1.
Scipio Moorhead
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Scipio Moorhead was an enslaved African-American artist who lived in Boston, Massachusetts. His only surviving work is a portrait of the African-American poet Phillis Wheatley, Moorhead gained recognition through Phillis Wheatleys inscription To S. M. a young African Painter, on seeing his Works, published in Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral,1773. Moorhead was a slave of the Reverend John Moorhead of Boston and his talents for drawing were tutored by the Reverends wife Sarah Moorhead, who was an art teacher. Although a slave, Scipio Moorhead enjoyed the rights of free workers. It is possible that the engraving of Phillis Wheatley that adorns much of her published poetry is his creation. No original work by Scipio has survived, but he may be the person referred to the a Boston News-Letter advertisement on January 7,1773, looking for Scipio Moorhead, an African painter in revolutionary North America in Lugo-Ortiz, Agnes. Slave portraiture in the Atlantic world
2.
Book frontispiece
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A frontispiece in books generally refers to a decorative or informative illustration facing a books title page, being the verso opposite the recto title page. While some books depict thematic elements, other books feature the portrait as the frontispiece. In medieval illuminated manuscripts, a miniature showing the book or text being presented was often used as a frontispiece. The word comes from the French frontispice, or the late Latin frontispicium, from the Latin frons, in English, it was originally used as an architectural term, referring to the decorative facade of a building. By then, the English spelling had also morphed, by way of folk etymology, book design Prints & People, A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on book frontispieces
3.
West Africa
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West Africa, also called Western Africa and the West of Africa, is the westernmost subregion of Africa. Early human settlers from northern Holocene societies arrived in West Africa around 12,000 B. C, sedentary farming began in, or around the fifth millennium B. C, as well as the domestication of cattle. By 1500 B. C, ironworking technology allowed an expansion of productivity. Northern tribes developed walled settlements and non-walled settlements that numbered at 400, in the forest region, Iron Age cultures began to flourish, and an inter-region trade began to appear. The desertification of the Sahara and the change of the coast cause trade with upper Mediterranean peoples to be seen. Local leather, cloth, and gold also contributed to the abundance of prosperity for many of the following empires. Also, based on the archaeology of city of Kumbi Saleh in modern-day Mauritania, three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al-Sudan by the ninth century. They included Ghana, Gao and Kanem, the Sosso Empire sought to fill the void, but was defeated by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita, founder of the new Mali Empire. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao, in the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Sonni Ali, further east, Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern-day Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in the present-day southeastern Nigeria, the Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland, the Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people, and possessed divine authority in religious matters. The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western, established in the 15th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade. The Benin Empire was an empire located in what is now southern Nigeria. Its capital was Edo, now known as Benin City, Edo and it should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The Benin Empire was one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the hinterland of West Africa. Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa and its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion, in the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa
4.
Gambia
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The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is entirely surrounded by Senegal except for its coastline on the Atlantic Ocean at its western end. It is the smallest country in mainland Africa, the Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River, the nations namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres with a population of 1,882,450 at the April 2013 census, Banjul is the Gambian capital, and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama. Later, on 25 May 1765, The Gambia was made a part of the British Empire when the government formally assumed control, in 1965, The Gambia gained independence under the leadership of Dawda Jawara, who ruled until Yahya Jammeh seized power in a bloodless 1994 coup. Adama Barrow became The Gambias third president in January 2017, after defeating Jammeh in December 2016 elections, Jammeh initially refused to accept the results, which triggered a constitutional crisis and military intervention by the Economic Community of West African States, resulting in his exile. The Gambias economy is dominated by farming, fishing, and especially tourism, in 2008, about a third of the population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. The name Gambia is derived from the Mandinka term Kambra/Kambaa, meaning Gambia river, upon independence as a Commonwealth realm, the country used the name The Gambia. Following the proclamation of a republic in 1970, the name of the country became Republic of The Gambia. The administration of Yahya Jammeh changed the name to Islamic Republic of The Gambia in December 2015. On 29 January 2017 the new President Adama Barrow said the name will go back to Republic of The Gambia. Arab traders provided the first written accounts of the Gambia area in the ninth and tenth centuries, during the tenth century, Muslim merchants and scholars established communities in several West African commercial centres. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to an export trade in slaves, gold and ivory. At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called Gambia was part of the Mali Empire, the Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and began to dominate overseas trade. In 1588, the claimant to the Portuguese throne, António, Prior of Crato, letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I confirmed the grant. In 1618, King James I of England granted a charter to an English company for trade with the Gambia, between 1651 and 1661, some parts of the Gambia were under the rule of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, and were bought by Prince Jacob Kettler. The British Empire occupied the Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River and this was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856. As many as three million slaves may have taken from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade operated
5.
Senegal
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Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country in West Africa. Senegal is bordered by Mauritania in the north, Mali to the east, Guinea to the southeast, and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest. Senegal also borders The Gambia, a country occupying a narrow sliver of land along the banks of the Gambia River, Senegal also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde. Senegals economic and political capital is Dakar and it is the westernmost country in the mainland of the Old World, or Afro-Eurasia, and owes its name to the Senegal River, which borders it to the east and north. The name Senegal comes from the Wolof Sunuu Gaal, which means Our Boat, Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres and has an estimated population of about 15 million. The climate is Sahelian, but there is a rainy season, the territory of modern Senegal has been inhabited by various ethnic groups since prehistory. Organized kingdoms emerged around the century, and parts of the country were ruled by prominent regional empires such as the Jolof Empire. The present state of Senegal has its roots in European colonialism, which began during the mid-15th century, the establishment of coastal trading posts gradually led to control of the mainland, culminating in French rule of the area by the 19th century, albeit amid much local resistance. Senegal peacefully attained independence from France in 1960, and has since been among the politically stable countries in Africa. Senegals economy is centered mostly on commodities and natural resources, major industries are fish processing, phosphate mining, fertilizer production, petroleum refining, construction materials, and ship construction and repair. As in most African nations, agriculture is a sector, with Senegal producing several important cash crops, including peanuts, sugarcane, cotton, green beans, tomatoes, melons. Owing to its stability, tourism and hospitality are also burgeoning sectors. A multiethnic and secular nation, Senegal is predominantly Sunni Muslim with Sufi, French is the official language, although many native languages are spoken and recognized. Since April 2012 Senegals president has been Macky Sall, Senegal has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 1970. Senegal is named after the Senegal River, the etymology of which is contested, one popular theory is that it stems from the Wolof phrase sunu gaal, which means our canoe, resulting from a miscommunication between 15th-century Portuguese sailors and Wolof fishermen. The our canoe theory has been embraced in modern Senegal for its charm. It is frequently used in appeals to national solidarity, frequently heard in the media, modern historians believe the name probably refers to the Sanhaja, Berbers who lived on the northern side of the river. A competing theory is that it derives from the town of Sanghana
6.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
7.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
8.
Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral
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Her importance, if for no other reason, rests on the fact that, save one, she is the first in order of time of all the women poets of America. And she is among the first of all American poets to issue a volume, Phillis Wheatley had gathered 28 poems and ran advertisements searching for subscribers in Boston newspapers in February 1772 with the aid of her mistress, Mrs. Wheatley. Unable to find a publisher in the American colonies, as it was common among the white educated colonial elite in America to a perceive a racial superiority of whites over blacks. Black Africans were thought unable to reason and therefore only fit for manual labor and they looked to London for a publisher more favorable towards poetry authored by an African slave. She directed Wheatley to a Bostonian bookseller, Archibald Bell, Londons foremost bookseller and printer, Bell replied that since Phillis was a slave, he would need proof that she had written the poems herself. Her humble upbringings and asks that the Critic will not severely censure their Defects, the letter also stated that Phillis had begun to learn to Latin and was making some progress in it. On 8 October 1772, Phillis Wheatley, then about 18 years of age, was interviewed by 18 gentlemen identified publicly as the most respectable characters in Boston. The men signed an attestation clause verifying that they believed Wheatley had written the poems herself, as claimed by her owner and this clause was addressed To the Publick in Wheatleys Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. The Rev. Mather Byles, D. D, the Rev. Andrew Elliot, D. D. The Rev. Samuel Cooper, D. D, the Rev. Mr. Samuel Mather The Rev. Mr. John Moorhead Mr. John Wheatley, her Master N. B. The original Attestation, signed by the above Gentlemen, may be seen by applying to Archibald Bell, Bookseller, Phillis Wheatley was an avid student of the Bible and especially admired the works of Alexander Pope, the British neoclassical writer. Written to Scipio Moorhead, an enslaved African American artist living in Boston, the poem follows Wheatleys pattern of offering praise for individuals, in this instance seemingly as gratitude for the frontispiece. This work brought about Wheatleys initial fame, following the style of the Pope, Wheatley invokes Virtue to aid her on her journey through life, and her strife for a higher appellation. Written in honor of King George III, this was a poem of praise for a person of the day. Here she praises him on behalf of the American colonies for his repeal of the Stamp Act. Wheatley was the first African-American to publish a book, man or woman, Wheatley was unable to publish any additional poetry. Between 30 and 18 October 18 December 1779, she ran six advertisements soliciting subscribers for 300 pages in Octavo, one of the Ambassadors of the United States at the Court of France. As with Poems on Various Subjects, however, the American populace would not support one of its most noted poets, an estimated total of 145 of Wheatleys poems have been lost
9.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
10.
Jupiter Hammon
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Jupiter Hammon was a black poet who in 1761 became the first African-American writer to be published in the present-day United States. Additional poems and sermons were also published, born into slavery, Hammon was never emancipated. He was living in 1790 at the age of 79, a devout Christian, he is considered one of the founders of African-American literature. His parents were slaves held by the Lloyds. His mother and father were part of the first shipment of slaves to the Lloyds estate in 1687, unlike most slaves, his father, named Obadiah, had learned to read and write. The Lloyds encouraged Hammon to attend school, where he learned to read. Jupiter attended school with the Lloyd children, as an adult, he worked for them as a domestic servant, clerk, farmhand, and artisan in the Lloyd family business. He worked alongside Henry Lloyd in negotiating deals, Henry Lloyd said that Jupiter was so efficient in trade deals because he would quickly get the job done. He became a fervent Christian, as were the Lloyds and his first published poem, An Evening Thought. Salvation by Christ with Penitential Crienes, Composed by Jupiter Hammon, a Negro belonging to Mr. Lloyd of Queens Village, on Long Island, the 25th of December,1760, appeared as a broadside in 1761. Eighteen years passed before his work appeared in print, “An Address to Miss Phillis Wheatley. ”Hammon wrote this poem while Lloyd had temporarily moved himself. He would later publish two other poems and three sermon essays, although not emancipated, Hammon participated in new Revolutionary War groups such as the Spartan Project of the African Society of New York City. At the inaugural meeting of the African Society on September 24,1786, he delivered his Address to the Negroes of the State of New-York and he was seventy-six years old and had spent his lifetime in slavery. He said, If we should ever get to Heaven, we shall find nobody to reproach us for being black, or for being slaves. He also said that, while he personally had no wish to be free, he did wish others, especially “the young negroes, were free. ”The speech draws heavily on Christian motifs and theology. For example, Hammon said that Black people should maintain their moral standards because being slaves on Earth had already secured their place in heaven. He promoted gradual emancipation as a way to end slavery, scholars think perhaps Hammon supported this plan because he believed that immediate emancipation of all slaves would be difficult to achieve. New York Quakers, who supported abolition of slavery, published his speech and it was reprinted by several abolitionist groups, including the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery
11.
Old South Meeting House
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The Old South Meeting House is a historic church building at the corner of Milk and Washington Streets in the Downtown Crossing area of Boston, Massachusetts, built in 1729. It gained fame as the point for the Boston Tea Party on December 16,1773. Five thousand or more gathered at the Meeting House, the largest building in Boston at the time. The church was completed in 1729, with its 56 m steeple, the congregation was gathered in 1669 when it broke off from First Church of Boston, a Congregationalist church founded by John Winthrop in 1630. The site was a gift of Mrs. Norton, widow of John Norton, the churchs first pastor was Rev. Thomas Thatcher, a native of Salisbury, England. Thatcher was also a physician and is known for publishing the first medical tract in Massachusetts, after the Boston Massacre in 1770, yearly anniversary meetings were held at the church until 1775, featuring speakers such as John Hancock and Dr. Joseph Warren. In 1773,5,000 people met in the Meeting House to debate British taxation and, after the meeting, in 1775, the British occupied the Meeting House due to its association with the Revolutionary cause. They gutted the building, filled it with dirt, and then used the interior to practice horse riding and they destroyed much of the interior and stole various items, including William Bradfords Of Plymouth Plantation, a unique Pilgrim manuscript hidden in Old Souths tower. The congregation then built a new building which remains its home to this day. The Old South congregation returns to Old South Meeting House for services in its ancestral home once a year, on the Sunday before Thanksgiving. Today, the Old South Meeting House is open daily as a museum and continues to provide a place for people to meet, discuss and act on important issues of the day. The stories of the men and women who are part of Old South’s vital heritage reveal why the Old South Meeting House occupies a place in the history of the United States. The museum and historic site is located at the intersection of Washington and Milk Streets and it is located near the State Street, Downtown Crossing and Park Street MBTA stations. The Old South Meeting House is claimed to be the second oldest establishment existent in the United States, history of the Old South Church in Boston, in four sermons. History of the Old South Church Boston, 1669–1884, the Old South Meeting House Old South Church in Boston Boston National Historical Park Official Website Historic American Buildings Survey. Old South Meetinghouse, Washington & Milk Streets, Boston, Suffolk, MA
12.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
13.
Alexander Pope
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Alexander Pope was an 18th-century English poet. He is best known for his verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the second-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations after Shakespeare, Alexander Pope was born to Alexander Pope Senior, a linen merchant of Plough Court, Lombard Street, London, and his wife Edith, who were both Catholics. Ediths sister Christiana was the wife of the miniature painter Samuel Cooper. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, and went to Twyford School in about 1698/99 and he then went to two Catholic schools in London. Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas, in 1700, his family moved to a small estate at Popeswood in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest. This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles of either London or Westminster, Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. He also studied languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, at Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll, was twenty years older than the poet and had many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the ageing playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet and he also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends. From the age of 12, he suffered health problems, such as Potts disease. His tuberculosis infection caused other problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes. He grew to a height of only 1.37 m. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic, although he never married, he had many female friends to whom he wrote witty letters. Allegedly, his lifelong friend Martha Blount was his lover, in May,1709, Popes Pastorals was published in the sixth part of Tonsons Poetical Miscellanies. This brought Pope instant fame, and was followed by An Essay on Criticism, published in May 1711, around 1711, Pope made friends with Tory writers John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Thomas Parnell and John Arbuthnot, who together formed the satirical Scriblerus Club. The aim of the club was to satirise ignorance and pedantry in the form of the fictional scholar Martinus Scriblerus and he also made friends with Whig writers Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. In March 1713, Windsor Forest was published to great acclaim, during Popes friendship with Joseph Addison, he contributed to Addisons play Cato, as well as writing for The Guardian and The Spectator
14.
John Milton
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John Milton was an English poet, polemicist, man of letters, and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of flux and political upheaval. Miltons poetry and prose reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, Samuel Johnson praised Paradise Lost as a poem which. The phases of Miltons life parallel the major historical and political divisions in Stuart Britain, the Restoration of 1660 deprived Milton, now completely blind, of his public platform, but this period saw him complete most of his major works of poetry. Miltons views developed from his extensive reading, as well as travel and experience. By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the margins of English intellectual life, yet famous throughout Europe, John Milton was born in Bread Street, London on 9 December 1608, the son of composer John Milton and his wife Sarah Jeffrey. The senior John Milton moved to London around 1583 after being disinherited by his devout Catholic father Richard Milton for embracing Protestantism, in London, the senior John Milton married Sarah Jeffrey and found lasting financial success as a scrivener. He lived in and worked from a house on Bread Street, the elder Milton was noted for his skill as a musical composer, and this talent left his son with a lifelong appreciation for music and friendships with musicians such as Henry Lawes. Miltons fathers prosperity provided his eldest son with a tutor, Thomas Young. Research suggests that Youngs influence served as the introduction to religious radicalism. After Youngs tutorship, Milton attended St Pauls School in London, there he began the study of Latin and Greek, and the classical languages left an imprint on his poetry in English. Miltons first datable compositions are two psalms done at age 15 at Long Bennington, one contemporary source is the Brief Lives of John Aubrey, an uneven compilation including first-hand reports. In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Miltons younger brother, When he was young, he studied hard and sat up very late. In 1625, Milton began attending Christs College, Cambridge and he graduated with a B. A. in 1629, and ranked fourth of 24 honours graduates that year in the University of Cambridge. Preparing to become an Anglican priest, Milton stayed on to obtain his Master of Arts degree on 3 July 1632, Milton was probably rusticated for quarrelling in his first year with his tutor, Bishop William Chappell. He was certainly at home in the Lent Term 1626, there he wrote his Elegia Prima, a first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati, based on remarks of John Aubrey, Chappell whipt Milton. This story is now disputed, though certainly Milton disliked Chappell, historian Christopher Hill cautiously notes that Milton was apparently rusticated, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton may have been either religious or personal. It is also possible that, like Isaac Newton four decades later, Milton was sent home because of the plague, in 1626, Miltons tutor was Nathaniel Tovey
15.
Homer
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Homer is the name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the semi-legendary author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of Greek literature. The Odyssey focuses on the home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca. Many accounts of Homers life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a bard from Ionia. The modern scholarly consensus is that these traditions do not have any historical value, the Homeric question - by whom, when, where and under what circumstances were the Iliad and Odyssey composed - continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion on the authorship question falls into two camps, one group holds that most of the Iliad and the Odyssey is the work of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the crystallization of a process of working and re-working by many contributors and it is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century B. C. Most researchers believe that the poems were transmitted orally. The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education, to Plato, the chronological period of Homer depends on the meaning to be assigned to the word Homer. Was Homer a single person, an imaginary person representing a group of poets and this information is often called the world of Homer. The Homeric period would in that cover a number of historical periods, especially the Mycenaean Age. Considered word-for-word, the texts as we know them are the product of the scholars of the last three centuries. Each edition of the Iliad or Odyssey is a different, as the editors rely on different manuscripts and fragments. The term accuracy reveals a belief in an original uniform text. The manuscripts of the work currently available date to no earlier than the 10th century. These are at the end of a missing thousand-year chain of copies made as each generation of manuscripts disintegrated or were lost or destroyed and these numerous manuscripts are so similar that a single original can be postulated. The time gap in the chain is bridged by the scholia, or notes, on the existing manuscripts, librarian of the Library of Alexandria, he had noticed a wide divergence in the works attributed to Homer, and was trying to restore a more authentic copy. He had collected several manuscripts, which he named, the Sinopic, the one he selected for correction was the koine, which Murray translates as the Vulgate. Aristarchus was known for his selection of material
16.
Horace
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Quintus Horatius Flaccus, known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus. Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses and caustic iambic poetry and his career coincided with Romes momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavians right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas. Some of the writings contained in his writings can be supplemented from the short. He was born on 8 December 65 BC in the Samnite south of Italy and his home town, Venusia, lay on a trade route in the border region between Apulia and Lucania. Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language and he could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium. Literary Latin must have sounded to him like a semi-foreign language, one of the works he probably studied in school was the Odyssia of Livius Andronicus, crammed into Italian boys with threats and floggings by teachers like the Orbilius mentioned in one of his poems. School was made particularly irksome by a number of his fellow pupils, the army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War. Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more variety to the area. According to a tradition reported by Horace, a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman though there are indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth. Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their towns, even after success in the wider world. Images of his setting and references to it are found throughout his poems. Horaces father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom, thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous coactor. The father spent a fortune on his sons education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem that one scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father. As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude, I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedmans son
17.
Virgil
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Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil /ˈvɜːrdʒᵻl/ in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He wrote three of the most famous poems in Latin literature, the Eclogues, the Georgics, a number of minor poems, collected in the Appendix Vergiliana, are sometimes attributed to him. Virgil is traditionally ranked as one of Romes greatest poets and his Aeneid has been considered the national epic of ancient Rome from the time of its composition to the present day. Virgils work has had wide and deep influence on Western literature, most notably Dantes Divine Comedy, in which Virgil appears as Dantes guide through Hell, the tradition holds that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Analysis of his name has led to beliefs that he descended from earlier Roman colonists, modern speculation ultimately is not supported by narrative evidence either from his own writings or his later biographers. Macrobius says that Virgils father was of a background, however. He attended schools in Cremona, Mediolanum, Rome and Naples, after considering briefly a career in rhetoric and law, the young Virgil turned his talents to poetry. From Virgils admiring references to the neoteric writers Pollio and Cinna, it has been inferred that he was, for a time, according to Servius, schoolmates considered Virgil extremely shy and reserved, and he was nicknamed Parthenias or maiden because of his social aloofness. Virgil also seems to have suffered bad health throughout his life, according to the Catalepton, he began to write poetry while in the Epicurean school of Siro the Epicurean at Naples. A group of works attributed to the youthful Virgil by the commentators survive collected under the title Appendix Vergiliana. One, the Catalepton, consists of fourteen poems, some of which may be Virgils, and another. The biographical tradition asserts that Virgil began the hexameter Eclogues in 42 BC and it is thought that the collection was published around 39–38 BC, the Eclogues are a group of ten poems roughly modeled on the bucolic hexameter poetry of the Hellenistic poet Theocritus. The loss of his farm and the attempt through poetic petitions to regain his property have traditionally been seen as Virgils motives in the composition of the Eclogues. This is now thought to be an unsupported inference from interpretations of the Eclogues, the ten Eclogues present traditional pastoral themes with a fresh perspective. Eclogues 1 and 9 address the land confiscations and their effects on the Italian countryside,2 and 3 are pastoral and erotic, discussing both homosexual love and attraction toward people of any gender. Eclogue 4, addressed to Asinius Pollio, the so-called Messianic Eclogue uses the imagery of the age in connection with the birth of a child. Virgil came to many of the other leading literary figures of the time, including Horace, in whose poetry he is often mentioned, and Varius Rufus. At Maecenas insistence Virgil spent the years on the long didactic hexameter poem called the Georgics which he dedicated to Maecenas
18.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
19.
Samson Occom
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The Reverend Samson Occom was a member of the Mohegan nation, from near New London, Connecticut, who became a Presbyterian cleric. Occom was the first Native American to publish his writings in English, together with the missionary John Eliot, Occom became one of the foremost missionaries who cross-fertilised Native American communities with Christianized European culture. Born to Joshua Tomacham and his wife Sarah, Occom is believed to be a descendant of Uncas. In 1743 at the age of 20, Occom heard the teachings of Christian evangelical preachers in the Great Awakening and he began to study theology at the Lattin School of Congregational minister Eleazar Wheelock in 1743 and stayed for four years until leaving to begin his own career. In addition to improving his English, Occom learned to read, as a young man, the only book he owned was the Bible. From 1747 until 1749, Occum worked under and studied with the Reverend Solomon Williams in New London, Occom became a teacher, preacher, and judge to Pequot Native Americans in Montauk, eastern Long Island. He married Mary Fowler, a local woman, Occom helped the Pequot to assimilate and adopt European-style houses, dress and culture. He was officially ordained a minister on August 30,1759, Occom was never paid the same salary as white preachers, although promised that he would be. The Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge also gave Occom a stipend, in 1761 and 1763, Occom traveled to the Six Nations of the Iroquois in upstate New York to preach. Winning few converts, he returned to teach at Mohegan, Connecticut, meanwhile, in 1754, Wheelock had established an Indian charity school in Lebanon, Connecticut, with a legacy from Joshua Moor, among others. Wheelock persuaded his former pupil to travel to England to raise money for the school, king George III donated 200 pounds, and William Legge, Earl of Dartmouth, subscribed 50 guineas. However, Occom on his return learned that Wheelock had failed to care for Occoms wife, furthermore, Wheelock moved to New Hampshire and used the funds raised to establish Dartmouth College for the education of Englishmen, rather than Native Americans as originally promised to Occom. In 1768, Occom wrote the 10-page A Short Narrative of My Life, the document expands upon a single page biography that Occom wrote before his preaching tour of England and Scotland. Occom also published Sermon at the Execution of Moses Paul and A Choice Collection of Hymns, all provide a very different perspective on the relations between colonists and Native Americans from Mary Rowlandsons narrative of her captivity in similar areas a century earlier. Upon his return from England, Occom lived with the Mohegan people, after Wheelocks betrayal, Occom worked to organize Christianized Indians of New England and Long Island into a new tribe, located in western Connecticut. Occom, his son-in-law Joseph Johnson, and his brother-in-law David Fowler led the emigrants who built a new settlement called Brothertown, the Oneida also invited other Christian Indians to live with them, namely the Stockbridge Mohican from western Massachusetts and two Lenape groups from southern New Jersey. The Mohicans founded what they called New Stockbridge in New York, Occom not only assured that these villages received civil charters in 1787, but also evicted white settlers from Brothertown on April 12,1792. Occom died on July 14,1792, in New Stockbridge and he is buried just off Bogusville Hill Road outside of Deansboro
20.
John Thornton (philanthropist)
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John Thornton was a British merchant and Christian philanthropist. Thornton was the son of Robert Thornton of Clapham, Surrey and he invested heavily in the Russian and Baltic trade and acquired wealth that he donated to Christian ministry causes. A devout Anglican, he espoused evangelical causes, regardless of denomination and he is best known as having partly sponsored John Newton, the ex-slave ship trader who became an Anglican priest at Olney, Buckinghamshire from 1764 to 1780, giving him £200 a year. He also aided Lady Huntingdon in setting up her college with an interest-free loan. Wheelock applied the fund to establish Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire, Thornton donated his own money so that Wheelock could build a mansion for the college president in 1771. It still stands at 4 West Wheelock Street, on 28 November 1753 Thornton married Lucy Watson, daughter of Samuel Watson of Hull. They had four children, including Samuel Thornton a Member of Parliament), John Thornton sustained a fatal injury as a result of an accident at Bath and died on 7 November 1790. Bury the Chains, The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery Stephen, John Thornton in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
21.
John Newton
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John Newton was an Anglican clergyman in England and the founder of the evangelical Clapham Sect. He started as an English sailor, in the Royal Navy for a period and he became ordained as an evangelical Anglican cleric, served Olney, Buckinghamshire for two decades, and also wrote hymns, known for Amazing Grace and Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken. Newton started his career at sea at an age. John Newton was born in Wapping, London, in 1725, Elizabeth was the only daughter of Simon Scatliff, an instrument maker from London. Elizabeth was brought up as a Nonconformist and she died of tuberculosis in July 1732, about two weeks before John’s seventh birthday. Newton spent two years at boarding school before going to live in Aveley in Essex, the home of his fathers new wife, at age eleven he first went to sea with his father. Newton sailed six voyages before his father retired in 1742, at that time, Newton’s father made plans for him to work at a sugarcane plantation in Jamaica. Instead, Newton signed on with a merchant ship sailing to the Mediterranean Sea, in 1743, while going to visit friends, Newton was captured and pressed into the naval service by the Royal Navy. He became a midshipman aboard HMS Harwich, at one point Newton tried to desert and was punished in front of the crew of 350. Stripped to the waist and tied to the grating, he received a flogging of eight dozen lashes and was reduced to the rank of a common seaman, following that disgrace and humiliation, Newton initially contemplated murdering the captain and committing suicide by throwing himself overboard. He recovered, both physically and mentally, later, while Harwich was en route to India, he transferred to Pegasus, a slave ship bound for West Africa. The ship carried goods to Africa and traded them for slaves to be shipped to the colonies in the Caribbean, Newton did not get along with the crew of Pegasus. In 1742 they left him in West Africa with Amos Clowe, Clowe took Newton to the coast and gave him to his wife, Princess Peye of the Sherbro people. She abused and mistreated Newton equally as much as she did her other slaves, Newton later recounted this period as the time he was once an infidel and libertine, a servant of slaves in West Africa. During his 1748 voyage to England after his rescue, Newton had a spiritual conversion, the ship encountered a severe storm off the coast of Donegal, Ireland and almost sank. Newton awoke in the middle of the night and, as the ship filled with water, the cargo shifted and stopped up the hole, and the ship drifted to safety. Newton marked this experience as the beginning of his conversion to evangelical Christianity and he began to read the Bible and other religious literature. By the time he reached Britain, he had accepted the doctrines of evangelical Christianity, the date was 10 March 1748, an anniversary he marked for the rest of his life
22.
Thomas Paine
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Thomas Paine was an English-American political activist, philosopher, political theorist, and revolutionary. His ideas reflected Enlightenment-era rhetoric of human rights. He has been called a corsetmaker by trade, a journalist by profession, virtually every rebel read his powerful pamphlet Common Sense, proportionally the all-time best-selling American title, which crystallized the rebellious demand for independence from Great Britain. His The American Crisis was a pamphlet series. Common Sense was so influential that John Adams said, Without the pen of the author of Common Sense, Paine lived in France for most of the 1790s, becoming deeply involved in the French Revolution. He wrote Rights of Man, in part a defense of the French Revolution against its critics and his attacks on Anglo-Irish conservative writer Edmund Burke led to a trial and conviction in absentia in 1792 for the crime of seditious libel. In 1792, despite not being able to speak French, he was elected to the French National Convention, the Girondists regarded him as an ally. Consequently, the Montagnards, especially Robespierre, regarded him as an enemy, in December 1793, he was arrested and was taken to Luxembourg Prison in Paris. While in prison, he continued to work on The Age of Reason, future President James Monroe used his diplomatic connections to get Paine released in November 1794. He also published the pamphlet Agrarian Justice, discussing the origins of property, in 1802, he returned to the U. S. where he died on June 8,1809. Only six people attended his funeral as he had been ostracized for his ridicule of Christianity, Paine was born on January 29,1736, the son of Joseph Pain and Frances, in Thetford, Norfolk, England. Joseph was a Quaker and Frances an Anglican, born Thomas Pain, despite claims that he changed his family name upon his emigration to America in 1774, he was using Paine in 1769, while still in Lewes, Sussex. He attended Thetford Grammar School, at a time there was no compulsory education. At the age of 13, he was apprenticed to his stay-maker father, Paine researchers contend his fathers occupation has been widely misinterpreted to mean that he made the stays in ladies corsets, which likely was an insult later invented by his political foes. Actually, the father and apprentice son made the thick rope stays used on sailing ships, Thetford historically had maintained a brisk trade with the downriver, then major, port town of Kings Lynn. A connection to shipping and the sea explains why, in adolescence, Thomas enlisted and briefly served as a privateer. There, he became a master stay-maker, establishing a shop in Sandwich, on September 27,1759, Thomas Paine married Mary Lambert. Mary became pregnant, and, after they moved to Margate, she went into labor, in which she
23.
Pennsylvania Gazette
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The Pennsylvania Gazette was one of the United States most prominent newspapers from 1728, before the time period of the American Revolution, until 1800. On October 2,1729, Benjamin Franklin and Hugh Meredith bought the paper and shortened its name, Franklin not only printed the paper but also often contributed pieces to the paper under aliases. His newspaper soon became the most successful in the colonies, on August 6,1741 Franklin published an editorial about deceased Andrew Hamilton, a lawyer and public figure in Philadelphia who had been a friend. The editorial praised the man highly and showed Franklin had held the man in high esteem, in 1752, Franklin published a third-person account of his pioneering kite experiment in The Pennsylvania Gazette, without mentioning that he himself had performed it. Primarily a publication for classified ads, merchants and individuals listed notices of employment, lost and found goods and items for sale, most entries involved stories of travel. In the July 31,1776 edition the front page lists military movements announced by John Hancock alongside the sale of a plantation in Chester County, Pa. This newspaper, among other firsts, would print the first political cartoon in America, Join, or Die and it ceased publication in 1800, ten years after Franklins death. It is claimed that the publication later reemerged as the Saturday Evening Post in 1821, there are three known copies of the original issue, which are held by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the Library Company of Philadelphia, and the Wisconsin State Historical Society. Today, The Pennsylvania Gazette moniker is used by an unrelated bi-monthly alumni magazine of the University of Pennsylvania, archives are available online for a fee. Pennsylvania Chronicle The Constitutional Post Benjamin Franklin Join, or Die Libertys Kids The Drinkers Dictionary
24.
Free people of color
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The term free people of color, in the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, at first specifically referred to persons of mixed African and European descent who were not enslaved. The term was used in the French colonies, including La Louisiane and settlements on Caribbean islands, such as Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe. Freed African slaves were included in the term affranchis, but historically they were considered as distinct from the people of color. In these territories and major cities, particularly New Orleans, and those held by the Spanish. These colonial societies classified mixed-race people in a variety of ways, generally related to visible features, racial classifications were numerous in Latin America. It included persons of mixed race as well as freed African slaves and they were also important in forming an educated class of people of color in French colonies of the Caribbean islands. When French settlers and traders first arrived in these colonies, the men frequently took Native American women as their concubines or common-law wives, when African slaves were imported to the colony, the colonists took African women as concubines or wives. In the period of French and Spanish rule, men tended to marry later after becoming financially established, the free people of color developed formal arrangements for placées, which the young womens mothers negotiated. Under the system of plaçage, often the mothers negotiated a kind of dowry or property transfer to their daughters, including freedom for them and their children, and education for the children. The French Creole men often paid for education of their natural children from these relationships, especially if they were sons. Over time, free people of developed as a separate class between the colonial French and Spanish and the mass of enslaved black African workers. They often achieved education and some measure of wealth, they spoke French and practiced Catholicism, at one time the center of their residential community in New Orleans was the French Quarter. Many were artisans who owned property and their own businesses and they formed a social category distinct from both whites and slaves, and maintained their own society into the period after United States annexation. Free people of color were also an important part of the history of the Caribbean during the period of slavery, initially descendants of French men and African slaves, and often marrying within their own mixed-race community, some achieved wealth and power. By the late century, most free people of color in Saint-Domingue were native born. Free people of color were leaders in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, in Saint-Domingue, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and other French Caribbean colonies before slavery was abolished, the free people of color were known as gens de couleur libres, and affranchis. Comparable groups became an important part of the populations of British Jamaica, the Spanish Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Claiborne, appointed by Thomas Jefferson as governor of the Territory of Orleans, formally accepted delivery of the French colony on 20 December 1803. Free men of color had been members of the militia for decades during both Spanish and French rule of the colony of Louisiana and they volunteered their services and pledged their loyalty to Claiborne and to their newly adopted country
25.
Scullery maid
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In great houses, scullery maids were the lowest-ranked and often the youngest of the female domestic servants and acted as assistant to a kitchen maid. The scullery maid reported to the cook or chef, along with the junior kitchen-maid, the scullery maid did not eat at the communal servants dining hall table, but in the kitchen in order to keep an eye on the food that was still cooking. Duties of the scullery maid included the most physical and demanding tasks in the such as cleaning and scouring the floor, stoves, sinks, pots. After scouring the plates in the scullery, she would leave them on racks to dry, the scullery maid also assisted in cleaning vegetables, plucking fowl, and scaling fish. The duties of the scullery-maid are to assist the cook, to keep the scullery clean, the position of scullery-maid is not, of course, one of high rank, nor is the payment for her services large. —Mrs. Beeton, The Book of Household Management, published 1861 The scullery maid provided hot water for the scullery, kitchen tasks, and household. In addition to her tasks, the scullery maid had to keep the scullery clean by clearing away meat and vegetable garbage, scrubbing work tables. The water was carried through a drain outside the house, scullery maids would rarely have handled fine china, stemware, crystal or plate silver, these are cleaned by housemaids and footmen. Before the advent of central heating systems, scullery maids were required to light the fires on the stove and supply hot water for tea. She performed these tasks in the morning before the cook came down to the kitchens, in a household with no between maid, the scullery maid may also have waited on staff in the Servants Hall, although this may have been assigned to another maid or a junior footman. In the days before the water closet she may have been required to empty. This work has, in times, primarily been performed by women. A male servant performing the tasks described above would be called a scullion, the root of the word scullery is the 1300–50 French word escuelerie (pronounced squillerye < equivalent to escuele -dish + rie -ry. Literature In Les Misérables, by Victor Hugo, Cosette is treated as a maid for the duration of her stay in Montfermeil. Maria, of the story Clay in James Joyces Dubliners, is considered to be a scullery maid. In Frances Hodgson Burnetts A Little Princess, the character Becky is a scullery maid, in Jacqueline Wilsons Sapphire Battersea, Hetty Feather becomes a scullery maid In Ella Enchanted by Gail Carson Levine, the protagonist Ella becomes a scullery maid for her wicked stepmother. In The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett, the character Martha is depicted as a scullery maid, although she also performs some housemaid duties such as waiting on the children of the house and directly assisting the head housekeeper. Songs In the song Dead Mans Chest, the scullion is stabbed times four, the titular subject of a Beatles song was found to have a corresponding historical person
26.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
27.
George Whitefield
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George Whitefield, also spelled George Whitfield, was an English Anglican cleric who was one of the founders of Methodism and the evangelical movement. Born in Gloucester, he matriculated at Pembroke College at the University of Oxford in 1732, there he joined the Holy Club and was introduced to the Wesley brothers, John and Charles, who he would work closely with in his later ministry. Whitefield was ordained after receiving his BA and he immediately began preaching, but he did not settle as the minister of any parish. Rather he became an itinerant preacher and evangelist, in 1740, Whitefield traveled to America, where he preached a series of revivals that came to be known as the Great Awakening. His methods were controversial and he engaged in debates and disputes with other clergymen. Whitefield received widespread recognition during his ministry, he preached at least 18,000 times to perhaps 10 million listeners in Great Britain, Whitefield could enthrall large audiences through a potent combination of drama, religious rhetoric, and imperial pride. Whitefield was born on 27 December 1714 at the Bell Inn, Southgate Street, Whitefield was the fifth son of Thomas Whitefield and Elizabeth Edwards who kept an inn at Gloucester. He was educated at the Crypt School, Gloucester, and Pembroke College, because business at the inn had become poor, Whitefield did not have the means to pay for his tuition. He was a part of the Holy Club at the University with the Wesley brothers, John, an illness, as well as Henry Scougals The Life of God in the Soul of Man, influenced him to turn to the Church. Following a religious conversion, he became passionate for preaching his new-found faith, the Bishop of Gloucester ordained him a deacon. Whitefield preached his first sermon at St Mary de Crypt Church in his town of Gloucester. He had earlier become the leader of the Holy Club at Oxford when the Wesley brothers departed for Georgia, in 1738 he went to Savannah, Georgia, in the American colonies, as parish priest. While there he decided that one of the needs of the area was an orphan house. He decided this would be his lifes work and he returned to England to raise funds, as well as to receive priests orders. While preparing for his return, he preached to large congregations, at the suggestion of friends he preached to the miners of Kingswood, outside Bristol, in the open air. Because he was returning to Georgia he invited John Wesley to take over his Bristol congregations, Whitefield accepted the Church of Englands doctrine of predestination and disagreed with the Wesley brothers views on the doctrine of the atonement, Arminianism. As a result, Whitefield did what his friends hoped he would not do—hand over the ministry to John Wesley. Whitefield formed and was the president of the first Methodist conference, the society meeting at the second Kingswood School at Kingswood, a town on the eastern edge of Bristol, was eventually also named Whitefields Tabernacle
28.
Elegy
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In English literature, an elegy is a poem of serious reflection, typically a lament for the dead. The Greek term elegeia originally referred to any written in elegiac couplets. The term also included epitaphs, sad and mournful songs, the Latin elegy of ancient Roman literature was most often erotic or mythological in nature. Because of its potential for rhetorical effects, the elegiac couplet was also used by both Greek and Roman poets for witty, humorous, and satiric subject matter. Ovid wrote elegies bemoaning his exile, which he likened to a death and this looser concept is especially evident in the Old English Exeter Book which contains serious meditative and well-known poems such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Wife’s Lament. In these elegies, the use the lyrical I to describe their own personal. They tell the story of the rather than the collective lore of his or her people as epic poetry seeks to tell. For Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others, the term had come to mean serious meditative poem and it may treat of any subject, but it must treat of no subject for itself, but always and exclusively with reference to the poet. As he will feel regret for the past or desire for the future, so sorrow, Elegy presents every thing as lost and gone or absent and future. A famous example of elegy is Thomas Grays Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, in French, perhaps the most famous elegy is Le Lac by Alphonse de Lamartine. Elegy may denote a type of work, usually of a sad or somber nature. A well-known example is the Élégie, Op.10, by Jules Massenet, dirge Elegiac Funeral march Kommós Lament Marsiya Noha Obituary poetry Pastoral elegy history Poetry Rithā Soaz Threnody Ağıt Casey, Brian. Genres and Styles, in Funeral Music Genres, With a Stylistic/Topical Lexicon, american Elegy, The Poetry of Mourning from the Puritans to Whitman. Poetry of Mourning, The Modern Elegy from Hardy to Heaney, the English Elegy, Studies in the Genre from Spenser to Yeats. Media related to Elegies at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of elegy at Wiktionary Elegy Explained at Literary Devices
29.
John Hancock
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John Hancock was an American merchant, statesman, and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution. He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first, before the American Revolution, Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies, having inherited a profitable mercantile business from his uncle. Hancock began his career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams. As tensions between colonists and Great Britain increased in the 1760s, Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause and he became very popular in Massachusetts, especially after British officials seized his sloop Liberty in 1768 and charged him with smuggling. Although the charges against Hancock were eventually dropped, he has often described as a smuggler in historical accounts. Hancock was one of Bostons leaders during the crisis led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775. He served more than two years in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, and as president of Congress, was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence, Hancock returned to Massachusetts and was elected governor of the Commonwealth, serving in that role for most of his remaining years. He used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788, according to the Gregorian calendar, John Hancock was born on January 23,1737, according to the Julian calendar then in use, the date was January 12,1736. He was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, in a part of town eventually became the separate city of Quincy. He was the son of the Reverend John Hancock of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter, as a child, Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams, whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1735. The Hancocks lived a life, and owned one slave to help with household work. After Hancocks father died in 1744, John was sent to live with his uncle and aunt, Thomas Hancock, Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock, which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum, whale oil, and fish. Thomas Hancocks highly successful business made him one of Bostons richest and he and Lydia, along with several servants and slaves, lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill. The couple, who did not have any children of their own, after graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750, Hancock enrolled in Harvard College and received a bachelors degree in 1754. Upon graduation, he began to work for his uncle, just as the French, Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts and secured profitable government contracts during the war. John Hancock learned much about his uncles business during these years and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm, Hancock worked hard, but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat and developed a fondness for expensive clothes. From 1760 to 1761, Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers, upon returning to Boston, Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncles health failed, becoming a full partner in January 1763. He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762, which connected him with many of Bostons most influential citizens
30.
Thomas Hutchinson (governor)
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Thomas Hutchinson was a businessman, historian, and a prominent Loyalist politician of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the years before the American Revolution. He has been referred to as the most important figure on the loyalist side in pre-Revolutionary Massachusetts and he was a successful merchant and politician, and was active at high levels of the Massachusetts government for many years, serving as lieutenant governor and then governor from 1758 to 1774. He was blamed by Lord North for being a significant contributor to the tensions led the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. Hutchinsons Boston mansion was ransacked in 1765 during protests against the Stamp Act, as acting governor in 1770, he exposed himself to mob attack in the aftermath of the Boston massacre, after which he ordered the removal of troops from Boston to Castle William. Letters of his calling for abridgement of colonial rights were published in 1773 and he was replaced as governor in May 1774 by General Thomas Gage, and went into exile in England, where he advised the government on how to deal with the Americans. Hutchinson had a deep interest in history, collecting a large number of historical documents. He wrote a three volume History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay whose last volume, published posthumously, covered his own period in office, historian Bernard Bailyn wrote of Hutchinson, If there was one person in America whose actions might have altered the outcome, it was he. Hutchinson exemplifies the Loyalist-as-loser, paralyzed by his ideology and his loyalties to America. He sacrificed his love for Massachusetts to his loyalty to Great Britain. Thomas Hutchinson was born on 9 September 1711 in the North End of Boston and he was descended from early New England settlers, including Anne Hutchinson and her son Edward Hutchinson, and his parents were both from well-to-do merchant families. His father was involved in the mercantile trade but was also active in political, military. Young Thomas entered Harvard College at twelve, graduating in 1727 and his father introduced him to the business world early, and he displayed remarkable business acumen. According to his sketch of his childhood, Hutchinson turned a modest gift from his father of five quintals of fish into between £400 and £500 by the time he was 21. In 1732, he received exposure to politics when he accompanied Governor Jonathan Belcher on a voyage to Casco Bay for negotiations with the Abenaki of Maine. The voyage was made in a vessel of which Hutchinson was part owner, in 1734, he married Margaret Sanford, a granddaughter of Rhode Island Governor Peleg Sanford. The Sanford and Hutchinson families had a history of business and personal connections, Margaret. The Marriage secured an alliance between Hutchinson and Andrew and Peter Oliver which lasted long after Margarets death. Mary Sanfords sister Mary was the wife of Andrew Oliver
31.
Andrew Oliver
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Andrew Oliver was a merchant and public official in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. He never actually carried out duties, and was later commissioned as the provinces lieutenant governor. Andrew Oliver was born in Boston, capital of the British Province of Massachusetts Bay, Andrew had two brothers, Daniel Oliver and Peter Oliver. Characterized as sober and pious, Andrew was sent to Harvard College, Oliver then entered the family business, setting up a merchant business with his brother Peter that concentrated on wine and textiles. The business was successful, and the brothers eventually controlled Bostons Long Wharf, on March 20,1728, Oliver married Mary Fitch, the daughter of Colonel Thomas Fitch. The couple had three children before Mary died in 1732, only one, a son named Andrew, survived to adulthood, after Marys death Oliver traveled to England, returning to Massachusetts in 1734. On December 19,1734 he married Mary Sanford of Newport, Rhode Island, in 1737 Oliver entered politics, winning election as Bostons town auditor. He held many local offices, and became a leader of the Hutchinson-Oliver faction. He was elected to the assembly in 1742, and in 1755 was appointed provincial secretary by Acting Governor Spencer Phips. In 1765, Oliver was commissioned to administer the unpopular Stamp Act in Massachusetts and he was privately against the act, but told people he was in favor of it, leading colonists to rise against him. On August 14, he was hanged in effigy from Bostons Liberty Tree in a protest organized by the Loyal Nine and that night his house and offices were ransacked by an angry crowd. On August 17, he was compelled to resign his commission. On December 17, the Sons of Liberty again forced him to swear that he would never act as stamp distributor. He was commissioned lieutenant governor of the colony when his brother-in-law Thomas Hutchinson became governor in 1771, letters that he and Hutchinson wrote in the late 1760s during protests surrounding the Townshend Acts were published in 1773, igniting a storm of protest against both men. The business took a toll on Olivers health, which suffered further after his wife died. Oliver died on March 3,1774 after suffering from an apoplectick fit and his death was greeted with glee by the Sons of Liberty, and his burial was marred by acts of protest and violence. Because of the political climate few friends and relatives attended. Most of Olivers family remained Loyal during the American Revolution, lexington, KY, University Press of Kentucky
32.
Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon
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She played a major role in financing and guiding early Methodism. Selina was the first female principal of a college in Wales. She financed the building of 64 chapels in England and Wales, wrote often to George Whitfield and John Wesley and she is best remembered for her adversarial relationships with other Methodists who objected to a woman having power. Selina Hastings was born Lady Selina Shirley, the daughter of Washington Shirley, 2nd Earl Ferrers and Mary Levinge, at Staunton Harold. She married Theophilus Hastings, 9th Earl of Huntingdon on 3 June 1728 and she gave birth to seven children in the first ten years of the marriage, and suffered some poor health. In 1739, Lady Huntington joined the first Methodist society in Fetter Lane, some time after the death of her husband in 1746, she threw in her lot with John Wesley and George Whitefield in the work of the great revival. In the earlier part of her life Isaac Watts, Mary, Lady Abney, Philip Doddridge, Lady Anne Erskine, was her closest friend and companion for many years in the latter part of Lady Huntingdons life. She held large parties at which Whitefield preached to the gathered dignitaries after they had eaten. She partly funded the independent Surrey Chapel of Rowland Hill and she appointed ministers to officiate in them, under the impression that as a peeress she had a right to employ as many chaplains as she pleased. In her chapel at Bath there was a curtained recess dubbed Nicodemus Corner where bishops sat incognito to hear services. Following the expulsion of six Methodist students from St Edmund Hall, Oxford in 1768 the Countess founded a training college at Trefeca near Talgarth, in Mid Wales. George Whitefield preached at the opening ceremony, the college moved to Hertfordshire in 1792, and was renamed Cheshunt College. It moved to Cambridge in 1906, the college merged with Westminster College, part of Cambridge University and the training college of the Presbyterian Church of England, in 1967. The Presbyterian Church of Wales college at Trevecca is approximately 400m south of the Countesss college and it is said that Lady Huntingdon expended £100,000 in the cause of religion. During the mid-1760s, she met and befriended Mohegan preacher Samson Occom and she also sent missionaries to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to attend to the Black Loyalists. Until her death in London, Lady Huntingdon exercised an active, on the Countesss death in 1791, the 64 chapels and the college were bequeathed to four trustees. Amongst them were Dr Ford, and Lady Ann who was requested to occupy and reside in Lady Huntingdons house, adjoining Spa Fields Chapel, and carry on all needful correspondence and she did this on dutifully until her own death in 1804, and burial at Bunhill Fields. He made every effort to ensure the Connexion kept as close to the Church of England as was possible, many chapels became part of the Free Church of England in 1863
33.
Earl of Dartmouth
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Earl of Dartmouth is a title in the Peerage of Great Britain. It was created in 1711 for William Legge, 2nd Baron Dartmouth, the Legge family descended from Edward Legge, Vice-President of Munster. His eldest son William Legge was a Royalist army officer and close associate of Prince Rupert of the Rhine, on the Restoration, Charles II offered to create him an earl, but Legge declined. His son George Legge was a prominent naval commander, in 1682, he was raised to the Peerage of England as Baron Dartmouth, of Dartmouth in the County of Devon. His son was the aforementioned second Baron, who served as Secretary of State for the Southern Department between 1710 and 1713. In 1711, he was created Viscount Lewisham, in the County of Kent and he was succeeded by his grandson, the second Earl. He was the son of George Legge, Viscount Lewisham, eldest son of the first Earl. He was also a politician and served as Secretary of State for the Colonies. The American Ivy League school Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire, was named for the second Earl by Congregational minister Eleazar Wheelock and his eldest son, the third Earl, was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration as Baron Dartmouth in June 1801. Soon after, in July 1801, he succeeded his father in the earldom, Lord Dartmouth held office as President of the Board of Control between 1801 and 1802. On his death, the passed to his eldest son. He briefly represented Milborne Port in Parliament before succeeding in the earldom and his only child from his first marriage, the fifth Earl, was a Conservative politician and also served as Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire. His eldest son, the sixth Earl, was also a Conservative politician, the latter was succeeded by his eldest son, the seventh Earl. He married Lady Ruperta, daughter of the 1st Marquess of Lincolnshire and his only son William Legge, Viscount Lewisham, was killed at El Alamein in 1942, and Dartmouth was consequently succeeded by his younger brother, Humphry, the eight Earl. As of 2014, the titles are held by the grandson, the tenth Earl. Lord Dartmouth has been a Member of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom Independence Party since 2009, several other members of the Legge family have also gained distinction. The Hon. Henry Bilson-Legge, fourth son of the first Earl, was a politician, sir Arthur Kaye Legge, sixth son of the second Earl, was an admiral in the Royal Navy. The Hon. Edward Legge, seventh son of the second Earl, was Bishop of Oxford, the Hon. Heneage Legge, second son of the third Earl, sat as Member of Parliament for Banbury
34.
Hartford, Connecticut
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Hartford is the capital of the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was the seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, as of the 2010 Census, Hartfords population was 124,775, making it Connecticuts third-largest city after the coastal cities of Bridgeport and New Haven. Census Bureau estimates since then have indicated Hartfords subsequent fall to fourth place statewide as a result of sustained growth in the coastal city of Stamford. Nicknamed the Insurance Capital of the World, Hartford houses many insurance company headquarters, founded in 1635, Hartford is among the oldest cities in the United States. In 1868, resident Mark Twain wrote, Of all the towns it has been my fortune to see this is the chief. Following the American Civil War, Hartford was the richest city in the United States for several decades, today, Hartford is one of the poorest cities in the nation with 3 out of every 10 families living below the poverty line. In sharp contrast, the Hartford metropolitan area is ranked 32nd of 318 metropolitan areas in total economic production, various tribes, all part of the loose Algonquin confederation, lived in or around present-day Hartford. The area was referred to as Suckiaug, meaning Black Fertile River-Enhanced Earth, the first Europeans known to have explored the area were the Dutch, under Adriaen Block, who sailed up the Connecticut in 1614. Dutch fur traders from New Amsterdam returned in 1623 with a mission to establish a trading post, the original site was located on the south bank of the Park River in the present-day Sheldon/Charter Oak neighborhood. This fort was called Fort Hoop, or the House of Hope, in 1633, Jacob Van Curler formally bought the land around Fort Hoop from the Pequot chief for a small sum. It was home to perhaps a couple families and a few dozen soldiers, the area today is known as Dutch Point, and the name of the Dutch fort, House of Hope, is reflected in the name of Huyshope Avenue. The fort was abandoned by 1654, but its neighborhood in Hartford is still known as Dutch Point, the Dutch outpost, and the tiny contingent of Dutch soldiers that were stationed there, did little to check the English migration. The Dutch soon realized they were vastly outnumbered, the House of Hope remained an outpost, but it was steadily swallowed up by waves of English settlers. The English began to arrive 1637, settling upstream from Fort Hoop near the present-day Downtown, the settlement was originally called Newtown, but was changed to Hartford in 1637 in honor of Stones hometown of Hertford, England. Hooker also created the town of Windsor. The etymology of Hartford is the ford where harts cross, the Seal of the City of Hartford features a male deer, which in full maturity was referred to by the medieval hunting term hart. The fledgling colony along the Connecticut River had issues with the authority by which it was to be governed because it was outside of the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Bay Colonys charter. Historians suggest that Hookers conception of self-rule embodied in the Fundamental Orders went on to inspire the Connecticut Constitution, today, one of Connecticuts nicknames is the Constitution State
35.
Paganism
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Paganism is a term that derives from Latin word pagan, which means nonparticipant, one excluded from a more distinguished, professional group. The term was used in the 4th century, by early Christian community, the term competed with polytheism already in use in Judaism, by Philo in the 1st century. Pagans and paganism was a pejorative for the same polytheistic group, Paganism has broadly connoted religion of the peasantry, and for much of its history a derogatory term. Alternate terms in Christian texts for the group was hellene. In and after the Middle Ages, paganism was a pejorative that was applied to any non-Abrahamic or unfamiliar religion, there has been much scholarly debate as to the origin of the term paganism, especially since no one before the 20th century self-identified as a pagan. In the 19th century, paganism was re-adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. Forms of these religions, influenced by various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe, exist today and are known as contemporary or modern paganism, while most pagan religions express a worldview that is pantheistic, polytheistic, or animistic, there are some monotheistic pagans. It is crucial to stress right from the start that until the 20th century people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practised, the notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition, as such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense. The term pagan is from Late Latin paganus, revived during the Renaissance and it is related to pangere and ultimately comes from Proto-Indo-European *pag-. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church, elsewhere, Hellene or gentile remained the word for pagan, and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace. However, this idea has multiple problems, first, the words usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centered on cities, the concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during Early Christianity. Third, unlike words such as rusticitas, paganus had not yet acquired the meanings used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans. Paganus more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature via Roman military jargon, Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves as Milites Christi. As early as the 5th century, paganos was metaphorically used to persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. In response, Augustine of Hippo wrote De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos, in it, he contrasted the fallen city of Man to the city of God of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the invaders were not of the city or rural
36.
Isaac Knapp
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Isaac Knapp was a printer and publisher in Boston, Massachusetts. Knapp was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts to Philip Coombs Knapp and Abigail Remmick, in 1825 he was proprietor of the Essex Courant newspaper. With his friend William Lloyd Garrison he produced the anti-slavery Liberator newspaper and he also co-founded the New England Anti-Slavery Society. His printing office was located on Congress Street and then on Cornhill, Garrison and Knapp had a falling out around 1840, and Knapp left the Liberator. In a otherwise favorable eulogy written by Garrison and printed in the Liberator, Garrison implies Knapp became an alcoholic, constitution of the New England Anti-Slavery Society. The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, southard, American Anti-Slavery Almanac for 1838 Thomas Treadwell Stone, Martyr of Freedom John Gabriel Stedman. Narrative of Joanna, An Emancipated Slave, of Surinam, narrative of James Williams, an American slave, who was for several years a driver on a cotton plantation in Alabama. Memoir and poems of Phillis Wheatley, a native African and a slave, childs Appeal, Mrs. Britain, Thompsons Lectures and Debates, Valuable Documents, Vigilance Committee, Whittiers Poems, Wilberforce. Standard Anti-Slavery Books for Sale by Isaac Knapp, no.25 Cornhill,1838 Wendell Phillips Garrison, William Lloyd Garrison, 1805-1879, The Story of His Life Told by His Children
37.
George Moses Horton
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George Moses Horton was an African-American poet and the first African American poet to be published in the Southern United States. His book was published in 1828 while he was still enslaved, Horton was born into slavery on William Hortons plantation in Northampton County, North Carolina. He was the sixth of ten children, though the names of his parents are lost to history, as a very young child in 1800, he and several family members were moved to a tobacco farm in rural Chatham County, when his owner relocated. He was given as property to Williams relative James Horton in 1814, in 1819, the estate was broken up, and George Moses Hortons family was separated. Horton disliked farm work and in his time he taught himself to read using spelling books, the Bible. Learning poetry and snippets of literature, Horton composed poems in his mind, as a young adult, Horton delivered produce to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he composed and recited poems for students, some of whom transcribed his compositions. Horton also composed poems, usually love poems, by commission for the students at 25 or 50 cents each, considering the difficulty of earning income from poetry, Horton was likely one of the few professional poets in the South at the time. In 1829, his poems were published in a collection titled The Hope of Liberty, the book, funded by the politically-liberal journalist Joseph Gales, appeared the same year as David Walkers An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World. Horton is believed to be the first Southern black to publish poetry, though he knew how to read, he published the book before he learned how to write. As he recalled, I fell to work in my head, by 1832, he had learned to write for himself, having learned with the aid of Caroline Lee Hentz, who was the wife of a professor and a writer herself. She also assisted in publishing at least two of his poems in a newspaper, Horton had composed a poem on the death of Hentzs child. As he recalled, She was extremely pleased with the dirge which I wrote on the death of her much lamented primogenial infant, and for which she gave me much credit, not being able to write myself, I dictated while she wrote. She sent one of Hortons poems to her newspaper in Lancaster, Massachusetts. The book was published by Boston-based publisher and abolitionist Isaac Knapp, in 1845, Horton released another book of poetry, The Poetical Works of George M. Horton, The Colored Bard of North-Carolina, To Which Is Prefixed The Life of the Author, Written by Himself. The moniker, Colored Bard of North-Carolina, was coined by his new publisher, Horton gained the admiration of North Carolina Governor John Owen, influential newspapermen Horace Greeley and William Lloyd Garrison, along with numerous Northern abolitionists. Sometime in the 1830s, Horton married an enslaved woman owned by Franklin Snipes in Chatham County, the couple had two children, Free and Rhody, though little else is known about the family. He was not emancipated until 1865, however, when he met the Ninth Cavalry from Michigan, a young officer with that group, William H. S. Banks, collaborated with Horton on the collection Naked Genius the same year. At the age of 68, Horton moved to Pennsylvania as a freeman where he continued to write poetry for local newspapers, one such publication, Forbidden to Ride on the Street Cars, shows his disappointment in the unjust treatment of blacks even after emancipation
38.
Voltaire
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Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 21,000 letters and over two books and pamphlets. He was an advocate of civil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma. Some speculation surrounds Voltaires date of birth, because he claimed he was born on 20 February 1694 as the son of a nobleman. Two of his older brothers—Armand-François and Robert—died in infancy and his brother, Armand. Nicknamed Zozo by his family, Voltaire was baptized on 22 November 1694, with François de Castagnère, abbé de Châteauneuf, and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mothers cousin, standing as godparents. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand, where he was taught Latin, theology, and rhetoric, later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English. By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father out, he sent Voltaire to study law. Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies, Voltaires wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to the new French ambassador in the Netherlands, the marquis de Châteauneuf, at The Hague, Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer. Their scandalous affair was discovered by de Châteauneuf and Voltaire was forced to return to France by the end of the year, Most of Voltaires early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government and these activities were to result in two imprisonments and a temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused the Régent of incest with his own daughter, the Comédie-Française had agreed in January 1717 to stage his debut play, Œdipe, and it opened in mid-November 1718, seven months after his release. Its immediate critical and financial success established his reputation, both the Régent and King George I of Great Britain presented Voltaire with medals as a mark of their appreciation. He mainly argued for tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects peoples rights, the author adopted the name Voltaire in 1718, following his incarceration at the Bastille
39.
John Paul Jones
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John Paul Jones was the United States first well-known naval commander in the American Revolutionary War. As such, he is referred to as the Father of the American Navy. He later served in the Imperial Russian Navy, subsequently obtaining the rank of rear admiral, Jones was born John Paul on the estate of Arbigland near Kirkbean in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright on the southwest coast of Scotland. His father John Paul, Sr. was a gardener at Arbigland and his parents married on November 29,1733 in New Abbey, Kirkcudbright. Living at Arbigland at the time was Helen Craik, later a novelist, John Paul started his maritime career at the age of 13, sailing out of Whitehaven in the northern English county of Cumberland as apprentice aboard Friendship under Captain Benson. Pauls older brother William Paul had married and settled in Fredericksburg, Virginia, for several years, John sailed aboard a number of British merchant and slave ships, including King George in 1764 as third mate and Two Friends as first mate in 1766. In 1768, he abandoned his prestigious position on the profitable Two Friends while docked in Jamaica and he found his own passage back to Scotland, and eventually obtained another position. He then led two voyages to the West Indies before running into difficulty, during his second voyage in 1770, John Paul viciously flogged one of his sailors, a carpenter, leading to accusations that his discipline was unnecessarily cruel. These claims initially were dismissed, but his reputation was destroyed when the sailor died a few weeks later. John Paul was arrested for his involvement in the death, and was imprisoned in Kirkcudbright Tolbooth. The negative effect of this episode on his reputation is indisputable and this man was not a usual sailor but an adventurer from a very influential Scottish family. Leaving Scotland, John Paul commanded a London-registered vessel named Betsy and this came to an end, however, when John killed a mutineer crew member named Blackton with a sword in a dispute over wages. He felt compelled to flee to Fredericksburg, Province of Virginia, there is a long-held tradition in the state of North Carolina that John Paul adopted the name Jones in honor of Willie Jones of Halifax, North Carolina. From that period, America became the country of his fond election and it was not long afterward that John Paul Jones joined the American navy to fight against Britain. Sources struggle with this period of Jones life, especially the specifics of his family situation and it is not known whether his plans were not developing as expected for the plantation, or if he was inspired by a revolutionary spirit. During this time, the Navy and Marines were being formally established, Joness potential would likely have gone unrecognized were it not for the endorsement of Richard Henry Lee, who knew of his abilities. Jones sailed from the Delaware River in February 1776 aboard Alfred on the Continental Navys maiden cruise and it was aboard this vessel that Jones took the honor of hoisting the first U. S. ensign over a naval vessel. He actually raised the Grand Union Flag, not the later, the fleet had been expected to cruise along the coast but was ordered instead by Commodore Esek Hopkins to sail for The Bahamas, where Nassau was raided for its military supplies
40.
African-American literature
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African-American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. It begins with the works of such late 18th-century writers as Phillis Wheatley, before the high point of slave narratives, African-American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives. African-American literature reached early high points with slave narratives of the 19th century, the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s was a time of flowering of literature and the arts. Writers of African-American literature have been recognized by the highest awards, among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African-American culture, racism, slavery, and social equality. African-American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as spirituals, sermons, gospel music, blues, as African Americans place in American society has changed over the centuries, so has the focus of African-American literature. There was a distinction between the literature of freed slaves and the literature of free blacks who had been born in the North. Free blacks had to express their oppression in a different narrative form, free blacks in the North often spoke out against slavery and racial injustices using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the themes of slave narratives. At the turn of the 20th century, non-fiction works by such as W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington debated how to confront racist attitudes in the United States, during the Civil Rights Movement, authors such as Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation and black nationalism. In broad terms, African-American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States, African-American literature has generally focused on the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. As Princeton University professor Albert J. Raboteau has said, all African-American study speaks to the meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the claims to freedom, democracy, equality. African-American literature presents the African-American experience from an African-American point of view, in the early Republic, African-American literature represented a way for free blacks to negotiate their new identity in an individualized republic. They often tried to exercise their political and social autonomy in the face of resistance from the white public, thus, an early theme of African-American literature was, like other American writings, what it meant to be a citizen in post-Revolutionary America. African-American literature has both influenced by the great African diasporic heritage and shaped it in many countries. African-American oral culture is rich in poetry, including spirituals, gospel music, blues and this oral poetry also appears in the African-American tradition of Christian sermons, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence, and alliteration. African-American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry and these characteristics do not occur in all works by African-American writers
41.
Molefi Kete Asante
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Molefi Kete Asante is an African-American professor. He is a figure in the fields of African-American studies, African studies. He is currently professor in the Department of Africology at Temple University and he is president of the Molefi Kete Asante Institute for Afrocentric Studies. He is the author of more than 66 books and the editor of the Journal of Black Studies. He is the father of author and filmmaker M. K. Asante, Asante was born Arthur Lee Smith Jr. in Valdosta, Georgia, the fourth of sixteen children. His father, Arthur Lee Smith, worked in a warehouse and then on the Georgia Southern Railroad. During the summers Asante would return to Georgia to work in the tobacco, an aunt, Georgia Smith, influenced him to pursue his education, she gave him his first book, a collection of short stories by Charles Dickens. As an adolescent, Smith attended Nashville Christian Institute, a Church of Christ-founded boarding school for students, in Nashville. There he earned his high school diploma in 1960, while still in high school, he became involved with the Civil Rights Movement, joining the Fisk University student march in Nashville. After graduation, he enrolled in Southwestern Christian College of Terrell, Texas. There he met Nigerian Essien Essien, whose character and intelligence inspired Smith to learn more about Africa, the first member of his family to graduate from college, Smith received his B. A. from Oklahoma Christian College in 1964. He did graduate work, earning his M. A. from Pepperdine University in 1965 with a thesis on Marshall Keeble, Smith earned his PhD from UCLA in 1968 in communication studies. He worked for a time at UCLA, becoming the director of the Center for Afro-American Studies, at the age of 30, he was appointed by the University at Buffalo as a full professor and head of the Department of Communication. Shortly before assuming his new position in 1976, Asante chose to make a name change because he considered Arthur Lee Smith a slave name. Asante was elected president of the Society for Intercultural Education, Training and his work in intercultural communication made him a leading trainer of doctoral students in the field. Asante has directed more than one hundred PhD dissertations, Asante published his first study of the black movement, Rhetoric of Black Revolution, in 1969. Subsequently, he wrote Transracial Communication, to explain how race complicates human interaction in American society, soon Asante changed his focus to African-American and African culture in communication, with attention to the nature of African-American oratorical style. Additional works on Afrocentric theory included Kemet, Afrocentricity and Knowledge, in 1986 Asante proposed the first doctoral program in African-American studies to the administration at Temple University
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Abigail Adams
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Abigail Adams was the closest advisor and wife of John Adams, as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams. John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters, and their letters are filled with discussions on government. Her letters also serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front, Abigail Adams was born at the North Parish Congregational Church in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to William Smith and Elizabeth Smith. On her mothers side she was descended from the Quincy family, through her mother she was a cousin of Dorothy Quincy, wife of John Hancock. Adams was also the great-granddaughter of John Norton, founding pastor of Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts, the only remaining 17th-century Puritan meetinghouse in Massachusetts. Smith married Elizabeth Quincy in 1742, and together they had four children and their only son, born in 1746, died of alcoholism in 1787. As with several of her ancestors, Adamss father was a liberal Congregationalist minister, Smith did not focus his preaching on predestination or original sin, instead he emphasized the importance of reason and morality. In July 1775 his wife Elizabeth, with whom he had married for 33 years. In 1784, at age 77, Smith died, Abigail did not receive formal schooling, she was frequently sick as child, which may have been a factor which prevented her from receiving an education. Later in life, Adams would also consider that she was deprived an education because females were given such an opportunity. Her grandmother, Elizabeth Quincy, also contributed to Adams education, as she grew up, Adams read with friends in an effort to further her learning. As an intellectually open-minded woman for her day, Adams ideas on womens rights and government would play a major role, albeit indirectly. She became one of the most erudite women ever to serve as First Lady, as third cousins, Abigail and John had known each other since they were children. In 1762, John accompanied his friend Richard Cranch to the Smith household, Cranch was engaged to Adams older sister, Mary, and they would be the parents of federal judge William Cranch. John was quickly attracted to the petite, shy, 17-year-old brunette who was bent over some book. He was surprised to learn she knew so much poetry, philosophy. Smith, Abigails father, presided over the marriage of John Adams, after the reception, the couple mounted a single horse and rode off to their new home, the small cottage and farm John had inherited from his father in Braintree, Massachusetts. Later they moved to Boston, where his law practice expanded, the couple welcomed their first child nine months into their marriage
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Lucy Stone
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Lucy Stone was a prominent American orator, abolitionist, and suffragist, and a vocal advocate and organizer promoting rights for women. In 1847, Stone became the first woman from Massachusetts to earn a college degree and she spoke out for womens rights and against slavery at a time when women were discouraged and prevented from public speaking. Stone was known for using her name after marriage, as the custom was for women to take their husbands surname. Stones organizational activities for the cause of womens rights yielded tangible gains in the political environment of the 19th century. Stone spoke in front of a number of bodies to promote laws giving more rights to women. Stone wrote extensively about a range of womens rights, publishing and distributing speeches by herself and others. In the long-running and influential Womans Journal, a periodical that she founded and promoted. Called the orator, the star and the heart and soul of the womens rights movement. Anthony to take up the cause of womens suffrage, Elizabeth Cady Stanton wrote that Lucy Stone was the first person by whom the heart of the American public was deeply stirred on the woman question. Together, Anthony, Stanton, and Stone have been called the 19th-century triumvirate of womens suffrage, Lucy Stone was born on August 13,1818, on her familys farm at Coys Hill in West Brookfield, Massachusetts. She was the eighth of nine born to Hannah Matthews and Francis Stone. Another member of the Stone household was Sarah Barr, “Aunt Sally” to the children– a sister of Francis Stone who had abandoned by her husband. Although Stone recalled that “There was only one will in our family, Hannah Stone earned a modest income through selling eggs and cheese but was denied any control over that money, sometimes denied money to purchase things Francis considered trivial. Believing she had a right to her own earnings, Hannah sometimes stole coins from his purse or secretly sold a cheese, as a child, Lucy resented instances of what she saw as her father’s unfair management of the family’s money. But she later came to realize that custom was to blame, and the only demonstrated “the necessity of making custom right, if it must rule. ”From the examples of her mother, Aunt Sally. Resolving to “call no man my master, ” she determined to control over her own life by never marrying, obtaining the highest education she could. At age sixteen, Stone began teaching in schools, as her brothers and sister, Rhoda. Her beginning pay of $1.00 a day was much lower than that of teachers
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Commonwealth Avenue (Boston)
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Commonwealth Avenue is a major street in the cities of Boston and Newton, Massachusetts. It begins at the edge of the Boston Public Garden. It continues as part of Route 30 through Newton until it crosses the Charles River at the border of the town of Weston, often compared to Georges-Eugène Haussmanns Paris boulevards, Commonwealth Avenue in Back Bay is a parkway divided at center by a wide grassy mall. This greenway, called Commonwealth Avenue Mall, is punctuated with statuary and memorials and it connects the Public Garden to the Fens. The section in Newton is made up of two separated by a grassy median lined with trees. The south side of the roadway contains the main, two-lane east-west roadway, with a one-way, the linear 1.5 miles stretch of Commonwealth Avenue between Kenmore Square and Packards Corner is well known to be Boston University territory. Boston University owns much of the property along and around part of Commonwealth Avenue. Walking from one end to the end or vice versa takes about 25–35 minutes. Paul Street, Pleasant Street, Babcock Street, and Packards Corner, together, these nine stops are renowned for representing Boston Universitys presence in and around this 1. 5-mile stretch of Commonwealth Avenue. The Commonwealth Avenue Mall was designed by Arthur Delevan Gilman, frederick Law Olmsted designed the Newton portion of Commonwealth Ave and included the parkway as part of the Emerald Necklace park system. The first statue on the Commonwealth Avenue Mall was erected in 1865 at Arlington Street, the Newton end of the roadway was constructed in 1895 with a line of the Middlesex and Boston Street Railway in the median. Streetcar service was cut back to its present terminus at the Boston border in 1930, an amusement park and ballroom known as Norumbega Park was built at the end of the line on the Charles River in 1897 to increase streetcar patronage. The eastern half of the Newton section of the road is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Commonwealth Avenue Historic District. Starting at the Public Garden and going westward, the statues can be seen on the mall, Alexander Hamilton, co-author of The Federalist Papers. The first statue placed on the mall, john Glover, Revolutionary War soldier, sculpted by Martin Milmore. Patrick Andrew Collins, former mayor of Boston, sculpted by Henry Hudson Kitson, moved in 1966 from its original siting at Charlesgate due to construction of the Bowker Overpass. The Vendome Memorial, which honors nine firefighters killed in the 1972 Hotel Vendome fire, William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist and journalist, sculpted by Owen Levi Warner. Samuel Eliot Morison, naval historian and writer, sculpted by Penelope Jencks, the Boston Womens Memorial, with statues of Abigail Adams, Lucy Stone, and Phillis Wheatley, sculpted by Meredith Bergmann
On Being Brought from Africa To America by Phillis Wheatley; Narrated by Teyuna T Darris, 0:47, July 8, 2015, GoodPoetry.org[21]
