergraduate degrees in physics in British and Irish universities. At post-16 level, the IOP developed the Advancing Physics A-level course, in conjunction with the OCR examining board, Advancing Physics was sold to Oxford University Press in January 2011. The IOP also developed the Integrated Sciences degree, which is run at four universities in England, the IOP provides an important educational service for secondary schools in the UK
30.
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
–
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences or Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. Every year the Academy awards the Nobel Prizes in Physics and Chemistry, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, the Crafoord Prize, the Academy has elected about 1.700 Swedish and 1.200 foreign members since it was founded in 1739. Hansson, appointed from 1 July 2015 The transactions of the Academy were published as its main series between 1739 and 1974, in parallel, other major series have appeared and gone, Öfversigt af Kungl. These lasted into the 1860s, when they were replaced by the single Bihang series, further restructuring of their topics occurred in 1949 and 1974. The purpose of the academy was to focus on practically useful knowledge, the academy was intended to be different from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, which had been founded in 1719 and published in Latin. The location close to the activities in Swedens capital was also intentional. The academy was modeled after the Royal Society of London and Academie Royale des Sciences in Paris, France, members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Official website Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences video site
31.
American Physical Society
–
Not be be confused with the American Physical Society which was absorbed by the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh in 1796. The American Physical Society is the second largest organization of physicists. The Society publishes more than a dozen scientific journals, including the prestigious Physical Review and Physical Review Letters, APS is a member society of the American Institute of Physics. The American Physical Society was founded on May 20,1899 and they proclaimed the mission of the new Society to be to advance and diffuse the knowledge of physics, and in one way or another the APS has been at that task ever since. In the early years, virtually the sole activity of the APS was to hold scientific meetings, in 1913, the APS took over the operation of the Physical Review, which had been founded in 1893 at Cornell University, and journal publication became its second major activity. The Physical Review was followed by Reviews of Modern Physics in 1929, rev. has subdivided into five separate sections as the fields of physics proliferated and the number of submissions grew. In more recent years, the activities of the Society have broadened considerably, in addition, the Society conducts extensive programs in education, science outreach, and media relations. APS has 14 divisions and 11 topical groups covering all areas of physics research, there are 6 forums that reflect the interest of its 50,000 members in broader issues, and 9 sections organized by geographical region. In 1999, APS Physics celebrated its centennial with the biggest-ever physics meeting in Atlanta, einstein@Home, one of the projects APS initiated during World Year of Physics, is an ongoing and popular distributed computing project. During the summer of 2005, the society conducted an electronic poll, the poll became the motivation for a proposal of a name change promised in the leadership election that year. However, because of issues, the planned name change was eventually abandoned by the APS Executive Board. To promote public recognition of APS as a society, while retaining the name American Physical Society. General use of APS Physics to refer to APS or the American Physical Society is encouraged, the new APS Physics logo was designed by Kerry G. Johnson. At least now when you are in an elevator at an APS meeting and someone looks at your badge, the American Physical Society publishes 13 international research journals and an open-access on-line news and commentary website Physics. Physical Review Letters Reviews of Modern Physics Physical Review A, Atomic, molecular, Physical Review B, Condensed matter and materials physics. Physical Review D, Particles, fields, gravitation, and cosmology, Physical Review E, Statistical, nonlinear, and soft matter physics. Physical Review X, Open access, pure, applied, Physical Review Applied, Experimental and theoretical applications of physics. Physical Review Accelerators and Beams, Open access, accelerator science, Physical Review Physics Education Research, Open access, experimental and theoretical research on physics education
32.
Royal Society of Edinburgh
–
The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotlands national academy of science and letters. It is a charity, operating on a wholly independent and non-party-political basis. As of 2014 it has more than 1,500 Fellows, the Society covers a broader selection of fields than the Royal Society of London including literature and history. Fellowship includes people from a range of disciplines – science & technology, arts, humanities, medicine, social science, business. The Medals were instituted in 2000 by Queen Elizabeth II, whose permission is required to make a presentation, past winners include, The Lord Kelvin Medal is the Senior Prize for Physical, Engineering and Informatics Sciences. It is awarded annually to a person who has achieved distinction nationally and internationally, winners receive a silver medal and are required to deliver a public lecture in Scotland. The award is named after William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who was a mathematical physicist and engineer. Senior Prize-winners are required to have a Scottish connection but can be based anywhere in the world, the Keith medal has been historically awarded every four years for a scientific paper published in the societys scientific journals, preference being given to a paper containing a discovery. It is awarded alternately for papers on Mathematics or Earth and Environmental Sciences, the medal was founded in 1827 as a result of a bequest by Alexander Keith of Dunottar, the first Treasurer of the Society. The prize was founded in 1855 by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, the cumbersome name was changed the following year to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society. Under the leadership of Prof. Thus, for the first four decades of the 19th century, by the 1850s, the society once again unified its membership under one journal. During the 19th century the society produced many scientists whose ideas laid the foundation of the modern sciences, from the 20th century onward, the society functioned not only as a focal point for Scotlands eminent scientists, but also the arts and humanities. It still exists today and continues to promote research in Scotland. In February 2014, Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell was announced as the societys first female president, taking up her position in October
33.
Stephen Hawking
–
Hawking was the first to set forth a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. He is a supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. In 2002, Hawking was ranked number 25 in the BBCs poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, Hawking has a rare early-onset, slow-progressing form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis that has gradually paralysed him over the decades. He now communicates using a single cheek muscle attached to a speech-generating device, Hawking was born on 8 January 1942 in Oxford, England to Frank and Isobel Hawking. Despite their families financial constraints, both attended the University of Oxford, where Frank read medicine and Isobel read Philosophy. The two met shortly after the beginning of the Second World War at a research institute where Isobel was working as a secretary. They lived in Highgate, but, as London was being bombed in those years, Hawking has two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward. In 1950, when Hawkings father became head of the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research, Hawking and his moved to St Albans. In St Albans, the family were considered intelligent and somewhat eccentric. They lived an existence in a large, cluttered, and poorly maintained house. During one of Hawkings fathers frequent absences working in Africa, the rest of the family spent four months in Majorca visiting his mothers friend Beryl and her husband, Hawking began his schooling at the Byron House School in Highgate, London. He later blamed its progressive methods for his failure to learn to read while at the school, in St Albans, the eight-year-old Hawking attended St Albans High School for Girls for a few months. At that time, younger boys could attend one of the houses, the family placed a high value on education. Hawkings father wanted his son to attend the well-regarded Westminster School and his family could not afford the school fees without the financial aid of a scholarship, so Hawking remained at St Albans. From 1958 on, with the help of the mathematics teacher Dikran Tahta, they built a computer from clock parts, although at school Hawking was known as Einstein, Hawking was not initially successful academically. With time, he began to show aptitude for scientific subjects and, inspired by Tahta. Hawkings father advised him to medicine, concerned that there were few jobs for mathematics graduates. He wanted Hawking to attend University College, Oxford, his own alma mater, as it was not possible to read mathematics there at the time, Hawking decided to study physics and chemistry
34.
2013 New Year Honours
–
The New Year Honours 2013 were appointments by some of the 16 Commonwealth realms to various orders and honours to recognise and reward good works by citizens of those countries. The New Year Honours are awarded as part of the New Year celebrations at the start of January. e, Knight/Dame Grand Cross, Knight/Dame Commander etc. and then divisions i. e. Civil, Diplomatic and Military as appropriate. Below are the appointed by Elizabeth II in her right as Queen of the United Kingdom. The Lord Coe KBE – Chair, LOCOG, for services to the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Prof. Peter Higgs – Emeritus Professor of Theoretical Physics, University of Edinburgh, ben Ainslie CBE – Finn Sailor. Prof. George Berwick CBE – Head teacher, Ravens Wood School, Bromley, dave Brailsford CBE – Performance Director, British Cycling. For services to Cycling and the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, Prof. Keith Burnett CBE – Vice-Chancellor, University of Sheffield. For services to Science and Higher Education, Prof. Ian Diamond FRSE – Principal and Vice-Chancellor, University of Aberdeen. For services to Social Science and Higher Education, Kenneth Grange CBE – Industrial Designer. Peter Hendy CBE – Commissioner, Transport for London, for services to Transport and the community. Bernard Hogan-Howe QPM – Commissioner, Metropolitan Police, John Leighton – Director-General, National Galleries of Scotland. Martin Narey – Ministerial Adviser on Adoption, Robert OBrien CBE – Chairman, Barts and London NHS Trust. For services to Healthcare and to the community in London, Prof. David Payne CBE – Director, Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton. For services to Photonics Research and Applications, hector Sants – Lately Chief Executive Officer, Financial Services Authority. For services to Financial Services and Regulation, Richard Shepherd MP – Member of Parliament for Aldridge Brownhill. For charitable services to Education, Science and the Arts, Christopher Stone – Executive Headteacher, The Arthur Terry and Stockland Green Schools, Birmingham. Prof. Hew Strachan DL – Chichele Professor of the History of War, All Souls College, for services to the Ministry of Defence. David Tanner CBE – Performance Director, British Rowing, for services to Rowing and the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games
Media from Wikimedia Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
