1.
Philippa of Lancaster
–
Philippa of Lancaster was Queen of Portugal from 1387 until 1415 by marriage to King John I. Born into the family of England, her marriage secured the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Born on 31 March 1360, Philippa was the oldest child of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, Philippa spent her infancy moving around the various properties owned by her family with her mother and her wet-nurse, Maud. Here, she was raised and educated alongside her two siblings, Elizabeth, who was three years younger, and Henry, six years younger, who would later become King Henry IV. Philippas mother died of plague in 1369, the affair and eventual marriage was considered scandalous, and in the future Philippa would protect herself against such embarrassment. Katherine seems to have been liked by Philippa and her Lancastrian siblings. Katherine had close ties with Geoffrey Chaucer, since her sister, John of Gaunt became Chaucers patron, and Chaucer spent much time with the family as one of Philippas many mentors and teachers. She was remarkably well educated for a female at the time and studied science under Friar John, poetry under Jean Froissart and she was well read in the works of Greek and Roman scholars such as Pliny and Herodotus and was diligent in her study of religion. Philippa became Queen consort of Portugal through her marriage to King John I and this marriage was the final step in the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance against the Franco-Castillian axis. The couple were blessed by the church in the Cathedral of Porto on 2 February 1387, the Portuguese court celebrated the union for fifteen days. Philippa married King John I by proxy, and in keeping with a unique Portuguese tradition, the stand-in for King John I was João Rodrigues de Sá. Philippa was considered to be plain, and King João I already had a mistress, Inês Peres Esteves. Their son Afonso was ten when Philippa and John married, Philippa allowed Afonso and his sister Beatrice to be raised in the Portuguese court. Their mother left the court at Philippas command to live in a convent, as the de facto King of Castile, it was feared that John of Gaunt could challenge King Johns claim to the newly installed dynasty. Surviving letters show that Philippa often wrote to the English court from Portugal, on one instance, Philippa intervened in court politics on behalf of followers of the dethroned Richard II when they appealed for her help after her brother, Henry IV, had usurped the English throne. On another occasion, she persuaded the reluctant Earl of Arundel to marry her husbands illegitimate daughter Beatrice, Philippas main political contribution, however, was in her own court. Upon the end of the Portuguese involvement in wars with Castile and the Moors, the Portuguese economy was failing. Philippa knew that the conquest and control of Ceuta would be lucrative for Portugal with the control of the African and Indian spice trade
Philippa of Lancaster
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The wedding of Philippa and John
2.
List of English consorts
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The Kingdom of England merged with the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707, to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. There have thus been no consorts of England since that date, in 1066, the Duke of Normandy, William, killed King Harold II of England at the battle of Hastings, and overthrew the English elite. He established himself as King, his wife Matilda as Queen consort and his dynasty would not, however, outlive his children, becoming defunct with the death of his youngest son, Henry I, in 1135. In 1135, Stephen of Blois, the son of Henry Is sister Adela, seized the English throne and his wife, Matilda of Boulogne, became his Queen consort, but her elder son died, and Stephen was forced to appoint the Empresss son as his successor. With the death of Elizabeth I, the crown of England passed to her cousin and nearest heir, James VI of Scotland and his dynasty would rule - interrupted by the Interregnum between 1649 and 1660 - until 1714. The Kingdom of England, however, was merged with the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707, to form a new Kingdom, for the continuation of this list, go to List of British consorts
List of English consorts
–
Marriage of
Henry V to
Catherine of Valois
List of English consorts
–
Emma of Normandy
List of English consorts
–
Sigrid the Haughty (Dubious authenticity) and/or Świętosława of Poland
3.
Coronation
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The ceremony can also be conducted for the monarchs consort, either simultaneously with the monarch or as a separate event. A ceremony without the placement of a crown on the head is known as an enthronement. Coronations are still observed in the United Kingdom, Tonga, in addition to investing the monarch with symbols of state, Western-style coronations have often traditionally involve anointing with holy oil, or chrism as it is often called. Wherever a ruler is anointed in this way, as in Great Britain and Tonga, some other lands use bathing or cleansing rites, the drinking of a sacred beverage, or other religious practices to achieve a comparable effect. Such acts symbolise the granting of divine favour to the monarch within the relevant spiritual-religious paradigm of the country, in the past, concepts of royalty, coronation and deity were often inexorably linked. Rome promulgated the practice of worship, in Medieval Europe. Coronations were once a direct expression of these alleged connections. Thus, coronations have often been discarded altogether or altered to reflect the nature of the states in which they are held. However, some monarchies still choose to retain an overtly religious dimension to their accession rituals, others have adopted simpler enthronement or inauguration ceremonies, or even no ceremony at all. In non-Christian states, coronation rites evolved from a variety of sources, buddhism, for instance, influenced the coronation rituals of Thailand, Cambodia and Bhutan, while Hindu elements played a significant role in Nepalese rites. The ceremonies used in modern Egypt, Malaysia, Brunei and Iran were shaped by Islam, Coronations, in one form or another, have existed since ancient times. Egyptian records show coronation scenes, such as that of Seti I in 1290 BC, judeo-Christian scriptures testify to particular rites associated with the conferring of kingship, the most detailed accounts of which are found in II Kings 11,12 and II Chronicles 23,11. Following the assumption of the diadem by Constantine, Roman and Byzantine emperors continued to wear it as the symbol of their authority. Although no specific coronation ceremony was observed at first, one gradually evolved over the following century, the emperor Julian was hoisted upon a shield and crowned with a gold necklace provided by one of his standard-bearers, he later wore a jewel-studded diadem. Later emperors were crowned and acclaimed in a manner, until the momentous decision was taken to permit the Patriarch of Constantinople to physically place the crown on the emperors head. Historians debate when exactly this first took place, but the precedent was established by the reign of Leo II. This ritual included recitation of prayers by the Byzantine prelate over the crown, after this event, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the ecclesiastical element in the coronation ceremonial rapidly develop. This was usually performed three times, following this, the king was given a spear, and a diadem wrought of silk or linen was bound around his forehead as a token of regal authority
Coronation
–
The coronation of
Charles VII of France (1429), detail of the painting Jeanne d'Arc (1886–1890) by
Jules Eugène Lenepveu.
Coronation
–
.
Miniature of
Charlemagne crowned emperor by
Pope Leo III, from Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis, vol. 1; France, second quarter of 14th century.
Coronation
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Roger II of Sicily receiving his crown directly from
Jesus Christ, mosaic from
Martorana, Palermo
Coronation
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An ancient coronation from India
4.
Valenciennes
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Valenciennes is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies on the Scheldt river, although the city and region experienced a steady population decline between 1975 and 1990, it has since rebounded. The 1999 census recorded that the population of the commune of Valenciennes was 41,278, Valenciennes is first mentioned in 693 in a legal document written by Clovis II. In the 843 Treaty of Verdun, it was made a city between Neustria and the Austrasia. Later in the 9th century the region was overrun by the Normans, in 923 it passed to the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia dependent on the Holy Roman Empire. Once the Empire of the Franks was established, the city began to develop, under the Ottonian emperors, Valenciennes became the centre of marches on the border of the Empire. In 1008, a famine brought the Plague. According to the tradition, the Virgin Mary held a cordon around the city which. Since then, every year at that time, the Valenciennois used to walk around the 14 kilometres road round the town, many Counts succeeded, first as Margraves of Valenciennes and from 1070 as counts of Hainaut. In 1285, the currency of Hainaut was replaced by the currency of France, Valenciennes was full of activity, with numerous corporations, and outside its walls a large number of convents developed, like that of the Dominicans. In the 14th century, the Tower of Dodenne was built by Albert of Bavaria, where even today, in the 15th century, the County of Hainault, of which Valenciennes is part, was re-attached to Burgundy, losing its autonomy. On the Journée des Mals Brûlés in 1562, a mob freed some Protestants condemned to die at the stake, in the wave of iconoclastic attacks called the Beeldenstorm that swept the Low Countries in the summer of 1566, the city was the furthest south to see an attack. In 1576, when for a time the Southern Netherlands joined the revolt, however, in 1580, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma took Valenciennes and Protestantism was eradicated there. Hereafter, Valenciennes remained under Spanish protection, no longer involved in later fighting of the Eighty Years War. With its manufacturers of wool and fine linens, the city was able to economically independent. In 1591, the Jesuits built a school and then the foundations of a church of Sainte-Croix, in 1611, the façade of the town hall was completely rebuilt in magnificent Renaissance style. In the seventeenth century the Scheldt was channelled between Cambrai and Valenciennes, benefitting Valenciennes wool, fabric and fine arts, to use up flax yarn, women began to make the famous Valenciennes lace. The French army laid siege to the city in 1656, defending the city, Albert de Merode, marquis de Trélon was injured during a sortie on horseback, died as a result of his injuries and was buried in the Church of St. Paul
Valenciennes
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The town hall
Valenciennes
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Valenciennes in the 17th century.
Valenciennes
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Valenciennes town hall
Valenciennes
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La Maison Espagnole, now home to the tourist information office
5.
Windsor Castle
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Windsor Castle is a royal residence at Windsor in the English county of Berkshire. It is notable for its association with the English and later British royal family. The original castle was built in the 11th century after the Norman invasion of England by William the Conqueror, since the time of Henry I, it has been used by the reigning monarch and is the longest-occupied palace in Europe. Inside the castle walls is the 15th-century St Georges Chapel, considered by the historian John Martin Robinson to be one of the achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic design. Gradually replaced with stone fortifications, the castle withstood a siege during the First Barons War at the start of the 13th century. Edwards core design lasted through the Tudor period, during which Henry VIII and Elizabeth I made increasing use of the castle as a royal court and centre for diplomatic entertainment. Windsor Castle survived the period of the English Civil War, when it was used as a military headquarters for Parliamentary forces. At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Charles II rebuilt much of Windsor Castle with the help of the architect Hugh May, Queen Victoria made a few minor changes to the castle, which became the centre for royal entertainment for much of her reign. Windsor Castle was used as a refuge for the family during the Luftwaffe bombing campaigns of the Second World War. It is a popular tourist attraction, a venue for hosting state visits, today, more than 500 people live and work in Windsor Castle, making it the largest inhabited castle in the world. Windsor Castle occupies 13 acres, and combines the features of a fortification, a palace, the present-day castle was created during a sequence of phased building projects, culminating in the reconstruction work after a fire in 1992. It is in essence a Georgian and Victorian design based on a medieval structure, since the 14th century, architecture at the castle has attempted to produce a contemporary reinterpretation of older fashions and traditions, repeatedly imitating outmoded or even antiquated styles. Although there has some criticism, the castles architecture and history lends it a place amongst the greatest European palaces. At the heart of Windsor Castle is the Middle Ward, a formed around the motte or artificial hill in the centre of the ward. The motte is 50 feet high and is made from chalk originally excavated from the surrounding ditch, the Round Tower is in reality far from cylindrical, due to the shape and structure of the motte beneath it. The western entrance to the Middle Ward is now open, the eastern exit from the ward is guarded by the Norman Gatehouse. Wyatville redesigned the exterior of the gatehouse, and the interior was later converted in the 19th century for residential use. The Upper Ward of Windsor Castle comprises a number of major buildings enclosed by the bailey wall
Windsor Castle
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Windsor Castle, viewed from the Long Walk
Windsor Castle
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The South Wing of the Upper Ward; the Official Entrance to the State Apartments is on the left
Windsor Castle
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The State Apartments in the Upper Ward; (l to r) Queen's Audience and Presence Chambers, the Official Entrance, St George's Hall; the Guest's Entrance
Windsor Castle
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The Crimson Drawing Room in 2007 following the
1992 fire and subsequent remodelling
6.
Westminster Abbey
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It is one of the United Kingdoms most notable religious buildings and the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English and, later, British monarchs. Between 1540 and 1556, the abbey had the status of a cathedral, since 1560, however, the building is no longer an abbey nor a cathedral, having instead the status of a Church of England Royal Peculiar—a church responsible directly to the sovereign. The building itself is the abbey church. According to a tradition first reported by Sulcard in about 1080, a church was founded at the site in the 7th century, at the time of Mellitus, construction of the present church began in 1245, on the orders of King Henry III. Since the coronation of William the Conqueror in 1066, all coronations of English and British monarchs have held in Westminster Abbey. There have been at least 16 royal weddings at the abbey since 1100, two were of reigning monarchs, although, before 1919, there had been none for some 500 years. The first reports of the abbey are based on a tradition claiming that a young fisherman called Aldrich on the River Thames saw a vision of Saint Peter near the site. This seems to be quoted to justify the gifts of salmon from Thames fishermen that the abbey received in later years, in the present was, the Fishmongers Company still gives a salmon every year. The proven origins are that in the 960s or early 970s, Saint Dunstan, assisted by King Edgar, between 1042 and 1052, King Edward the Confessor began rebuilding St Peters Abbey to provide himself with a royal burial church. It was the first church in England built in the Romanesque style, the building was completed around 1090 and was consecrated on 28 December 1065, only a week before Edwards death on 5 January 1066. A week later, he was buried in the church, and, nine years later and his successor, Harold II, was probably crowned in the abbey, although the first documented coronation is that of William the Conqueror later the same year. The only extant depiction of Edwards abbey, together with the adjacent Palace of Westminster, is in the Bayeux Tapestry, construction of the present church was begun in 1245 by Henry III who selected the site for his burial. The abbot and monks, in proximity to the royal Palace of Westminster, the abbot often was employed on royal service and in due course took his place in the House of Lords as of right. The abbey built shops and dwellings on the west side, encroaching upon the sanctuary, the abbey became the coronation site of Norman kings. The Confessors shrine subsequently played a part in his canonisation. The work continued between 1245 and 1517 and was finished by the architect Henry Yevele in the reign of Richard II. Henry III also commissioned the unique Cosmati pavement in front of the High Altar, Henry VII added a Perpendicular style chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1503. Much of the came from Caen, in France, the Isle of Portland
Westminster Abbey
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Western façade
Westminster Abbey
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Flag of Westminster Abbey, featuring the
Tudor arms between
Tudor Roses above the
supposed arms of
Edward the Confessor
Westminster Abbey
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St Peter's Abbey at the time of Edward's funeral, depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry
Westminster Abbey
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Layout plan dated 1894
7.
Edward III of England
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Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, at age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337. This started what would become known as the Hundred Years War, following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England, victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edwards later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity, Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements, Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years. The reign of his father, Edward II, was a problematic period of English history. One source of contention was the inactivity, and repeated failure. Another controversial issue was the kings patronage of a small group of royal favourites. The birth of an heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward IIs position in relation to the baronial opposition. To bolster further the independent prestige of the prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, Charles IV of France, Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger. Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place, the young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward deposed, to build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault. An invasion of England was launched and Edward IIs forces deserted him completely, the king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 and it was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England
Edward III of England
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Edward III, detail from his bronze effigy in
Westminster Abbey
Edward III of England
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Drawing of effigy of King Edward III in
Westminster Abbey
Edward III of England
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To mark his claim to the French crown, Edward's coat of arms showed the three lions of England quartered with the fleurs-de-lys of France. English
stained glass, c. 1350–1377
Edward III of England
–
Groat featuring Edward III
8.
Edward, the Black Prince
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Edward of Woodstock KG, called the Black Prince, was the eldest son of King Edward III and Philippa of Hainault, and the father of King Richard II of England. He was the first Duke of Cornwall, the Prince of Wales and he was called Edward of Woodstock in his early life, after his birthplace, and since the 16th century has been popularly known as the Black Prince. He was a military leader, and his victories over the French at the Battles of Crécy. In 1348 he was made a Founding Knight of the Garter, Edward died one year before his father, becoming the first English Prince of Wales not to become King of England. The throne passed instead to his son Richard II, a minor, Richard Barber comments that Edward has attracted relatively little attention from serious historians, but figures largely in popular history. Edward was born on 15 June 1330 at Woodstock Palace in Oxfordshire and he was created Earl of Chester on 18 May 1333, Duke of Cornwall on 17 March 1337 and finally invested as Prince of Wales on 12 May 1343 when he was almost thirteen years old. In England, Edward served as a regent for periods in 1339,1340. He was expected to all council meetings, and he performed the negotiations with the papacy about the war in 1337. He also served as High Sheriff of Cornwall from 1340–1341,1343,1358, Edward had been raised with his cousin Joan, The Fair Maid of Kent. Edward gained permission for the marriage from Pope Innocent VI and absolution for marriage to a blood-relative, the marriage caused some controversy, mainly because of Joans chequered marital history and the fact that marriage to an Englishwoman wasted an opportunity to form an alliance with a foreign power. When in England, Edwards chief residence was at Wallingford Castle in Berkshire and he served as the kings representative in Aquitaine, where he and Joan kept a court which was considered among the most fashionable of the time. It was the resort of exiled kings such as James IV of Majorca, Peter of Castile, thrust from his throne by his illegitimate brother Henry of Trastámara, offered Edward the lordship of Biscay in 1367, in return for the Black Princes aid in recovering his throne. Edward was successful in the Battle of Nájera, in which he defeated the combined French. However Peter did not pay fully and refused to yield Biscay, Edward retreated to Guienne by July. The Black Prince returned to England in January 1371 and died on 8 June 1376, Edward lived in a century of decline for the knightly ideal of chivalry. However, some argue he may have been playing for time to preparation of his archers positions. On the other hand, his tendencies were overridden by expediency on many occasions. The Crécy Campaign on the front, which crippled the French army for ten years
Edward, the Black Prince
–
Edward, Prince of Wales as
Knight of the order of the Garter, 1453, illustration from the
Bruges Garter Book
Edward, the Black Prince
–
Edward, the Black Prince, is granted Aquitaine by his father King Edward III. Initial letter "E" of miniature, 1390; British Library, shelfmark: Cotton MS Nero D VI, f.31
Edward, the Black Prince
–
Signet ring of the Black Prince in the Louvre
Edward, the Black Prince
–
Original Black Prince Heraldic achievements on display in Canterbury Cathedral
9.
Isabella, Countess of Bedford
–
Isabella of England, was the eldest daughter of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault and the wife of Enguerrand de Coucy, Earl of Bedford, by whom she had two daughters. She was made a Lady of the Garter in 1376, Isabella was the royal couples second child, and eldest daughter. Named after her grandmother, Isabella of France, Isabella is believed to have been her fathers favourite daughter. Born at Woodstock Palace, in Oxfordshire, on 16 June 1332 and she slept in a gilded cradle lined with taffeta and covered with a fur blanket. Her gowns were of imported Italian silk, embroidered with jewels, as a child, Isabella was sent to the household of William and Elizabeth St Omer, which also included Isabellas older brother Edward and younger sister Joan. Described as being over-indulged, wilful, and wildly extravagant, Isabella – unusually for the times – remained unmarried until the age of 33 and she had previously been the subject of various betrothal proposals, however, these had all failed to come to fruition. On 15 November 1351, when she was 19 years old and he was the second eldest son of Bernard Ezi IV, Lord of Albret. At the last moment before departure, however, Isabella changed her mind, and her father does not appear to have been angry at Isabella for her capricious behaviour as he granted her custody of Burtsall Priory in Yorkshire in 1355. He also settled the sum of 1,000 marks per annum on her and she was physically described as having been dark-haired, dark-eyed, and rather sallow in complexion. Eventually, she was permitted to marry Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy, seven years her junior, he was the son and heir of Enguerrand VI, Lord of Coucy and Catherine of Austria. Her husband had brought to England in 1360 as a hostage exchanged for the freedom of King John II of France. They married on 27 July 1365, at Windsor Castle, in November 1365, Isabella and her husband were permitted to enter France, their first daughter, Marie, was born at the family lands at Coucy in April 1366. After the birth of Isabellas second daughter, Philippa, in 1367, Enguerrand and Isabella were also made Count and she was made a Lady of the Garter in 1376. Isabella bore two children by her marriage to Enguerrand de Coucy, Marie de Coucy, suo jure Countess of Soissons and she married Henry of Bar, a nephew of Charles V of France, by whom she had issue. After her fathers death, she disputed the inheritance of his lands with her stepmother, Isabelle of Lorraine, after her death, her patrimony was absorbed into the French royal estates. She married Robert de Vere, the Earl of Oxford, in 1371, Isabella was at her fathers side when he died on 21 June 1377 having been urgently summoned home from France by couriers the previous April. After the accession of Richard II, Isabellas nephew, in August 1377, Enguerrand resigned all of his English ties, Isabella then died in England under mysterious circumstances, separated from her husband and eldest daughter, Marie. Her death was either in April 1379, or between 17 June and 5 October 1382 and she was buried in Greyfriars Church, Newgate, London
Isabella, Countess of Bedford
–
Henry II of England
10.
Lionel, 1st Duke of Clarence
–
He was named for his birthplace, at Antwerp in the Duchy of Brabant. Prince Lionel was born of a Flemish mother and was a grandson of William I and he grew to be nearly seven feet in height and had an athletic build. He was called Earl of Ulster from 1347, having been named as his fathers representative in England in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel joined an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies were reserved for the affairs of Ireland. His efforts to secure an effective authority over his Irish lands were only moderately successful, after holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated Statute of Kilkenny in 1366, he dropped the task in disgust and returned to England. The poet Geoffrey Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionels household, after Lionels first wife Elizabeth died in 1363, a second marriage was arranged with Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo Visconti, lord of Pavia. Journeying to fetch his bride, Lionel was received in great state both in France and Italy and was married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at Alba. There was strong speculation at the time that he had been poisoned by his father-in-law, Lionel had only one child, Philippa, daughter of his first wife Elizabeth. In 1368 she married Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March and their granddaughter and eventual heir, Anne Mortimer, married into the Yorkist branch of the English royal family and was the mother of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York. The House of York based its claim to the English throne on this line of descent from Lionel, Lionel was the ancestor of Kings Edward IV, Edward V, Richard III and all later British monarchs beginning with Henry VIII. Ormrod, W. M. Lionel, duke of Clarence, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Clarence, Dukes of s. v
Lionel, 1st Duke of Clarence
–
Lionel, Duke of Clarence. 19th-century drawing of bronze statuette on south side of tomb of his father King Edward III in
Westminster Abbey
11.
John, 1st Duke of Lancaster
–
John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, KG was a member of the House of Plantagenet, the third of five surviving sons of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. He was called John of Gaunt because he was born in Ghent, when he became unpopular later in life, scurrilous rumours and lampoons circulated that he was actually the son of a Ghent butcher, perhaps because Edward III was not present at the birth. This story always drove him to fury, due to some generous land grants, John was one of the richest men in his era. John of Gaunts legitimate male heirs, the Lancasters, include Kings Henry IV, Henry V and his other legitimate descendants include his daughters Queen Philippa of Portugal and Elizabeth, Duchess of Exeter, and Queen Catherine of Castile. John fathered five children outside marriage, one early in life by a lady-in-waiting to his mother, the children of Katherine Swynford, surnamed Beaufort, were legitimised by royal and papal decrees after John and Katherine married in 1396. Through his daughter Philippa, he was grandfather of King Edward of Portugal, through John II of Castiles great-granddaughter Joanna the Mad, John of Gaunt is also an ancestor of the Habsburg rulers who would reign in Spain and much of central Europe. When John of Gaunt died in 1399, his estates and titles were declared forfeit to the crown, since King Richard II had named Henry a traitor, Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile to reclaim his inheritance and depose Richard. Bolingbroke then reigned as King Henry IV of England, the first of the descendants of John of Gaunt to hold the throne of England, John was the fourth son of King Edward III of England. His first wife, Blanche of Lancaster, was also his third cousin and they married in 1359 at Reading Abbey as a part of the efforts of Edward III to arrange matches for his sons with wealthy heiresses. He also became the 14th Baron of Halton and 11th Lord of Bowland, John inherited the rest of the Lancaster property when Blanches sister Maud, Countess of Leicester, died without issue on 10 April 1362. John received the title Duke of Lancaster from his father on 13 November 1362, by then well established, he owned at least thirty castles and estates across England and France and maintained a household comparable in scale and organisation to that of a monarch. He owned land in almost every county in England, a patrimony that produced a net income of between £8,000 and £10,000 a year, however, Johns ascendancy to political power coincided with widespread resentment of his influence. Although he fought in the Battle of Nájera, for example, when Edward III died in 1377 and Johns ten-year-old nephew succeeded as Richard II of England, Johns influence strengthened. However, mistrust remained, and some suspected him of wanting to seize the throne himself, John took pains to ensure that he never became associated with the opposition to Richards kingship. As de facto ruler during Richards minority, he made unwise decisions on taxation that led to the Peasants Revolt in 1381, when the rebels destroyed his home in London, the Savoy Palace. Unlike some of Richards unpopular advisors, John was away from London at the time of the uprising and thus avoided the direct wrath of the rebels. In 1386 John left England to seek the throne of Castile, claimed in Jure uxoris by right of his wife, Constance of Castile. However, crisis ensued almost immediately in his absence, and in 1387 King Richards misrule brought England to the brink of civil war
John, 1st Duke of Lancaster
–
A retrospective portrait commissioned in c.1593 by Sir
Edward Hoby for
Queenborough Castle, Kent, probably modelled on Gaunt's tomb effigy.
John, 1st Duke of Lancaster
–
Kenilworth Castle, a massive fortress extensively modernised and given a new Great Hall by John of Gaunt after 1350
John, 1st Duke of Lancaster
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1640 drawing of tombs of Katherine Swynford and daughter Joan Beaufort
John, 1st Duke of Lancaster
–
The tomb of Gaunt and
Blanche of Lancaster in
St. Paul's Cathedral, as represented in an etching of 1658 by
Wenceslaus Hollar. The etching includes a number of inaccuracies, for example in not showing the couple with joined hands.
12.
Edmund, 1st Duke of York
–
Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, KG was the fourth surviving son of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. Like many medieval English princes, Edmund gained his nickname from his birthplace, the other party in the Wars of the Roses, the incumbent House of Lancaster, was formed from descendants of Edmunds elder brother John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, Edward IIIs third son. On the death of his godfather, the Earl of Surrey, Edmund was granted the lands north of the Trent. In 1359, he joined his father King Edward III on a military expedition to France and was made a knight of the Garter in 1361. In 1362, at the age of twenty-one, he was created Earl of Cambridge by his father, Edmund took part in several military expeditions to France in the 1370s. In 1369, he brought a retinue of 400 men-at-arms and 400 archers to serve with John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, on campaigns in Brittany and Angouleme. In 1375, he sailed with the Earl of March to relieve Brest, but after initial success. In the 1370s, English envoys entered into an alliance with Fernando I of Portugal, as a consequence of The Caroline War in France, the Duke of Lancaster was forced to postpone the invasion of Castille. In 1381, Edmund finally led an expedition to press The Duke of Lancasters claim to the Castile. After months of indecisiveness, a peace was declared between Castile and Portugal, and Edmund had to lead his malcontented troops home. Edmund was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Warden of the Cinque Ports on 12 June 1376 and he acted as Keeper of the Realm in 1394/95 when his nephew, King Richard II of England, campaigned in Ireland and presided over Parliament in 1395. He was also keeper of the realm in 1396 during the brief visit to France to collect his child-bride Isabella of Valois. The duke was left as Custodian of the Realm in the summer of 1399 when Richard II departed for another extended campaign in Ireland, in late June of that year, the exiled Henry Bolingbroke landed at Bridlington in Yorkshire. He raised an army to resist Bolingbroke, then decided instead to join him and he thereafter remained loyal to the new Lancastrian regime as Bolingbroke overthrew Richard II to become King Henry IV. On 6 August 1385, Edmund was elevated to Duke of York, in Richard IIs will, Edmund was highly emphasised as the kings heir despite the stronger claims of Henry of Bolingbroke and Edmund Mortimer. This was not due to any preference Richard had for Edmund, towards the end of his life, in 1399, he was appointed Warden of the West March for a short period. Edmund of Langley died in his birthplace and was buried there in the church of the mendicant friars and his dukedom passed to his eldest son, Edward. Langleys first wife, Isabella, was a daughter of King Peter of Castile and she was also the sister of the Infanta Constance of Castile, the second wife of Langleys brother John of Gaunt
Edmund, 1st Duke of York
–
Edmund of Langley before
King Ferdinand I of Portugal, from
Jean de Wavrin 's Chronique d'Angleterre
13.
Mary of Waltham
–
Mary of Waltham Duchess Consort of Brittany, was the daughter of Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. When Mary was born at Bishops Waltham Palace, Hampshire on 10 October 1344 and this was as a result of her fathers moves to create alliances in support of his renewed claim to the French throne. When Montfort was captured, his wife, Joanna of Flanders, took over the campaign and, during the siege of Rennes, in return, she promised her son John to one of his daughters. After the lifting of the siege, she visited England in 1342 and he was assigned apartments in the royal nursery while his mother returned to France. Joanna later became ill so Queen Philippa took John into her care, when Johns father died in 1345, Edward III became his guardian. Since Mary had been considered betrothed to John since birth, she was now, at the age of one, Mary and John spent their childhood together at The Tower, Langley, Eltham, Woodstock, Sunning, Clarendon and other royal palaces. There is only one record of Mary ever leaving the household and that was to visit her brother John of Gaunt and his wife Blanche. However, this visit was cut short by the death from plague of her uncle, Henry Duke of Lancaster, Mary and her younger sister Margaret were only allowed very limited visits to family and were given less pocket money than their older siblings. Mary was married to John at Woodstock Palace around 3 July 1361, no record of the wedding survives except the accounts for the wedding dress created by her tailor John Avery. The dress was a gift from the king and it was composed of a tunic and a mantle made from two types of cloth of gold, Racamatiz of Lucca and baldekyn doutremer. The mantle must have been unusually long because seven pieces of cloth were needed to make it and it was lined with 600 trimmed minivers, a present from the king of France, and 40 ermine. Her situation did not change after marriage since she and her husband remained at the English court, further arrangements were planned for when the couple would leave England and take up residence in Brittany as the recognised Duke and Duchess. However, within a few months, Mary developed a disease from which it was impossible to rouse her. Her sister Margaret also died sometime after 1 October 1361, Queen Philippa commissioned a tomb at Abingdon and the king had windows erected in memory of the princesses at Kings Langley Priory. Her husband referred to her as my late dearest companion
Mary of Waltham
–
Mary of Waltham
14.
Thomas, 1st Duke of Gloucester
–
Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester, 1st Earl of Buckingham, 1st Earl of Essex, KG was the fourteenth and youngest child of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. He was the youngest of the five sons of Edward III who survived to adulthood, Thomas was born 7 January 1355 at Woodstock Palace in Oxfordshire after two short-lived brothers, one of whom had also been baptised Thomas. He married Eleanor de Bohun by 1376, was given Pleshey castle in Essex, the younger sister of Woodstocks wife, Mary de Bohun, was subsequently married to Henry of Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby, who later became King Henry IV of England. In 1377, at the age of 22, Woodstock was knighted and created Earl of Buckingham, in 1385 he received the title Duke of Aumale and at about the same time was created Duke of Gloucester. Thomas of Woodstock was in command of a campaign in northern France that followed the Breton War of Succession of 1343–64. The earlier conflict was marked by the efforts of John IV, John was supported in this struggle by the armies of the kingdom of England, whereas Charles was supported by the kingdom of France. At the head of an English army, John prevailed after Charles was killed in battle in 1364, but the French continued to undermine his position and he returned to Brittany in 1379, supported by Breton barons who feared the annexation of Brittany by France. An English army was sent under Woodstock to support his position, due to concerns about the safety of a longer shipping route to Brittany itself, the army was ferried instead to the English continental stronghold of Calais in July 1380. Eventually, the two armies simply marched away, French defensive operations were then thrown into disarray by the death of King Charles V of France on 16 September 1380. Woodstocks chevauchée continued westwards largely unopposed, and in November 1380 he laid siege to Nantes, however, he found himself unable to form an effective stranglehold, and urgent plans were put in place for Sir Thomas Felton to bring 2,000 reinforcements from England. Richard II managed to dispose of the Lords Appellant in 1397, during that time he was murdered, probably by a group of men led by Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk, and the knight Sir Nicholas Colfox, presumably on behalf of Richard II. This caused an outcry among the nobility of England that is considered by many to have added to Richards unpopularity, Thomas married Eleanor de Bohun, the elder daughter and co-heiress with her sister, Mary de Bohun, of their father Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford. Isabel Philippa, died young As he was attainted as a traitor, the title Earl of Buckingham was inherited by his son, who died in 1399 only two years after his own death. Thomas of Woodstocks eldest daughter, Anne, married into the powerful Stafford family and her son, Humphrey Stafford was created Duke of Buckingham in 1444 and also inherited part of the de Bohun estates. Thomas of Woodstocks murder plays a prominent part in William Shakespeares play Richard II and he also is the subject of Thomas of Woodstock, another Elizabethan drama by an anonymous playwright. Because of its affinities to Shakespeares play, it is also called Richard the Second Part One
Thomas, 1st Duke of Gloucester
–
Thomas of Woodstock
Thomas, 1st Duke of Gloucester
–
Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel; Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester;
Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham;
Henry, Earl of Derby (later Henry IV); and
Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick, demand
Richard II to let them prove by arms the justice for their rebellion
Thomas, 1st Duke of Gloucester
–
Murder of Thomas of Woodstock.
15.
Dynasty
–
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
Dynasty
–
Charles I of England and his son, the future
James II
16.
William I, Count of Hainaut
–
William I, Count of Hainaut, was Count William III of Avesnes, Count William III of Holland and Count William II of Zeeland from 1304 to his death. 1286, was the son of John II, Count of Hainaut and he was the brother of John of Beaumont and Alice of Hainault. William was originally not expected to become count, after the deaths of his elder brothers, John and Henry, he became heir to his fathers counties. Prior to becoming count, he was defeated by Guy of Namur at the battle on the island of Duiveland in 1304. Guy and Duke John II of Brabant then conquered most of Zeeland and Holland, William continued the war with Flanders until the Peace of Paris in 1323, during which the Count of Flanders renounced all claims on Zeeland. William, in turn, gained all of Zeeland but agreed to all claims on Imperial Flanders. William had occupied most of the Bishopric of Utrecht and tried to conquer Friesland but was repelled by Hessel Martena, at the death of his uncle, Guy dAvesnes, Bishop of Utrecht, William took his fief of Amsterdam and annexed it to Holland. With these important alliances William gained considerable influence and respect which he used to advance the interests of his counties
William I, Count of Hainaut
–
Seals of William I
William I, Count of Hainaut
–
William I, Count of Hainaut
17.
King Edward III
–
Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, at age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337. This started what would become known as the Hundred Years War, following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England, victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edwards later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity, Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements, Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years. The reign of his father, Edward II, was a problematic period of English history. One source of contention was the inactivity, and repeated failure. Another controversial issue was the kings patronage of a small group of royal favourites. The birth of an heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward IIs position in relation to the baronial opposition. To bolster further the independent prestige of the prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, Charles IV of France, Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger. Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place, the young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward deposed, to build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault. An invasion of England was launched and Edward IIs forces deserted him completely, the king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 and it was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England
King Edward III
–
Edward III, detail from his bronze effigy in
Westminster Abbey
King Edward III
–
Drawing of effigy of King Edward III in
Westminster Abbey
King Edward III
–
To mark his claim to the French crown, Edward's coat of arms showed the three lions of England quartered with the fleurs-de-lys of France. English
stained glass, c. 1350–1377
King Edward III
–
Groat featuring Edward III
18.
Bishop of Coventry
–
The Bishop of Coventry is the Ordinary of the England Diocese of Coventry in the Province of Canterbury. In the Middle Ages, the Bishop of Coventry was a used by the bishops known today as the Bishop of Lichfield. The present diocese covers most of the County of Warwickshire, the see is in the City of Coventry where the seat is located at the Cathedral Church of Saint Michael. The Bishops residence is The Bishops House, Coventry, from 1102 to 1238, the former Benedictine Priory and Cathedral of St Mary in the city was the seat of the early Bishops of Coventry. The diocese was revived in 1918 under King George V when the church of Saint Michael was elevated to cathedral status. The cathedral suffered under fire-bombing by the Luftwaffe on the night of 14 November 1940, the 8th Bishop of Coventry was Colin Bennetts, who retired on 31 January 2008. Christopher Cocksworth was ordained and consecrated as the 9th Bishop of Coventry on 3 July 2008 at Southwark Cathedral and he was enthroned and received into the diocese during a service at Coventry Cathedral on 1 November 2008. Cocksworth was previously Principal of Ridley Hall, part of the Cambridge Federation of Theological Colleges
Bishop of Coventry
–
"The Bishop's House", Coventry.
19.
York Minster
–
The Cathedral and Metropolitical Church of Saint Peter in York, commonly known as York Minster, is the cathedral of York, England, and is one of the largest of its kind in Northern Europe. The minster is the seat of the Archbishop of York, the second-highest office of the Church of England, and is the church for the Diocese of York. It is run by a dean and chapter, under the Dean of York, the title minster is attributed to churches established in the Anglo-Saxon period as missionary teaching churches, and serves now as an honorific title. Services in the minster are sometimes regarded as on the High Church or Anglo-Catholic end of the Anglican continuum, the minster has a very wide Decorated Gothic nave and chapter house, a Perpendicular Gothic Quire and east end and Early English North and South transepts. The nave contains the West Window, constructed in 1338, and over the Lady Chapel in the east end is the Great East Window, in the north transept is the Five Sisters Window, each lancet being over 52 feet high. The south transept contains a window, while the West Window contains a heart-shaped design colloquially known as The Heart of Yorkshire. York has had a verifiable Christian presence from the 4th century, however, there is circumstantial evidence pointing to much earlier Christian involvement. Tradition speaks of 28 British bishops, one for each of the greater British cities, over whom presided the Archbishops of London, York and Caerleon-on-Usk. The first recorded church on the site was a structure built hurriedly in 627 to provide a place to baptise Edwin. Moves toward a substantial building began in the decade of the 630s. A stone structure was completed in 637 by Oswald and was dedicated to Saint Peter, the church soon fell into disrepair and was dilapidated by 670 when Saint Wilfrid ascended to the See of York. He repaired and renewed the structure, the attached school and library were established and by the 8th century were some of the most substantial in Northern Europe. In 741 the church was destroyed in a fire and it was rebuilt as a more impressive structure containing thirty altars. The church and the area then passed through the hands of numerous invaders. There was a series of Benedictine archbishops, including Saint Oswald of Worcester, Wulfstan and Ealdred, Ealdred died in 1069 and was buried in the church. The church was damaged in 1069 during William the Conquerors harrying of the North, the Danes destroyed the church in 1075, but it was again rebuilt from 1080. Built in the Norman style, it was 111 m long and rendered in white, the new structure was damaged by fire in 1137 but was soon repaired. The choir and crypt were remodelled in 1154, and a new chapel was built, the Gothic style in cathedrals had arrived in the mid 12th century
York Minster
–
West front of the cathedral.
York Minster
–
The nave of York Minster
York Minster
–
The
cruciform plan of York Minster by
Georg Dehio.
York Minster
–
The
chapter house.
20.
Dower
–
Dower is a provision accorded by law, but traditionally by a husband or his family, to a wife for her support in the event that she should become widowed. It was settled on the bride by agreement at the time of the wedding, however, in popular parlance, the term may be used for a life interest in property settled by a husband on his wife at any time, not just at the wedding. The verb to dower is sometimes used, in popular usage, the term dower may be confused with, A dowager is a widow. The term is used of a noble or royal widow who no longer occupies the position she held during the marriage. For example, Queen Elizabeth was technically the queen after the death of George VI. Such a dowager will receive the income from her dower property, property brought to the marriage by the bride is called a dowry. But the word dower has been used since Chaucer in the sense of dowry, property made over to the brides family at the time of the wedding is a bride price. This property does not pass to the bride herself, mahr, a payment that a husband is required to make to his wife at the time of an Islamic marriage or, failing that, in the event of a divorce. Unlike mahr, dower is optional and was paid only after the husbands death. In Europe, dower was only possible with actual assignment of property, being for the widow and being accorded by law, dower differs essentially from a conventional marriage portion such as the English dowry. The bride received a right to property from the bridegroom or his family. It was intended to ensure her livelihood in widowhood, and it was to be kept separate, the practice of dower was prevalent in those parts of Europe influenced by Germanic Scandinavian culture, such as Sweden, Germany, Normandy and successor states of the Langobardian kingdom. The husband was legally prevented from using the wifes dower — as contrasted with her dowry and this often meant that the womans legal representative, usually a male relative, became guardian or executor of the dower, to ensure that it was not squandered. Usually, the wife was free from kin limitations to use her dower to whatever and whomever she pleased. It may have become the property of her marriage, been given to an ecclesiastical institution. In English legal history, there were five kinds of dower, ad ostium ecclesiae, or at the church porch, ex assensu patris, de la plus belle, at common law. Dower ad ostium ecclesiae, was the closest to modern meaning of dower and it was the property secured by law, in brides name at the church porch. Dower wasnt the same as price, rather, it was legal assignment of movable or fixed property that became the brides property
Dower
–
Dower agreement (Proikosymfono) before wedding at Kastoria, Greece, (1905). Source: Folkloric Museum of Kastoria
Dower
–
"Thy truth, then, be thy dower".
King Lear
21.
Regent
–
A regent is a person appointed to administer a state because the monarch is a minor, is absent or is incapacitated. The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency, a regent or regency council may be formed ad hoc or in accordance with a constitutional rule. Regent is sometimes a formal title, if the formally appointed regent is unavailable or cannot serve on a temporary basis, a Regent ad interim may be appointed to fill the gap. In a monarchy, a regent usually governs due to one of these reasons and this was the case in the Kingdom of Finland and the Kingdom of Hungary, where the royal line was considered extinct in the aftermath of World War I. In Iceland, the regent represented the King of Denmark as sovereign of Iceland until the country became a republic in 1944, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, kings were elective, which often led to a fairly long interregnum. In the interim, it was the Roman Catholic Primate who served as the regent, in the small republic of San Marino, the two Captains Regent, or Capitani Reggenti, are elected semi-annually as joint heads of state and of government. Famous regency periods include that of the Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom, giving rise to terms such as Regency era. Strictly this period lasted from 1811 to 1820, when his father George III was insane, as of 1 December 2016, Liechtenstein is the only country with an active regency. The term regent may refer to lower than the ruler of a country. The term may be used in the governance of organisations, typically as an equivalent of director, some university managers in North America are called regents and a management board for a college or university may be titled the Board of Regents. The term regent is used for members of governing bodies of institutions such as the national banks of France. This type of group portrait was popular in Dutch Golden Age painting during the 17th century, in the Dutch East Indies, a regent was a native prince allowed to rule de facto colonized state as a regentschap. Consequently, in the state of Indonesia, the term regent is used in English to mean a bupati. Again in Belgium and France, Regent is the title of a teacher in a lower secondary school. In the Philippines, specifically, the University of Santo Tomas, the Father Regent and they also form the Council of Regents that serves as the highest administrative council of the university. In the Society of Jesus, a regent is a training to be a Jesuit. A regent in the Jesuits is often assigned to teach in a school or some other academic institution as part of the formation toward final vows, list of regents Viceroy, an individual who, in a colony or province, exercised the power of a monarch on his behalf
Regent
–
Regentesses of the Old Men's Almshouse in
Haarlem,
Frans Hals, 1664
22.
Burghers of Calais
–
Les Bourgeois de Calais is one of the most famous sculptures by Auguste Rodin. It commemorates an occurrence during the Hundred Years War, when Calais, Calais commissioned Rodin to create the sculpture in 1884, and the work was completed in 1889. Englands Edward III, after a victory in the Battle of Crécy, laid siege to Calais, Philip failed to lift the siege, and starvation eventually forced the city to parley for surrender. According to medieval writer Jean Froissart, Edward offered to spare the people of the city if six of its top leaders would surrender themselves to him, Edward demanded that they walk out wearing nooses around their necks, and carrying the keys to the city and castle. One of the wealthiest of the leaders, Eustache de Saint Pierre, volunteered first. Saint Pierre led this envoy of volunteers to the city gates and it was this moment, and this poignant mix of defeat, heroic self-sacrifice, and willingness to face imminent death that Rodin captured in his sculpture, scaled somewhat larger than life. The City of Calais had attempted to erect a statue of Eustache de Saint Pierre, eldest of the burghers, since 1845. Two prior artists were prevented from executing the sculpture, the first, David dAngers, by his death, in 1884 the municipal corporation of the city invited several artists, Rodin amongst them, to submit proposals for the project. The public had a lack of appreciation for it because it didnt have overtly heroic antique references which were considered integral to public sculpture and it was not a pyramidal arrangement and contained no allegorical figures. It was intended to be placed at level, rather than on a pedestal. The burghers were not presented in an image of glory, instead, they display pain, anguish. To Rodin, this was nevertheless heroic, the heroism of self-sacrifice, only later was his vision realized, when the sculpture was moved in front of the newly completed town hall of Calais, where it now rests on a much lower base. Under French law no more than twelve original casts of works of Rodin may be made, the first cast of the group of six figures, cast in 1895 still stands in Calais. Other original casts stand at, Glyptoteket in Copenhagen, cast 1903, the Musée royal de Mariemont in Morlanwelz, Belgium, cast 1905. Victoria Tower Gardens in the shadow of the Houses of Parliament in London, cast 1908, installed on site in 1914. The inscription on the pedestal was carved by Eric Gill, the Rodin Museum in Philadelphia, cast 1925 and installed in 1929. The gardens of the Musée Rodin in Paris, cast 1926, kunstmuseum in Basel, cast 1943 and installed in 1948. The Smithsonian Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D. C. cast 1943, the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo, cast 1953 and installed in 1959
Burghers of Calais
–
The Burghers of Calais
Burghers of Calais
–
Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts,
Stanford University
Burghers of Calais
Burghers of Calais
23.
County of Hainaut
–
The County of Hainaut, sometimes given the archaic spellings Hainault and Heynowes, was a historical lordship within the medieval Holy Roman Empire, with its capital at Mons. The name comes from the river Haine, besides Mons, it included the cities of Cambrai and Charleroi. It consisted of what is now the Belgian province of Hainaut, originally a gau of Lotharingia, Hainaut was briefly a part of West Francia before becoming definitively attached to Germany. The county was divided in 958 and only emerged in its more or less final form in 1071, during the High Middle Ages, Hainaut became culturally and linguistically French. In 1432, Hainaut was acquired by the House of Valois-Burgundy and in 1477 passed to the Habsburgs with the rest of the Burgundian Netherlands and it was ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs from 1555 to 1714. In 1659 and 1678 southern Hainaut was acquired by France, and in 1797 the rest of the county was ceded to France by the Emperor Francis II, who was also count of Hainaut. In Roman imperial times, Hainaut was, at least for the most part, as the empire lost control, this entire region came under the lordship of the Salian Franks, within their Neustrian territory. By the time of Charlemagne, the Frankish empire had declared a new Holy Roman Empire. After the death of the last Carolingian king in East Francia, Louis the Child in 911, following Gilberts death in 939, his successors from the House of Reginar failed to retain the ducal title, but continued to rule over the Hainaut region. After Count Reginar III Longneck had unsuccessfully rebelled against Duke Bruno the Great, however, in 998 the Reginars regained control over the County of Mons. When the last Count, Herman, died without issue in 1051, his widow Richilde married Baldwin VI, on the death of his father in 1067, Baldwin VI became the ruler of both Hainaut and Mons. He was succeeded by his son Arnulf III, who was killed at the Battle of Cassel in 1071 in a dispute with his uncle. The victorious Robert acquired Flanders, but his sister-in-law Richilde retained the adjacent Lower Lorraine territories in the Holy Roman Empire as her dowry. Henry IV ordered the Prince-Bishop of Liège to purchase the fiefs and then return them as a county to the countess Richilde. The Counts of Hainaut had several connections with the counts of Flanders and Holland. Throughout its history, the county of Hainaut formed a union with other states. The last independent countess died early on 8 October 1436 in Teylingen Castle, near The Hague, when Charles the Bold of Burgundy was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the male line of the Burgundian dukes became extinct. In the same year, Charles daughter Mary of Burgundy married Archduke Maximilian I of Habsburg, King Louis XI of France hoped to take advantage of the death of his cousin, Charles, and sent an army to invade the Netherlands
County of Hainaut
24.
Low Countries
–
Most of the Low Countries are coastal regions bounded by the North Sea or the English Channel. The countries without access to the sea have linked themselves politically and economically to those with access to one union of port. The Low Countries were the scene of the northern towns, newly built rather than developed from ancient centres. In that period, they rivaled northern Italy for the most densely populated region of Europe, all of the regions mainly depended on trade, manufacturing and the encouragement of the free flow of goods and craftsmen. Germanic languages such as Dutch and Luxembourgish were the predominant languages, secondary languages included French, Romance-speaking Belgium, the Romance Flanders, and Namur. Governor Mary of Hungary used both the expressions les pays de par deça and Pays dEmbas, which evolved to Pays-Bas or Low Countries, today the term is typically fitted to modern political boundaries and used in the same way as the term Benelux, which also includes Luxembourg. The name of the country the Netherlands has the same meaning. The same name of countries can be found in other European languages, for example German Niederlande, French, les Pays-Bas, and so on. In the Dutch language itself no plural is used for the name of the modern country, so Nederland is used for the modern nation and de Nederlanden for the 16th century domains of Charles V. In Dutch, and to an extent in English, the Low Countries colloquially means the Netherlands and Belgium, sometimes the Netherlands. For example, a Derby der Lage Landen, is an event between Belgium and the Netherlands. Belgium was renamed only in 1830, after splitting from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, politically, before the Napoleonic wars, it was referred to as the Southern, Spanish or later Austrian Netherlands. It is still referred to as part of the low countries, the region politically had its origins in Carolingian empire, more precisely, most of it was within the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia. After the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia, the Low Countries were brought under the rule of various lordships until they came to be in the hands of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy. Hence, a part of the low countries came to be referred to as the Burgundian Netherlands also called the Seventeen Provinces up to 1581. Even after the secession of the autonomous Dutch Republic in the north. The Low Countries were part of the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica, Germania Inferior and they were inhabited by Belgic and Germanic tribes. In the 4th and 5th century, Frankish tribes had entered this Roman region and they came to be ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, under which dynasty the southern part was re-Christianised
Low Countries
–
The Low Countries as seen from space with modern day boundaries drawn in thin blue.
25.
Philip III of France
–
It can also refer to Philippe III de Croÿ and Philippe III, Duke of Orléans. Philip III, called the Bold, was King of France from 1270 to 1285, Philip proved indecisive, soft in nature, and timid. The strong personalities of his parents apparently crushed him, and policies of his father dominated him, people called him the Bold on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback and not on the basis of his political or personal character. He was pious but not cultivated and he followed the suggestions of others, first of Pierre de La Broce and then of his uncle King Charles I of Naples, Sicily, and Albania. His father, Louis IX, died in Tunis during the Eighth Crusade, Philip, who was accompanying him, came back to France to claim his throne and was anointed at Reims in 1271. Philip made numerous territorial acquisitions during his reign, the most notable being the County of Toulouse which was annexed to the Crown lands of France in 1271. Following the Sicilian Vespers, a rebellion triggered by Peter III of Aragon against Philips uncle Charles I of Naples, Philip was forced to retreat and died from dysentry in Perpignan in 1285. He was succeeded by his son Philip the Fair, Philip was born in Poissy to King Saint Louis IX of France and Margaret of Provence, queen consort of France. As a younger son, Philip was not expected to rule a kingdom, at the death of his elder brother Louis in 1260, he became the heir to the throne. He was then 15 years old and has less skill than his brother, being of a character, submissive, timid and versatile. Pope Urban IV released Philip from his oath on June 6,1263, from 1268 Pierre de La Brosse became mentor. Saint Louis also provided him his own advice, writing in particular Enseignements and he also received a very faith-oriented education. Guillaume dErcuis was also his chaplain before being the tutor of his son, as Count of Orléans, he accompanied his father to the Eighth Crusade in Tunis,1270. After taking Carthage, the army was struck by an epidemic of dysentery and his brother John Tristan, Count of Valois died first, on August 3, and on August 25 the king died. To prevent putrefaction of the remains of the sovereign, they recoursed to Mos Teutonicus, Philip, then 25 years old, was proclaimed king in Tunis. With neither great personality or will, very pious, but a good rider and he was unable to command the troops at the death of his father. He left his uncle Charles I of Naples to negotiate with Muhammad I al-Mustansir, Hafsid Sultan of Tunis and he got the payment of tribute from the caliph of Tunis in exchange for the departure of the crusaders. A treaty was concluded October 28,1270 between the kings of France, Sicily and Navarre and the barons on one hand and the caliph of Tunis on the other
Philip III of France
–
Coronation of King Philip III
Philip III of France
–
Marriage of Philip and
Marie of Brabant, Queen of France
26.
Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut
–
Margaret II of Avesnes was Countess of Hainaut and Countess of Holland from 1345 to 1356. Margaret was the daughter of William I, Count of Hainaut, due to the dangerous hostility of the House of Luxemburg Louis increased his power base ruthlessly. Margaret then returned to Holland in 1346 to secure her position of power, when Louis IV died on 11 October 1347, he was succeeded by his six sons. Stephen II, William and Albert received Lower Bavaria, Holland, Louis V and Stephen were not sons of Margaret and her youngest sons Albert and Otto were still minors. Louis VI released Holland and Hainaut for his brothers William and Albert in 1349 since he expected the Polish crown by his marriage with Cunigunde of Poland, in 1353 also Stephen released Holland and Hainaut to his brother William. Despite Margaret resigning her sovereignty in favour of her son William, in 1350 and her son William refused to pay her alimony so she then battled for the power in Holland and Hainaut for some years with her son. The Cod League was formed on 23 May 1350 by a number of supporters of William, on 5 September of the same year, the Hook League was formed. Soon afterward these factions clashed and a war began, known as the Hook. Margarets health failed and she died two years later of tuberculosis, leaving William in possession of the entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance. In 1324 she married Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor and their children were, Margaret, married, in 1351 in Buda Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, son of the King Charles I of Hungary, and had issue, 1357/58 Gerlach von Hohenlohe. Anna married John I of Lower Bavaria Louis VI the Roman, duke of Upper Bavaria, elisabeth, married, Cangrande II della Scala, Lord of Verona in Verona on 22 November 1350. No issue Count Ulrich of Württemberg in 1362, no issue William V of Holland, as William I duke of Lower Bavaria, as Wiliam V count of Hainaut and Holland. He married Maud of Lancaster but their daughter died young Agnes. 25 October 1356 Eric XII of Sweden Louis Counts of Hainaut family tree
Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut
–
Coats of Arms of the Counts of Hainaut and Holland.
27.
Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Louis IV, called the Bavarian, of the house of Wittelsbach, was King of the Romans from 1314, King of Italy from 1327, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1328. He obtained the titles Count of Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland, Louis was born in Munich, the son of Louis II, Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine, and Matilda, a daughter of King Rudolph I. A civil war against his brother Rudolf due to new disputes on the partition of their lands was ended in 1313, in the same year, on November 9, Louis defeated his Habsburg cousin Frederick the Fair who was further aided by duke Leopold I. Originally, he was a friend of Frederick, with whom he had been raised. However, armed conflict arose when the guardianship over the young Dukes of Lower Bavaria was entrusted to Frederick, even though the late Duke Otto III, on 9 November 1313, Frederick was defeated by Louis in the Battle of Gamelsdorf and had to renounce the tutelage. This victory caused a stir within the Holy Roman Empire and increased the reputation of the Bavarian Duke, the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII in August 1313 necessitated the election of a successor. Henrys son John, King of Bohemia since 1310, seemed too powerful to most prince-electors, the most likely choice was Frederick the Fair, the son of Henrys predecessor, Albert I, of the House of Habsburg. In reaction, the party among the prince electors settled on Louis as its candidate to prevent Fredericks election. On 19 October 1314, Archbishop Henry II Cologne chaired an assembly of four electors assembled at Sachsenhausen and these four elector chose Frederick as King. The Luxemburg party did not accept this election and the day a second election was held. Upon the instigation of Peter of Aspelt, Archbishop of Mainz, five different electors convened at Frankfurt, in the following conflict between the kings, Louis recognized in 1316 the independence of Switzerland from the Habsburg dynasty. After several years of war, victory finally seemed within the grasp of Frederick. However, Fredericks army was defeated in the Battle of Mühldorf on 28 September 1322 on the Ampfing Heath. In this agreement, Frederick recognized Louis as legitimate ruler and undertook to return to captivity if he did not succeed in convincing his brothers to submit to Louis. As he did not manage to overcome Leopolds obstinacy, Frederick returned to Munich as a prisoner, Louis, who was impressed by such nobility, renewed the old friendship with Frederick, and they agreed to rule the Empire jointly. However, after Leopolds death in 1326, Frederick withdrew from the regency of the Empire and he died on 13 January 1330. After the reconciliation with the Habsburgs in 1326, Louis marched to Italy and was crowned King of Italy in Milan in 1327. Already in 1323 Louis had sent an army to Italy to protect Milan against the Kingdom of Naples, but now the Lord of Milan Galeazzo I Visconti was deposed since he was suspected of conspiring with the pope
Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor
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Portrait of Louis IV (on a late gothic graveplate made of red marble in 1468 by Hans Haldner), tomb in the
Frauenkirche of
Munich
Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor
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Battle of Mühldorf (1322), contemporary illustration
Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor
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Golden Bull of Louis IV 1326
Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor
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Edward III becomes Vicar to the Emperor Louis IV.
28.
William II, Count of Hainaut
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William II, Count of Hainaut was William IV of Avesnes, William IV of Holland and William III of Zeeland from 1337 to his death, succeeding his father, William I. He married Joanna, Duchess of Brabant and Limburg in 1334, William fought in France as an ally of the English. He went on crusade against the Saracens and the Lithuanians and he besieged Utrecht, because his one-time favourite bishop John van Arkel of Utrecht had turned against him. He died at Warns, near Stavoren, during one of the battles of Warns against the Frisians in 1345, William was succeeded by his sister, who was married to emperor Louis IV. Hainaut, Holland and Zeeland became a part of the crown domains. Counts of Hainaut family tree Counts of Holland family tree Friso-Hollandic Wars Frisia
William II, Count of Hainaut
–
Holland, 1/4
groat, struck in
Geertruidenberg by William IV as
Count of Holland.
29.
Edward II of England
–
Edward II, also called Edward of Caernarfon, was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed in January 1327. The fourth son of Edward I, Edward became the heir to the following the death of his older brother Alphonso. Beginning in 1300, Edward accompanied his father on campaigns to pacify Scotland, Edward succeeded to the throne in 1307, following his fathers death. In 1308, he married Isabella of France, the daughter of the powerful King Philip IV, Edward had a close and controversial relationship with Piers Gaveston, who had joined his household in 1300. The precise nature of Edward and Gavestons relationship is uncertain, they may have been friends, Gavestons arrogance and power as Edwards favourite provoked discontent both among the barons and the French royal family, and Edward was forced to exile him. On Gavestons return, the barons pressured the King into agreeing to wide-ranging reforms called the Ordinances of 1311, the newly empowered barons banished Gaveston, to which Edward responded by revoking the reforms and recalling his favourite. Led by Edwards cousin, the Earl of Lancaster, a group of the barons seized and executed Gaveston in 1312, English forces were pushed back in Scotland, where Edward was decisively defeated by Robert the Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Widespread famine followed, and criticism of the Kings reign mounted, in response, Edward led a short military campaign, capturing and executing Lancaster. Edward and the Despensers strengthened their grip on power, revoking the 1311 reforms, executing their enemies, unable to make progress in Scotland, Edward finally signed a truce with Robert. Opposition to the regime grew, and when Isabella was sent to France to negotiate a treaty in 1325, she turned against Edward. Isabella allied herself with the exiled Roger Mortimer, and invaded England with an army in 1326. Edwards regime collapsed and he fled into Wales, where he was captured in November, Edwards relationship with Gaveston inspired Christopher Marlowes 1592 play Edward II, along with other plays, films, novels and media. Many of these have focused on the sexual relationship between the two men. Debate has continued into the 21st century as to whether Edward was a lazy and incompetent king, or simply a reluctant, Edward II was the fourth son of Edward I and his first wife, Eleanor of Castile. His father was the King of England, and had also inherited Gascony in south-western France, which he held as the vassal of the King of France. His mother was from the Castilian royal family, and held the County of Ponthieu in northern France, Edward I proved to be a successful military leader, leading the suppression of the baronial revolts in the 1260s, and joining the Ninth Crusade. During the 1280s he conquered North Wales, removing the native Welsh princes from power and he was considered an extremely successful ruler by his contemporaries, largely able to control the powerful earls that formed the senior ranks of the English nobility. The historian Michael Prestwich describes Edward I as a king to inspire fear and respect, despite his successes, when Edward I died in 1307 he left a range of challenges for his son to resolve
Edward II of England
–
Effigy in
Gloucester Cathedral
Edward II of England
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Caernarfon Castle, Edward's birthplace
Edward II of England
–
Portrait in
Westminster Abbey, thought to be of Edward's father,
Edward I
Edward II of England
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Early 14th-century depiction of Edward I (left) declaring his son Edward (right) the Prince of Wales
30.
Walter de Stapledon
–
Walter de Stapledon was Bishop of Exeter 1308–1326 and twice Lord High Treasurer of England, in 1320 and 1322. He founded Exeter College, Oxford and contributed liberally to the rebuilding of Exeter Cathedral and his tomb and monument, of great architectural importance, survives in Exeter Cathedral. Walter Stapledon was born at Annery in the parish of Monkleigh, North Devon, England, the Stapledons originated at the estate of Stapledon, in the parish of Cookbury, near Holsworthy, Devon. His elder brother was Richard Stapledon of Annery, a judge, on 13 March 1307 Stapledon was appointed Bishop of Exeter, and was consecrated on 13 October 1308. He went on embassies to France for both Kings Edward I and Edward II, and attended the councils and parliaments of his time, the college was much frequented by sons of the Devonshire gentry for many centuries. The armorials of the college are those of Bishop Stapledon, Stapledon was associated in the popular mind with the misdeeds of King Edward II. On fleeing London before the troops of Queen Isabella, that king appointed Stapledon Custos or Keeper of the City of London. Foreseeing her forced entry into the City, Stapledon demanded from the Lord Mayor of London the keys to the gates, the following account is related by William de Dene in his History of the See of Rochester. However all the bishops were wary of crossing the Thames into London, eventually The Bishop of London and Stapledon, Bishop of Exeter, appear to have volunteered and crossed the Thames to convene at the Blackfriars, just outside the City gates. Here they met with a group of the Kings Justices, the plot came to fruition when Stapledon was ambushed on his journey. He was accompanied by his elder brother Richard de Stapledon, a Justice of Assizes for the western circuit, Sir Richards elaborate monument with effigies survives in Exeter Cathedral, near to that of his brother the bishop. The bishop fled for safety into St Pauls Cathedral and his head was chopped off and his body was thrown onto a dunghill to be torn and devoured by dogs. A lengthy epitaph in Latin verse was composed by John Hooker and was inscribed on a heavy wooden tablet erected in 1568 over his tomb at the expense of Bishop William Alleigh. This was still in place at the time of Prince, who transcribed it and it was destroyed in 1805 by Bishop John Fisher, who erected in its place coronet-work in gilded stone. A shorter Latin eulogy inscribed on three white marble tablets survives attached to the side of the monument. Stapledons monument is located in Exeter Cathedral in the choir on the side of the high altar. It consists of a recumbent effigy within a gothic canopy all made of Beer stone, the colour scheme dates from an early 19th-century restoration since restored again. The effigy is shown in pontificalibus and holds in his hand a crozier
Walter de Stapledon
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Walter de Stapledon (1261-1326), Bishop of Exeter. Detail from his effigy in Exeter Cathedral
Walter de Stapledon
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Arms of Bishop Walter de Stapledon (1261-1326), Bishop of Exeter, Detail from his monument in Exeter Cathedral: Argent, two bendlets wavy sable (Stapledon) within a bordure of the last charged with six pairs of keys addorsed and interlaced the wards upwards or (bordure of Bishop Stapledon)
Walter de Stapledon
–
Monument to Bishop Walter Stapledon, Exeter Cathedral
Walter de Stapledon
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Wall painting c. 1326 on ceiling of canopy of monument to Bishop Walter Stapledon, Exeter Cathedral
31.
Isabella of France
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Isabella of France, sometimes described as the She-Wolf of France, was Queen of England as the wife of Edward II, and regent of England from 1326 until 1330. She was the youngest surviving child and only surviving daughter of Philip IV of France, Queen Isabella was notable at the time for her beauty, diplomatic skills, and intelligence. Isabella arrived in England at the age of 12 during a period of growing conflict between the king and the powerful baronial factions, Isabella could not tolerate Hugh Despenser and by 1325 her marriage to Edward was at a breaking point. Travelling to France under the guise of a mission, Isabella began an affair with Roger Mortimer. The Queen returned to England with a mercenary army in 1326. Isabella deposed Edward, becoming regent on behalf of her son, many have believed that Isabella then arranged the murder of Edward II. In 1330, Isabella’s son Edward III deposed Mortimer in turn, taking back his authority, the Queen was not punished, however, and lived for many years in considerable style—although not at Edward III’s court—until her death in 1358. Isabella became a popular femme fatale figure in plays and literature over the years, usually portrayed as a beautiful but cruel, manipulative figure. Isabella was born in Paris on an uncertain date – on the basis of the chroniclers and she is described as born in 1292 in the Annals of Wigmore, and Piers Langtoft agrees, claiming that she was 7 years old in 1299. The French chroniclers Guillaume de Nangis and Thomas Walsingham describe her as 12 years old at the time of her marriage in January 1308, placing her birth between January 1295 and of 1296. A papal dispensation by Clement V in November 1305 permitted her immediate marriage by proxy and her parents were King Philip IV of France and Queen Joan I of Navarre, her brothers Louis, Philip and Charles became kings of France. Isabella was born into a family that ruled the most powerful state in Western Europe. Indeed, he appeared almost obsessed about building up wealth and lands, Isabellas mother died when Isabella was still quite young, some contemporaries suspected Philip IV of her murder, albeit probably incorrectly. Isabella was brought up in and around the Château du Louvre, Isabella was cared for by Théophania de Saint-Pierre, her nurse, given a good education and taught to read, developing a love of books. As was customary for the period, all of Philips children were married young for political benefit, Pope Boniface VIII had urged the marriage as early as 1298 but was delayed by wrangling over the terms of the marriage contract. The English king, Edward I attempted to break the engagement several times for political advantage, Isabella and Edward II were finally married at Boulogne-sur-Mer on 25 January 1308. At the time of her marriage, Isabella was probably about twelve and was described by Geoffrey of Paris as the beauty of beauties, in the kingdom if not in all Europe. Isabella was said to resemble her father, and not her mother, queen regnant of Navarre and this indicates that Isabella was slender and pale-skinned, although the fashion at the time was for blonde, slightly full-faced women, and Isabella may well have followed this stereotype instead
Isabella of France
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15th century depiction of Isabella
Isabella of France
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Isabella's French family, depicted in 1315: l-r: Isabella's brothers,
Charles and
Philip, Isabella herself, her father,
Philip IV, her brother
Louis, and her uncle,
Charles of Valois.
Isabella of France
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Seal of Edward II
Isabella of France
–
Isabella was able to come to an understanding with her husband's first favorite
Piers Gaveston, shown here lying dead at the feet of
Guy de Beauchamp, in a 15th-century representation.
32.
Pope John XXII
–
Pope John XXII, born Jacques Duèze, was Pope from 7 August 1316 to his death in 1334. Like his predecessor, Clement V, Pope John centralized power and income in the Papacy, the son of a shoemaker in Cahors, Jacques Duèze studied medicine in Montpellier and law in Paris, yet could not read a regal letter written to him in French. Duèze taught both canon and civil law at Toulouse and Cahors, on the recommendation of Charles II of Naples he was made Bishop of Fréjus in 1300. In 1309 he was appointed chancellor of Charles II, and in 1310 he was transferred to Avignon and he delivered legal opinions favorable to the suppression of the Templars, but he also defended Boniface VIII and the Bull Unam Sanctam. On 23 December 1312, Clement V made him Cardinal-Bishop of Porto-Santa Rufina, the death of Pope Clement V in 1314 was followed by an interregnum of two years due to disagreements between the cardinals, who were split into two factions. After two years, Philip, in 1316, finally managed to arrange a papal conclave of cardinals in Lyon. This conclave elected Duèze, who took the name John XXII and was crowned in Lyon and he set up his residence in Avignon rather than Rome, continuing the Avignon Papacy of his predecessor. John XXII involved himself in the politics and religious movements of many European countries in order to advance the interests of the Church and his close links with the French crown created widespread distrust of the papacy. Pope John XXII was an excellent administrator and efficient at reorganizing the Church and he had sent a letter of thanks to the Muslim ruler Uzbeg Khan, who was very tolerant of Christians and treated Christians kindly. John XXII has traditionally been credited with having composed the prayer Anima Christi, and the basis for the hymn Soul of Christ, Sanctify My Breast. On 27 March 1329 John XXII condemned many writings of Meister Eckhart as heretical in his papal bull In Agro Dominico, prior to John XXIIs election a contest had begun for the Holy Roman Empires crown between Louis IV of Bavaria and Frederick I of Austria. Louis IV was assisted in his dispute with the papacy by Marsilius of Padua. Louis IV invaded Italy, entered Rome and set up Pietro Rainalducci as Antipope Nicholas V in 1328, guelphic predominance at Rome was later restored, and Pope John excommunicated William of Ockham. However, Louis IV had silenced the claims and John XXII stayed the rest of his life in Avignon. In 1317, John XXII formally condemned the group of known as the Fraticelli. The experts disagreed among themselves, but the majority condemned the idea on the grounds that it would condemn the Churchs right to have possessions. On 12 November 1323, he issued the bull Quum inter nonnullos, influential members of the order protested, such as the minister general Michael of Cesena, the English provincial William of Ockham, and Bonagratia of Bergamo. In 1324, Louis the Bavarian sided with the Spirituals and accused the Pope of heresy, in 1328 Michael of Cesena was summoned to Avignon to explain the Orders intransigence in refusing the Popes orders and its complicity with Louis of Bavaria
Pope John XXII
–
Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII
–
17th-century engraving of Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII
–
Pope John XXII cameo
33.
Avignon
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Avignon is a commune in south-eastern France in the department of Vaucluse on the left bank of the Rhône river. Of the 90,194 inhabitants of the city, about 12,000 live in the ancient town centre enclosed by its medieval ramparts. Between 1309 and 1377, during the Avignon Papacy, seven popes resided in Avignon. Papal control persisted until 1791 when, during the French Revolution, the town is now the capital of the Vaucluse department and one of the few French cities to have preserved its ramparts. The historic centre, which includes the Palais des Papes, the cathedral, the medieval monuments and the annual Festival dAvignon have helped to make the town a major centre for tourism. The commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns, the earliest forms of the name were reported by the Greeks, Аὐενιὼν = Auenion Άουεννίων = Aouennion. The Roman name Avennĭo Cavarum, i. e. Avignon of Cavares accurately shows that Avignon was one of the three cities of the Celtic-Ligurian tribe of Cavares, along with Cavaillon and Orange. The current name dates to a pre-Indo-European or pre-Latin theme ab-ên with the suffix -i-ōn This theme would be a hydronym - i. e. a name linked to the river, but perhaps also an oronym of terrain. The site of Avignon has been occupied since the Neolithic period as shown by excavations at Rocher des Doms and the Balance district. In 1960 and 1961 excavations in the part of the Rocher des Doms directed by Sylvain Gagnière uncovered a small anthropomorphic stele. Carved in Burdigalian sandstone, it has the shape of a tombstone with its face engraved with a stylized human figure with no mouth. On the bottom, shifted slightly to the right is an indentation with eight radiating lines forming a solar representation - a unique discovery for this type of stele. There were also some Chalcolithic objects for adornment and an abundance of Hallstatt pottery shards which could have been native or imported, the name of the city dates back to around the 6th century BC. The first citation of Avignon was made by Artemidorus of Ephesus, although his book, The Journey, is lost it is known from the abstract by Marcian of Heraclea and The Ethnics, a dictionary of names of cities by Stephanus of Byzantium based on that book. He said, The City of Massalia, near the Rhone and this name has two interpretations, city of violent wind or, more likely, lord of the river. Other sources trace its origin to the Gallic mignon and the Celtic definitive article, Avignon was a simple Greek Emporium founded by Phocaeans from Marseille around 539 BC. It was in the 4th century BC that the Massaliotes began to sign treaties of alliance with some cities in the Rhone valley including Avignon and Cavaillon, a century later Avignon was part of the region of Massaliotes or country of Massalia. Fortified on its rock, the city later became and long remained the capital of the Cavares, with the arrival of the Roman legions in 120 BC. the Cavares, allies with the Massaliotes, became Roman
Avignon
–
Palace of the Popes
Avignon
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UNESCO World Heritage Site
Avignon
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A small anthropomorphic stele discovered during an archaeological excavation on the Rocher des Doms
Avignon
–
Greek stele from Avignon, at the Lapidary Museum.
34.
Queen Dowager
–
A queen dowager, dowager queen or queen mother is a title or status generally held by the widow of a king. In the case of the widow of an emperor, the title of empress dowager is used, a queen mother is a dowager queen who is the mother of the reigning monarch. Currently there are four queens dowager, Kesang Choden of Bhutan, Norodom Monineath of Cambodia, Lisa Najeeb Halaby, Queen Ratna of Nepal was queen dowager and queen mother until the abolition of the Nepalese monarchy in 2008. A queen mother is a type of queen dowager who is simultaneously a former queen consort. Therefore, every mother is by definition also a queen dowager. However, not all queens dowager are queens mother, they may have a relation other than mother to the monarch, such as aunt or grandmother. For example, Mary, Queen of Scots, was queen dowager of France after the death of her husband Francis II, similarly, Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen was queen dowager after her husband William IV was succeeded by his niece Victoria. Not every mother of a monarch is a queen mother or a queen dowager. For example, the mother of Queen Victoria of United Kingdom, Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, was never a queen dowager because her husband, Edward Augustus, instead, Augusta held the title of ”Dowager Princess of Wales”, Srinagarindra meanwhile received the designation ”Princess Mother. Finally, it is possible for there to be a queen mother and this situation occurred in the Commonwealth realms in the period between the accession of Queen Elizabeth II on 6 February 1952 and the death of her paternal grandmother on 24 March 1953. For slightly over a year, there were three queens alive, Queen Elizabeth II, the reigning monarch, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, the widow of the deceased King George VI and the mother of the reigning queen. Queen Elizabeth, the queen consort, specifically adopted the appellation Queen Mother to distinguish herself from her daughter. She reportedly loathed being referred to as a dowager queen, Queen Mary, the widow of King George V, the mother of the former king Edward VIII and of the late King George VI. Queen Mary had been the queen mother between the death of her husband in 1936 and before the accession of her granddaughter, Queen Elizabeth II, after her accession, Queen Mary became Mary, the Queen Dowager. However, she continued to be titled and styled Her Majesty Queen Mary, a queen dowager continues to enjoy the title, style, and precedence of a queen. However, many queens consort do not formally use the word dowager as part of their titles. There were several former queens consort of England, Scotland, and later the United Kingdom, adeliza of Louvain 1 December 1135 –23 April 1151, wife of Henry I of England, remarried to William dAubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel in 1139. Eleanor of Aquitaine 6 July 1189 –1 April 1204, wife of Henry II of England, queen mother to Richard I, berengaria of Navarre 6 April 1199 –23 December 1230, wife of Richard I of England
Queen Dowager
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
35.
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March
–
In November 1316, he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1322 for having led the Marcher lords in a revolt against King Edward II in what known as the Despenser War. He later escaped to France, where he was joined by Edwards queen consort Isabella, after he and Isabella led a successful invasion and rebellion, Edward was subsequently deposed, Mortimer allegedly arranged his murder at Berkeley Castle. For three years, Mortimer was de facto ruler of England before being overthrown by Edwards eldest son. Accused of assuming power and other crimes, Mortimer was executed by hanging at Tyburn. He was born on April 25,1287, the Feast of Saint Mark and he shared this birthday with King Edward II, which would be relevant later in life. According to his biographer Ian Mortimer, Roger was possibly sent as a boy away from home to be fostered in the household of his formidable uncle and it was this uncle who had carried the severed head of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd of Wales to King Edward I in 1282. Roger attended the Coronation of Edward II on 25th February 1308, like many noble children of his time, Roger was betrothed at a young age, to Joan de Geneville, the daughter of Sir Piers de Geneville, of Trim Castle and Ludlow. They were married on 20 September 1301 when he was aged fourteen and their first child was born in 1302. However, Joan de Geneville was not an heiress at the time of her marriage, Roger Mortimer therefore succeeded to the eastern part of the Lordship of Meath, centred on Trim and its stronghold of Trim Castle. He did not succeed, however, to the Lordship of Fingal, Roger Mortimers childhood came to an abrupt end when his father was mortally wounded in a skirmish near Builth in July 1304. Since Roger was underage at the death of his father, he was placed by King Edward I under the guardianship of Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall. However, on 22 May 1306, in a ceremony in Westminster Abbey with two hundred and fifty-nine others, he was knighted by Edward and granted livery of his full inheritance. His adult life began in earnest in 1308, when he went to Ireland in person to enforce his authority and this brought him into conflict with the de Lacys, who turned for support to Edward Bruce, brother of Robert Bruce, King of Scots. Mortimer was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Edward II on 23 November 1316, shortly afterwards, at the head of a large army, he drove Bruce to Carrickfergus and the de Lacys into Connaught, wreaking vengeance on their adherents whenever they were to be found. He returned to England and Wales in 1318 and was occupied for some years with baronial disputes on the Welsh border. Mortimer became disaffected with his king and joined the opposition to Edward II. After the younger Despenser was granted lands belonging to him, he and he supported Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, in refusing to obey the kings summons to appear before him in 1321 as long as the younger Despencer was in the Kings train
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March
–
15th-century manuscript illustration depicting Roger Mortimer and Queen Isabella in the foreground
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March
–
The "Tyburn Tree"
36.
Treason
–
In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against ones nation or sovereign. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason. A person who commits treason is known in law as a traitor, orans Dictionary of the Law defines treason as a citizens actions to help a foreign government overthrow, make war against, or seriously injure the. In many nations, it is often considered treason to attempt or conspire to overthrow the government. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet, in a civil war or insurrection, the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende, the accusation of treason towards a group of people can be a unifying political message. Treason is considered to be different and on occasions a separate charge from treasonable felony in many parts of the world. In English law, high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered or burnt at the stake and those penalties were abolished in 1814,1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors, many of them would now just be considered dissidents. His treachery is considered so notorious that his name has long been synonymous with traitor, christian theology and political thinking until after the Enlightenment considered treason and blasphemy as synonymous, as it challenged both the state and the will of God. Kings were considered chosen by God, and to ones country was to do the work of Satan. Many nations laws mention various types of treason, Crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason, and may include a coup detat. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, Crimes Related to inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in Japan, the application of Crimes Related to Insurrection was considered about Aum Shinrikyo cult which caused religious terrorism. A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs, or if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature, the only permissible penalty for treason is life imprisonment. Section 24AA of the Crimes Act 1914 creates the offence of treachery. The Treason Act 1351, the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales, Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by the Treason Act 1351. This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848, the offence of treason was created by section 9A of the Crimes Act 1958
Treason
–
A 17th century illustration of
Guy Fawkes. Guy Fawkes tried to assassinate
James I of England. He failed and was convicted of treason and sentenced to be
hanged, drawn and quartered.
Treason
–
5 January 1895 - The treason conviction of Captain
Alfred Dreyfus.
Treason
–
Engraving depicting the execution of
Sir Thomas Armstrong in 1684, who was
hanged, drawn and quartered.
Treason
–
The
Indische Legion attached to the
German Army was created in 1941, mainly from disaffected Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army.
37.
Castle Rising
–
Castle Rising is a village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. It is best known as the location of Castle Rising Castle, the village is situated some 8 kilometres north-east of the town of Kings Lynn and 60 kilometres west of the city of Norwich. The River Babingley skirts the north of the village separating Castle Rising from the site of the lost village of Babingley. The civil parish has an area of 8.65 square kilometres and in the 2001 census had a population of 225 in 110 households, for the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the district of Kings Lynn and West Norfolk. It lies within the constituency of Norfolk North West, whose Member of Parliament is Henry Bellingham of the Conservative Party. The village is a conservation area and it includes a fine example of Norman architecture in the church, built in the local and very distinctive local carrstone and flint. The village was once on the road to the North Norfolk coast but since the Kings Lynn bypass was constructed it has become a quiet. There is one house in village called The Black Horse Inn. Regular historic reenactments take place at the castle as do Jazz Picnics, Castle Rising is included in Snettishams complex entry in the Domesday book where it is divided in ownership between William de Warenne and the Bishop of Bayeux. Related berewicks are West Newton and Castle Rising, isabella died here in August 1358. Prior to the Reform Act of 1832, Castle Rising had the status of a borough and. Its most notable member was Robert Walpole, Prime Minister from 1721 to 1742, samuel Pepys also served as its member. It also appeared in the locally produced but not yet released production High-Tide, Castle Rising Map sources for Castle Rising. Information from Genuki Norfolk on Castle Rising
Castle Rising
–
Castle Rising
Castle Rising
–
The church
38.
Jean Froissart
–
For centuries, Froissarts Chronicles have been recognised as the chief expression of the chivalric revival of the 14th century Kingdom of England and Kingdom of France. His history is also an important source for the first half of the Hundred Years War, what little is known of Froissarts life comes mainly from his historical writings and from archival sources which mention him in the service of aristocrats or receiving gifts from them. This is why de Looze has characterised these works as pseudo-autobiographical, Froissart came from Valenciennes in the County of Hainaut, situated in the western tip of the Holy Roman Empire, bordering France. Earlier scholars have suggested that his father was a painter of armorial bearings, other suggestions include that he began working as a merchant but soon gave that up to become a cleric. For this conclusion there is no real evidence, as the poems which have been cited to support these interpretations are not really autobiographical. By about age 24, Froissart left Hainault and entered the service of Philippa of Hainault, queen consort of Edward III of England, in 1361 or 1362. This service, which would have lasted until the death in 1369, has often been presented as including a position of court poet and/or official historiographer. Froissart took an approach to his work. He traveled in England, Scotland, Wales, France, Flanders and Spain gathering material and he traveled with Lionel, Duke of Clarence, to Milan to attend and chronicle the dukes wedding to Violante, the daughter of Galeazzo Visconti. At this wedding, two other significant writers of the Middle Ages were present, Chaucer and Petrarch, after the death of Queen Philippa, he enjoyed the patronage of Joanna, Duchess of Brabant among various others. He received rewards—including the benefice of Estinnes, a village near Binche and later became canon of Chimay—sufficient to finance further travels and he returned to England in 1395 but seemed disappointed by changes that he viewed as the end of chivalry. The date and circumstances of his death are unknown but St. Monegunda of Chimay might be the resting place for his remains. Much more than his poetry, Froissarts fame is due to his Chronicles, the text of his Chronicles is preserved in more than 100 illuminated manuscripts, illustrated by a variety of miniaturists. One of the most lavishly illuminated copies was commissioned by Louis of Gruuthuse, the four volumes of this copy contain 112 miniatures painted by well-known Brugeois artists of the day, among them Loiset Lyédet, to whom the miniatures in the first two volumes are attributed. He is thought to have one of the first to mention the use of the verge and foliot, or verge escapement in European clockworks. The English composer Edward Elgar wrote an overture entitled Froissart, Froissarts Chronicles LHorloge amoureux Méliador Peter Ainsworth, Froissart, Jean, in Graeme Dunphy, Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle, Leiden, Brill,2010, pp. 642–645. Cristian Bratu, Je, aucteur de ce livre, Authorial Persona, in Authorities in the Middle Ages. Influence, Legitimacy and Power in Medieval Society, sini Kangas, Mia Korpiola, and Tuija Ainonen, eds
Jean Froissart
–
Posthumous portrait of Jean Froissart, "
Recueil d'Arras ", Jacques Le Boucq
Jean Froissart
–
Froissart's statue in the
Louvre
Jean Froissart
–
Froissart,
Chimay,
Belgium
Jean Froissart
–
Execution of
Hugh the younger Despenser 1326. A miniature from the
Gruuthuse copy of the Chronicle.
39.
Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
Scotland
–
Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.
Scotland
–
Flag
Scotland
–
The class I
Pictish stone at
Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.
Scotland
–
The
Wallace Monument commemorates
William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero.
40.
Hundred Years War
–
Each side drew many allies into the war. It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages, the war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline, and the development of strong national identities in both countries. After the Norman Conquest, the kings of England were vassals of the kings of France for their possessions in France, the French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, to reduce these possessions, to the effect that only Gascony was left to the English. Through his mother, Isabella of France, Edward III of England was the grandson of Philip IV of France and nephew of Charles IV of France, in 1316, a principle was established denying women succession to the French throne. When Charles IV died in 1328, Isabella, unable to claim the French throne for herself, the French rejected the claim, maintaining that Isabella could not transmit a right that she did not possess. Several overwhelming English victories in the war—especially at Crecy, Poitiers, however, the greater resources of the French monarchy precluded a complete conquest. Historians commonly divide the war into three separated by truces, the Edwardian Era War, the Caroline War, and the Lancastrian War. Later historians adopted the term Hundred Years War as a historiography periodization to encompass all of these events, the war owes its historical significance to multiple factors. By its end, feudal armies had been replaced by professional troops. Although primarily a conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French. The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated, the war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire and thus helping to change their role in warfare. With respect to the belligerents, in France, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of English nobles, resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings, the root causes of the conflict can be found in the demographic, economic and political crises of 14th century Europe. The outbreak of war was motivated by a rise in tension between the Kings of France and England about Guyenne, Flanders and Scotland. The dynastic question, which due to an interruption of the direct male line of the Capetians, was the official pretext. The question of succession to the French throne was raised after the death of Louis X in 1316. Louis X left only a daughter, and his posthumous son John I lived only a few days, Philip, Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, asserted that women were ineligible to succeed to the French throne. Through his political sagacity he won over his adversaries and succeeded to the French throne as Philip V of France, by the same law that he procured, his daughters were denied the succession, which passed to his younger brother, Charles IV, in 1322
Hundred Years War
–
Clockwise, from top left:
John of Bohemia at the
Battle of Crécy, English and Franco-Castilian fleets at the
Battle of La Rochelle,
Henry V and the English army at the
Battle of Agincourt,
Joan of Arc rallies French forces at the
Siege of Orléans
Hundred Years War
–
Homage of
Edward I of England (kneeling) to
Philip IV of France (seated), 1286. As
Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was also a vassal to the French King.
Hundred Years War
–
Battle of Sluys from a
manuscript of
Froissart's Chronicles, Bruge, c.1470
Hundred Years War
–
Battle of Crécy, 1346
41.
The Burghers of Calais
–
Les Bourgeois de Calais is one of the most famous sculptures by Auguste Rodin. It commemorates an occurrence during the Hundred Years War, when Calais, Calais commissioned Rodin to create the sculpture in 1884, and the work was completed in 1889. Englands Edward III, after a victory in the Battle of Crécy, laid siege to Calais, Philip failed to lift the siege, and starvation eventually forced the city to parley for surrender. According to medieval writer Jean Froissart, Edward offered to spare the people of the city if six of its top leaders would surrender themselves to him, Edward demanded that they walk out wearing nooses around their necks, and carrying the keys to the city and castle. One of the wealthiest of the leaders, Eustache de Saint Pierre, volunteered first. Saint Pierre led this envoy of volunteers to the city gates and it was this moment, and this poignant mix of defeat, heroic self-sacrifice, and willingness to face imminent death that Rodin captured in his sculpture, scaled somewhat larger than life. The City of Calais had attempted to erect a statue of Eustache de Saint Pierre, eldest of the burghers, since 1845. Two prior artists were prevented from executing the sculpture, the first, David dAngers, by his death, in 1884 the municipal corporation of the city invited several artists, Rodin amongst them, to submit proposals for the project. The public had a lack of appreciation for it because it didnt have overtly heroic antique references which were considered integral to public sculpture and it was not a pyramidal arrangement and contained no allegorical figures. It was intended to be placed at level, rather than on a pedestal. The burghers were not presented in an image of glory, instead, they display pain, anguish. To Rodin, this was nevertheless heroic, the heroism of self-sacrifice, only later was his vision realized, when the sculpture was moved in front of the newly completed town hall of Calais, where it now rests on a much lower base. Under French law no more than twelve original casts of works of Rodin may be made, the first cast of the group of six figures, cast in 1895 still stands in Calais. Other original casts stand at, Glyptoteket in Copenhagen, cast 1903, the Musée royal de Mariemont in Morlanwelz, Belgium, cast 1905. Victoria Tower Gardens in the shadow of the Houses of Parliament in London, cast 1908, installed on site in 1914. The inscription on the pedestal was carved by Eric Gill, the Rodin Museum in Philadelphia, cast 1925 and installed in 1929. The gardens of the Musée Rodin in Paris, cast 1926, kunstmuseum in Basel, cast 1943 and installed in 1948. The Smithsonian Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D. C. cast 1943, the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo, cast 1953 and installed in 1959
The Burghers of Calais
–
The Burghers of Calais
The Burghers of Calais
–
Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts,
Stanford University
The Burghers of Calais
The Burghers of Calais
42.
Illuminated manuscripts
–
An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders and miniature illustrations. Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works are described as painted, islamic manuscripts may be referred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western works. This article covers the technical, social and economic history of the subject, for an art-historical account, the earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600, produced in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent artistic and historical value, had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely constricted literate group of Christians, the majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many survive from the Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity. The majority of manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th century onward, a number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls, a very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum or parchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment, beginning in the late Middle Ages manuscripts began to be produced on paper. Illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th century, Manuscripts are among the most common items to survive from the Middle Ages, many thousands survive. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval painting, indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting. There are a few examples from later periods, the type of book that was most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes known as a display book, varied between periods. In the first millennium, these were most likely to be Gospel Books, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Romanesque period saw the creation of many huge illuminated complete Bibles – one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also illuminated in both this and the Gothic period. Finally, the Book of Hours, very commonly the personal book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgical and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods, the Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts in its own style, versions of which spread to other Orthodox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art for other regions, periods and types, reusing parchments by scraping the surface and reusing them was a common practice, the traces often left behind of the original text are known as palimpsests. The Gothic period, which saw an increase in the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles
Illuminated manuscripts
–
In the strictest definition of illuminated manuscript, only manuscripts with gold or silver, like this
miniature of
Christ in Majesty from the
Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be considered illuminated.
Illuminated manuscripts
–
The decoration of this page from a French
Book of Hours, ca.1400, includes a miniature, initials and borders
Illuminated manuscripts
–
A 13th-century manuscript illumination, the earliest known depiction of
Thomas Becket 's assassination
Illuminated manuscripts
–
The 11th century Tyniec Sacramentary was written with gold on purple background.
43.
State funeral
–
A state funeral is a public funeral ceremony, observing the strict rules of protocol, held to honour people of national significance. State funerals usually include much pomp and ceremony as well as religious overtones, generally, state funerals are held in order to involve the general public in a national day of mourning after the family of the deceased gives consent. A state funeral will often generate mass publicity from both national and global media outlets and she had the title of Spiritual Leader of the Nation of Argentina, a title granted by the Congress of Argentina. Nearly three million people covered the funeral of Evita in the streets of Buenos Aires, eva Perón, Spiritual Leader of the Nation, died. Eva Perón was granted a funeral and a full Roman Catholic requiem mass. On 9 August, Saturday, the body was transferred to the Congress Building for an additional day to be publicly viewed. On Sunday,10 August, after a final Sunday mass, passing her coffin through the streets was showered with carnations, orchids, chrysanthemums, wallflowers and roses thrown from the balconies nearby. Juan Perón died at age 78 on July 1,1974, the Vice President, saying the country was announced with great sorrow I must convey to the people of Argentina the death of this true apostle of peace and nonviolence. On November 17,1974 the remains of Evita, while the body was in Congress, filed past the coffin 135,000 people, out of more than a million Argentines lost their bid farewell to their leader. Two thousand foreign journalists reported the details of the funeral, raul Alfonsín died at age 82 on 31 March 2009, due to lung cancer and then his health would be aggravated, in his last days, broncoaspirativa pneumonia. The next day they were taken to a gun carriage escorted by the Mounted Grenadiers Regiment at Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires. Although there was some effort made to him, it did not do so His wife. He was also expected to run for president in 2011, a state funeral was held on November 3,2010 in Bridgetown for former Barbados Prime Minister David Thompson. State funerals were held for the president-elect of Brazil, Tancredo Neves, the former vice-president of Brazil, José Alencar, was also buried with a head of states honor, after his passing due to cancer. In 2006, the House of Commons voted unanimously, on an introduced by the NDP. However, John Babcock, after becoming the last surviving veteran, in August 2011, in a rare circumstance, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered a state funeral for his political adversary and Leader of the Opposition, Jack Layton. Layton died of cancer three months after his New Democratic Party became the opposition, for the first time in his partys history. In 2014, former finance minister Jim Flaherty received a state funeral after his death, crispin Sorhaindo, former President of Dominica, was given a state funeral on January 18,2010 in Roseau
State funeral
–
The coffin of
John Curtin, the 14th
Prime Minister of Australia, lying in state inside King's Hall,
Old Parliament House, Canberra on July 6, 1945
State funeral
–
Almost three million people attended
Eva Perón 's funeral in the streets of
Buenos Aires.
State funeral
–
State funeral of
Néstor Kirchner at
Casa Rosada.
State funeral
–
State funeral of
José Alencar, former Vice President of Brazil, at the
Palácio do Planalto,
Brasília.
44.
Edward I of England
–
Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
Edward I of England
–
Portrait in Westminster Abbey, thought to be of Edward I
Edward I of England
–
Early fourteenth-century manuscript
initial showing Edward and his wife Eleanor. The artist has perhaps tried to depict Edward's
blepharoptosis, a trait he inherited from his father.
Edward I of England
–
Medieval manuscript showing
Simon de Montfort 's mutilated body at the field of
Evesham
Edward I of England
–
Operations during the Crusade of Edward I
45.
Eleanor of Castile
–
Eleanor of Castile was an English queen, the first wife of Edward I, whom she married as part of a political deal to affirm English sovereignty over Gascony. The marriage was known to be close, and Eleanor travelled extensively with her husband. She was with him on the Eighth Crusade, when he was wounded at Acre, when she died, near Lincoln, her husband famously ordered a stone cross to be erected at each stopping-place on the journey to London, ending at Charing Cross. Eleanor was better educated than most medieval queens and exerted a strong influence on the nation. She was a patron of literature, and encouraged the use of tapestries, carpets and tableware in the Spanish style. She was also a businesswoman, endowed with her own fortune as Countess of Ponthieu. Eleanor was born in Burgos, daughter of Ferdinand III of Castile and Joan and her Castilian name, Leonor, became Alienor or Alianor in England, and Eleanor in modern English. She was named after her paternal great-grandmother, Eleanor of England, Eleanor was the second of five children born to Ferdinand and Joan. Her elder brother Ferdinand was born in 1239/40, her younger brother Louis in 1242/43, for the ceremonies in 1291 marking the first anniversary of Eleanors death,49 candlebearers were paid to walk in the public procession to commemorate each year of her life. Since the custom was to have one candle for each year of the life,49 candles would date Eleanors birth to the year 1241. The courts of her father and her half-brother Alfonso X of Castile were known for their literary atmosphere and she was at her fathers deathbed in Seville in 1252. Eleanors marriage in 1254 to the future Edward I of England was not the first marriage her family planned for her. To avoid Castilian control, Margaret of Bourbon in August 1253 allied with James I of Aragon instead, Henry III of England swiftly countered Alfonsos claims with both diplomatic and military moves. The young couple married at the monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos, following the marriage they spent nearly a year in Gascony, with Edward ruling as lord of Aquitaine. During this time Eleanor, aged thirteen and a half, almost certainly gave birth to her first child and she journeyed to England alone in late summer of 1255. Edward followed her a few months later, Henry III took pride in resolving the Gascon crisis so decisively, but his English subjects feared that the marriage would bring Eleanors kinfolk and countrymen to live off Henrys ruinous generosity. A few of her relatives did come to England soon after her marriage and she was too young to stop them or prevent Henry III from supporting them, but she was blamed anyway and her marriage soon became unpopular. Interestingly enough, Eleanors mother had been spurned in marriage by Henry III and her great-grandmother, Alys of France, there is little record of Eleanors life in England until the 1260s, when the Second Barons War, between Henry III and his barons, divided the kingdom
Eleanor of Castile
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Eleanor of Castile
Eleanor of Castile
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Eleanor
Eleanor of Castile
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The Northampton Cross
Eleanor of Castile
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The tomb of her viscera at
Lincoln Cathedral.
46.
Henry III of England
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Henry III, also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death. The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, Henry assumed the throne when he was nine in the middle of the First Barons War. Cardinal Guala declared the war against the barons to be a religious crusade and Henrys forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln. Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, which limited royal power and his early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches, who re-established royal authority after the war. In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had belonged to his father. A revolt led by William Marshals son, Richard, broke out in 1232, following the revolt, Henry ruled England personally, rather than governing through senior ministers. He travelled less than previous monarchs, investing heavily in a handful of his palaces and castles. He married Eleanor of Provence, with whom he had five children, in a fresh attempt to reclaim his familys lands in France, he invaded Poitou in 1242, leading to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. After this, Henry relied on diplomacy, cultivating an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Henry supported his brother Richard in his bid to become King of the Romans in 1256 and he planned to go on crusade to the Levant, but was prevented from doing so by rebellions in Gascony. The baronial regime collapsed but Henry was unable to reform a stable government, in 1263 one of the more radical barons, Simon de Montfort, seized power, resulting in the Second Barons War. Henry persuaded Louis to support his cause and mobilised an army, the Battle of Lewes occurred in 1264, where Henry was defeated and taken prisoner. Henrys eldest son, Edward, escaped captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham the following year. Henry initially enacted a harsh revenge on the rebels, but was persuaded by the Church to mollify his policies through the Dictum of Kenilworth. Reconstruction was slow and Henry had to acquiesce to various measures, including suppression of the Jews, to maintain baronial. Henry died in 1272, leaving Edward as his successor and he was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had rebuilt in the second half of his reign, and was moved to his current tomb in 1290. Some miracles were declared after his death but he was not canonised, Henry was born in Winchester Castle on 1 October 1207. He was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, little is known of Henrys early life
Henry III of England
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Effigy of King Henry III in
Westminster Abbey, c. 1272
Henry III of England
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A 13th-century depiction of Henry III's coronation
Henry III of England
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The
Battle of Lincoln in 1217, showing the death of the Count of Perche (l), by
Matthew Paris
Henry III of England
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The
Battle of Sandwich in 1217, showing the capture of the French flagship and the execution of
Eustace the Monk (r) and the support of the English bishops (l), by Matthew Paris
47.
Effigy
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An effigy is a representation of a specific person in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional medium. The use of the term is restricted to certain contexts in a somewhat arbitrary way, recumbent effigies on tombs are so called. Likenesses of religious figures in sculpture are not normally called effigies and it is common to burn an effigy of a person as an act of protest. The word first appeared in 1539 and comes, perhaps via French, from the Latin effigies and this spelling was originally used in English for singular senses, even a single image was the effigies of. In effigie was probably understood as a Latin phrase until the 18th century, the word occurs in Shakespeares As You Like It of 1600, where scansion suggests that the second syllable is to be emphasized, as in the Latin pronunciation. The best known British example of a caricature effigy is the figure of the 1605 Gunpowder Plotter Guy Fawkes, found in charge of gunpowder to blow up the King in the House of Lords. On November 5, Guy Fawkes Night or Bonfire Night, his effigy, typically made of straw, in many parts of the world, there are traditions of large caricature effigies of political or other figures carried on floats in parades at festivals. Political effigies serve a similar purpose in political demonstrations and annual community rituals such as that held in Lewes. In Lewes, models of important or unpopular figures in current affairs are burned on Guy Fawkes Night, in Oriental Orthodox Christianity, populace used to burn an effigy of Judas, just before Easter. Now it is considered a custom and there are currently no attempts at revival. Caricature effigies, in Greek skiachtro, are still in use to prevent birds from eating mature fruit and they were shown lying on the coffin at the funeral, and then often displayed beside or over the tomb. The figures were dressed in the clothes of the deceased, only the face, from the time of the funeral of Charles II in 1680, effigies were no longer placed on the coffin but were still made for later display. The effigy of Charles II was displayed over his tomb until the early 19th century, nelsons effigy was a tourist attraction, commissioned the year after his death and his burial in St Pauls Cathedral in 1805. The government had decided that public figures with State funerals should in future be buried at St Pauls. Concerned for their revenue from visitors, the Abbey decided it needed an attraction for admirers of Nelson. In the field of numismatics, effigy has been used to describe the image or portrait on the obverse of a coin. A practice evident in literature of the 19th century, the obverse of a coin was said to depict “the ruler’s effigy”. It can also be the case that the monarchs reign becomes long enough to merit issuing a succession of effigies so that their appearance continues to be current, in the past, criminals sentenced to death in absentia might be officially executed in effigy as a symbolic act
Effigy
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Double tomb effigies — known as
gisants — in the Christian church of Josselin, France, 15th century
Effigy
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Christian feast of burning of the New Testament figure of
Judas Iscariot in effigy in
Juiz de Fora,
Brazil, 1909
Effigy
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Two
gingerbread man effigies served at feasts of
Christmas, Easter etc.
Effigy
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A burning
Ravana, in
Manchester, England in 2006
48.
Issue of Edward III of England
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All of Edwards legitimate children were by his wife Philippa of Hainault. The Wars of the Roses were fought between the different factions of Edward IIIs descendants, the following list outlines the genealogy supporting male heirs ascendant to the throne during the conflict, and the roles of their cousins. A less powerful but determining role was played by Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Elizabeth Woodville, the Wars of the Roses were civil wars over the throne of the Kingdom of England fought among the descendants of King Edward III through his five surviving adult sons. Each branch of the family had competing claims through seniority, legitimacy, and/or the sex of their ancestors, thus, the senior Plantagenet line was ended with the death of Richard II, but not before the execution of Thomas of Woodstock for treason. The heirs presumptive through Lionel of Antwerp were passed over in favour of the powerful Henry IV and these Lancaster kings initially survived the treason of their Edmund of Langley cousins but eventually were deposed by the merged Lionel/Edmund line in the person of Edward IV. Internecine killing among the Yorks left Richard III as king, supported and then betrayed by his cousin Buckingham, Edward, the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, Prince of Wales. The eldest son of Edward III who predeceased his father and never became king, Edwards only surviving child was Richard II who ascended to the throne but produced no heirs. William of Hatfield, second son, buried at York Minster, Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, third son. Lionels only child, Philippa, was acquired as a wife by the powerful Mortimer family, philippas son Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March was the designated heir of King Richard II but predeceased him, leaving his young son Edmund as heir presumptive. John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, fourth son, a legend was developed, although without foundation, claiming that Edmund Crouchback was older than his brother King Edward I and had been passed over in the succession because of physical infirmity. John of Gaunts legitimized heirs were the Beaufort family, his descendants by his mistress, while the Beaufort offspring had been legitimized after Gaunts eventual marriage to Katherine Swynford, this was on the condition that they be barred from ascending the throne. Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, fifth son. He had two sons, Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York, killed fighting alongside Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, in 1460 Richard, 3rd Duke of York claimed the throne on this basis, but an Act of Accord meant he instead became heir. However he was killed later that year, causing his son Edward to take over, died as an infant from the plague. Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester, eighth son, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, descended on his fathers side from Thomas of Woodstock, and on his mothers side from John Beaufort. Isabella, married Enguerrand VII de Coucy, 1st Earl of Bedford and their oldest daughter, Marie de Coucy, is the ancestress of many European Royal Houses. Joan died of the plague in Bayonne, on her way to marry Peter of Castile, mary, married John IV, Duke of Brittany. Margaret, married John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke
Issue of Edward III of England
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Six of the children of King Edward III depicted as bronze statuettes on the south side of the base of his tomb in Westminster Abbey: Edward the Black Prince; Edmund of Langley; William of Hatfield; Lionel of Antwerp; Mary of Brittany; Joan of the Tower. Similar statuettes of six further children appeared on the north side, now lost
49.
Wars of the Roses
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The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487, however, there was fighting before and after this period between the houses. With the Duke of Yorks passing, the transferred to his heir, Edward. His son reigned for 86 days as Edward V, but Parliament then decided that Edward and his brother Richard were illegitimate and offered the crown to Edward IVs younger brother, the two young princes disappeared within the confines of the Tower of London. The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, after assuming the throne as Henry VII, he married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the two claims. The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603, with the death of Elizabeth I, granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. The name Wars of the Roses refers to the badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. Wars of the Roses came into use in the nineteenth century. Badges were not always distinct, at the Battle of Barnet, Edwards sun was very similar to the Earl of Oxfords Vere star, which caused fateful confusion. Another example, Henry Tudors forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a red dragon, although the names of the rival houses derive from the cities of York and Lancaster, the corresponding duchies had little to do with these cities. Although minor armed clashes had occurred previously between supporters of York and Lancaster, the first open fighting broke out in 1455 at the First Battle of St Albans, several prominent Lancastrians died at the hands of the Yorkists. Although peace was restored, the Lancastrians were inspired by Margaret of Anjou to contest Yorks influence. Fighting resumed more violently in 1459, York and his supporters were forced to flee the country, but one of his most prominent supporters, the Earl of Warwick, invaded England from Calais and captured Henry VI at the Battle of Northampton. York returned to the country and became Protector of England, but was dissuaded from claiming the throne, Margaret and the remaining Lancastrian nobles gathered their army in the north of England. When York moved north to engage them, he and his second son Edmund were killed at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. The Lancastrian army advanced south and released Henry at the Second Battle of St Albans, but failed to occupy London, Yorks eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, was proclaimed King Edward IV. He gathered the Yorkist armies and won a victory at the Battle of Towton in March 1461. After Lancastrian revolts in the north were suppressed in 1464 and Henry was captured once again, Edward fell out with his chief supporter and adviser, the Earl of Warwick after Edwards unpopular and secretly conducted marriage with the widow of a Lancastrian supporter, Elizabeth Woodville. Within a few years, it clear that Edward was favoring his wifes family
Wars of the Roses
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Painting by
Henry Payne in 1908 of the scene in the Temple Garden from
Shakespeare 's play
Henry VI, Part 1, where supporters of the rival factions pick either red or white roses
Wars of the Roses
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Summary of events - Wars of the Roses
Wars of the Roses
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A near-contemporary Flemish picture of the
Battle of Barnet in 1471.
Wars of the Roses
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Henry IV
.svg)
