Vapor pressure
Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases at a given temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate, it relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid. A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is referred to as volatile; the pressure exhibited by vapor present above a liquid surface is known as vapor pressure. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases; as the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor increases, thereby increasing the vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the Clausius–Clapeyron relation; the atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.
With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher temperature due to the higher fluid pressure, because fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases. More important at shallow depths is the higher temperature required to start bubble formation; the surface tension of the bubble wall leads to an overpressure in the small, initial bubbles. Thus, thermometer calibration should not rely on the temperature in boiling water; the vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in the system is called partial pressure. For example, air at sea level, saturated with water vapor at 20 °C, has partial pressures of about 2.3 kPa of water, 78 kPa of nitrogen, 21 kPa of oxygen and 0.9 kPa of argon, totaling 102.2 kPa, making the basis for standard atmospheric pressure.
Vapor pressure is measured in the standard units of pressure. The International System of Units recognizes pressure as a derived unit with the dimension of force per area and designates the pascal as its standard unit. One pascal is one newton per square meter. Experimental measurement of vapor pressure is a simple procedure for common pressures between 1 and 200 kPa. Most accurate results are obtained near the boiling point of substances and large errors result for measurements smaller than 1kPa. Procedures consist of purifying the test substance, isolating it in a container, evacuating any foreign gas measuring the equilibrium pressure of the gaseous phase of the substance in the container at different temperatures. Better accuracy is achieved when care is taken to ensure that the entire substance and its vapor are at the prescribed temperature; this is done, as with the use of an isoteniscope, by submerging the containment area in a liquid bath. Low vapor pressures of solids can be measured using the Knudsen effusion cell method.
In a medical context, vapor pressure is sometimes expressed in other units millimeters of mercury. This is important for volatile anesthetics, most of which are liquids at body temperature, but with a high vapor pressure. Anesthetics with a higher vapor pressure at body temperature will be excreted more as they are exhaled from the lungs; the Antoine equation is a mathematical expression of the relation between the vapor pressure and the temperature of pure liquid or solid substances. The basic form of the equation is: log P = A − B C + T and it can be transformed into this temperature-explicit form: T = B A − log P − C where: P is the absolute vapor pressure of a substance T is the temperature of the substance A, B and C are substance-specific coefficients log is either log 10 or log e A simpler form of the equation with only two coefficients is sometimes used: log P = A − B T which can be transformed to: T = B A − log P Sublimations and vaporizations of the same substance have separate sets of Antoine coefficients, as do components in mixtures.
Each parameter set for a specific compound is only applicable over a specified temperature range. Temperature ranges are chosen to maintain the equation's accuracy of a few up to 8–10 percent. For many volatile substances, several different sets of parameters are available and used for different temperature ranges; the Antoine equation has poor accuracy with any single parameter set when used from a compound's melting point to its critical temperature. Accuracy is usually poor when vapor pressure is under 10 Torr because of the limitations of the apparatus used to establish the Antoine parameter values; the Wagner equation gives "o
Odor
An odor, or odour, is caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds that are found in low concentrations that humans and animals can perceive by their sense of smell. An odor is called a "smell" or a "scent", which can refer to either a pleasant or an unpleasant odor. While "scent" can refer to pleasant and unpleasant odors, the terms "scent", "aroma", "fragrance" are reserved for pleasant-smelling odors and are used in the food and cosmetic industry to describe floral scents or to refer to perfumes. In the United Kingdom, "odour" refers to scents in general. An unpleasant odor can be described as "reeking" or called a "malodor", "stench", "pong", or "stink"; the perception of odors, or sense of smell, is mediated by the olfactory nerve. The olfactory receptor cells are neurons present in the olfactory epithelium, a small patch of tissue at the back of the nasal cavity. There are millions of olfactory receptor neurons; each neuron has cilia in direct contact with the air. Odorous molecules bind to receptor proteins extending from cilia and act as a chemical stimulus, initiating electric signals that travel along the olfactory nerve's axons to the brain.
When an electrical signal reaches a threshold, the neuron fires, which sends a signal traveling along the axon to the olfactory bulb, a part of the limbic system of the brain. Interpretation of the smell begins there, relating the smell to past experiences and in relation to the substance inhaled; the olfactory bulb acts as a relay station connecting the nose to the olfactory cortex in the brain. Olfactory information is further processed and forwarded to the central nervous system, which controls emotions and behavior as well as basic thought processes. Odor sensation depends on the concentration available to the olfactory receptors. A single odorant is recognized by many receptors. Different odorants are recognized by combinations of receptors; the patterns of neuron signals help to identify the smell. The olfactory system does not interpret a single compound, but instead the whole odorous mix; this does not correspond to the intensity of any single constituent. Most odors consists of organic compounds, although some simple compounds not containing carbon, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, are odorants.
The perception of an odor effect is a two-step process. First, there is the physiological part; this is the detection of stimuli by receptors in the nose. The stimuli are recognized by the region of the human brain; because of this, an objective and analytical measure of odor is impossible. While odor feelings are personal perceptions, individual reactions are related, they relate to things such as gender, state of health, personal history. The ability to identify odor varies among decreases with age. Studies show there are sex differences in odor discrimination, women outperform men. Pregnant women have increased smell sensitivity, sometimes resulting in abnormal taste and smell perceptions, leading to food cravings or aversions; the ability to taste decreases with age as the sense of smell tends to dominate the sense of taste. Chronic smell problems are reported in small numbers for those in their mid-twenties, with numbers increasing with overall sensitivity beginning to decline in the second decade of life, deteriorating appreciably as age increases once over 70 years of age.
For most untrained people, the process of smelling gives little information concerning the specific ingredients of an odor. Their smell perception offers information related to the emotional impact. Experienced people, such as flavorists and perfumers, can pick out individual chemicals in complex mixtures through smell alone. Odor perception is a primal sense; the sense of smell enables pleasure, can subconsciously warn of danger, help locate mates, find food, or detect predators. Humans have a good sense of smell, correlated to an evolutionary decline in sense of smell. A human's sense of smell is just as good as many animals and can distinguish a diversity of odors—approximately 10,000 scents. Studies reported. Odors that a person is used to, such as their own body odor, are less noticeable than uncommon odors; this is due to habituation. After continuous odor exposure, the sense of smell is fatigued, but recovers if the stimulus is removed for a time. Odors can change due to environmental conditions: for example, odors tend to be more distinguishable in cool dry air.
Habituation affects the ability to distinguish odors after continuous exposure. The sensitivity and ability to discriminate odors diminishes with exposure, the brain tends to ignore continuous stimulus and focus on differences and changes in a particular sensation; when odorants are mixed, a habitual odorant is blocked. This depends on the strength of the odorants in the mixture, which can change the perception and processing of an odor; this process helps classify similar odors as well as adjust sensitivity to differences in complex stimuli. The primary gene sequences for thousands of olfactory receptors are known for the genomes of more than a dozen organisms, they are seven-helix-turn transmembrane proteins. But there are no known structures for any olfactory receptor. There is a conserved sequence in three quarters of all ORs; this is a tripodal metal-ion binding site, and
Benzene
Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the chemical formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each; as it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon. Benzene is one of the elementary petrochemicals. Due to the cyclic continuous pi bond between the carbon atoms, benzene is classed as an aromatic hydrocarbon, the second -annulene, it is sometimes abbreviated PhH. Benzene is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell, is responsible for the aroma around petrol stations, it is used as a precursor to the manufacture of chemicals with more complex structure, such as ethylbenzene and cumene, of which billions of kilograms are produced annually. As benzene has a high octane number, aromatic derivatives like toluene and xylene comprise up to 25% of gasoline. Benzene itself has been limited to less than 1 % in gasoline. Most non-industrial applications have been limited as well for the same reason.
The word "benzene" derives from "gum benzoin", an aromatic resin known to European pharmacists and perfumers since the 15th century as a product of southeast Asia. An acidic material was derived from benzoin by sublimation, named "flowers of benzoin", or benzoic acid; the hydrocarbon derived from benzoic acid thus acquired benzol, or benzene. Michael Faraday first isolated and identified benzene in 1825 from the oily residue derived from the production of illuminating gas, giving it the name bicarburet of hydrogen. In 1833, Eilhard Mitscherlich produced it by distilling benzoic lime, he gave the compound the name benzin. In 1836, the French chemist Auguste Laurent named the substance "phène". In 1845, Charles Mansfield, working under August Wilhelm von Hofmann, isolated benzene from coal tar. Four years Mansfield began the first industrial-scale production of benzene, based on the coal-tar method; the sense developed among chemists that a number of substances were chemically related to benzene, comprising a diverse chemical family.
In 1855, Hofmann used the word "aromatic" to designate this family relationship, after a characteristic property of many of its members. In 1997, benzene was detected in deep space; the empirical formula for benzene was long known, but its polyunsaturated structure, with just one hydrogen atom for each carbon atom, was challenging to determine. Archibald Scott Couper in 1858 and Joseph Loschmidt in 1861 suggested possible structures that contained multiple double bonds or multiple rings, but too little evidence was available to help chemists decide on any particular structure. In 1865, the German chemist Friedrich August Kekulé published a paper in French suggesting that the structure contained a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds; the next year he published a much longer paper in German on the same subject. Kekulé used evidence that had accumulated in the intervening years—namely, that there always appeared to be only one isomer of any monoderivative of benzene, that there always appeared to be three isomers of every disubstituted derivative—now understood to correspond to the ortho and para patterns of arene substitution—to argue in support of his proposed structure.
Kekulé's symmetrical ring could explain these curious facts, as well as benzene's 1:1 carbon-hydrogen ratio. The new understanding of benzene, hence of all aromatic compounds, proved to be so important for both pure and applied chemistry that in 1890 the German Chemical Society organized an elaborate appreciation in Kekulé's honor, celebrating the twenty-fifth anniversary of his first benzene paper. Here Kekulé spoke of the creation of the theory, he said that he had discovered the ring shape of the benzene molecule after having a reverie or day-dream of a snake seizing its own tail. This vision, came to him after years of studying the nature of carbon-carbon bonds; this was 7 years after he had solved the problem of how carbon atoms could bond to up to four other atoms at the same time. Curiously, a similar, humorous depiction of benzene had appeared in 1886 in a pamphlet entitled Berichte der Durstigen Chemischen Gesellschaft, a parody of the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, only the parody had monkeys seizing each other in a circle, rather than snakes as in Kekulé's anecdote.
Some historians have suggested that the parody was a lampoon of the snake anecdote already well known through oral transmission if it had not yet appeared in print. Kekulé's 1890 speech in which this anecdote appeared has been translated into English. If the anecdote is the memory of a real event, circumstances mentioned in the story suggest that it must have happened early in 1862; the cyclic nature of benzene was confirmed by the crystallographer Kathleen Lonsdale in 1929. The German chemist Wilhelm Körner suggested the prefixes ortho-, meta-, para- to distinguish di-substituted benzene derivatives in 1867, it was the German chemist Karl Gräbe who, in 1869, first used the prefixes ortho-, meta-, para- to denote specific relative locations of the substituents on a di-substituted aromatic ring (viz, nap
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid or muriatic acid is a colorless inorganic chemical system with the formula H2O:HCl. Hydrochloric acid has a distinctive pungent smell, it is classified as acidic and can attack the skin over a wide composition range, since the hydrogen chloride dissociates in aqueous solution. Hydrochloric acid is the simplest chlorine-based acid system containing water, it is a solution of hydrogen chloride and water, a variety of other chemical species, including hydronium and chloride ions. It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical, used in the production of polyvinyl chloride for plastic. In households, diluted hydrochloric acid is used as a descaling agent. In the food industry, hydrochloric acid is used in the production of gelatin. Hydrochloric acid is used in leather processing. Hydrochloric acid was discovered by the alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan around the year 800 AD, it was called acidum salis and spirits of salt because it was produced from rock salt and "green vitriol" and from the chemically similar common salt and sulfuric acid.
Free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius. It was used by chemists such as Glauber and Davy in their scientific research. Unless pressurized or cooled, hydrochloric acid will turn into a gas if there is around 60% or less of water. Hydrochloric acid is known as hydronium chloride, in contrast to its anhydrous parent known as hydrogen chloride, or dry HCl. Hydrochloric acid was known to European alchemists as spirits of acidum salis. Both names are still used in other languages, such as German: Salzsäure, Dutch: Zoutzuur, Swedish: Saltsyra, Turkish: Tuz Ruhu, Polish: kwas solny, Bulgarian: солна киселина, Russian: соляная кислота, Chinese: 鹽酸, Korean: 염산, Taiwanese: iâm-sng. Gaseous HCl was called marine acid air; the old name muriatic acid has the same origin, this name is still sometimes used. The name hydrochloric acid was coined by the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1814. Hydrochloric acid has been an important and used chemical from early history and was discovered by the alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan around the year 800 AD.
Aqua regia, a mixture consisting of hydrochloric and nitric acids, prepared by dissolving sal ammoniac in nitric acid, was described in the works of Pseudo-Geber, a 13th-century European alchemist. Other references suggest that the first mention of aqua regia is in Byzantine manuscripts dating to the end of the 13th century. Free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius, who prepared it by heating salt in clay crucibles. Other authors claim that pure hydrochloric acid was first discovered by the German Benedictine monk Basil Valentine in the 15th century, when he heated common salt and green vitriol, whereas others argue that there is no clear reference to the preparation of pure hydrochloric acid until the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolf Glauber from Karlstadt am Main, Germany used sodium chloride salt and sulfuric acid for the preparation of sodium sulfate in the Mannheim process, releasing hydrogen chloride gas. Joseph Priestley of Leeds, England prepared pure hydrogen chloride in 1772, by 1808 Humphry Davy of Penzance, England had proved that the chemical composition included hydrogen and chlorine.
During the Industrial Revolution in Europe, demand for alkaline substances increased. A new industrial process developed by Nicolas Leblanc of Issoudun, France enabled cheap large-scale production of sodium carbonate. In this Leblanc process, common salt is converted to soda ash, using sulfuric acid and coal, releasing hydrogen chloride as a by-product; until the British Alkali Act 1863 and similar legislation in other countries, the excess HCl was vented into the air. After the passage of the act, soda ash producers were obliged to absorb the waste gas in water, producing hydrochloric acid on an industrial scale. In the 20th century, the Leblanc process was replaced by the Solvay process without a hydrochloric acid by-product. Since hydrochloric acid was fully settled as an important chemical in numerous applications, the commercial interest initiated other production methods, some of which are still used today. After the year 2000, hydrochloric acid is made by absorbing by-product hydrogen chloride from industrial organic compounds production.
Since 1988, hydrochloric acid has been listed as a Table II precursor under the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances because of its use in the production of heroin and methamphetamine. Hydrochloric acid is the salt of H3O + and chloride, it is prepared by treating HCl with water. HCl + H 2 O ⟶ H 3 O + + Cl − However, the speciation of hydrochloric acid is more complicated than this simple equation implies; the structure of bulk water is infamously complex, the formula H3O+ is a gross oversimplification of the true nature of the solvated proton, H+, present in hydrochloric acid. A combined IR, Raman, X-ray and neutron diffraction study of concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid revealed that the primary form of H+ in these solutions is H5O2+, along with the chloride anion, is hydrogen-bonded to neighboring wa
Boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure. A liquid in a partial vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a higher boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For example, water at 93.4 °C at 1,905 metres altitude. For a given pressure, different liquids will boil at different temperatures; the normal boiling point of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid; the standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar.
The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure. Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid. A saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy. Saturation temperature means boiling point; the saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant, a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy is removed.
A liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa, or the IUPAC standard pressure of 100.000 kPa. At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is lower; the boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties become identical. The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point; the boiling point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached. The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point. If the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure of a liquid at a certain temperature are known, the boiling point can be calculated by using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation, thus: T B = − 1, where: T B is the boiling point at the pressure of interest, R is the ideal gas constant, P is the vapour pressure of the liquid at the pressure of interest, P 0 is some pressure where the corresponding T 0 is known, Δ H vap is the heat of vaporization of the liquid, T 0 is the boiling temperature, ln is the natural logarithm.
Saturation pressure is the pressure for a corresponding saturation temperature at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature have a direct relationship: as saturation pressure is increased, so is saturation temperature. If the temperature in a system remains constant, vapor at saturation pressure and temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as the system pressure is increased. A liquid at saturation pressure and temperature will tend to flash into its vapor phase as system pressure is decreased. There are two conventions regarding the standard boiling point of water: The normal boiling point is 99.97 °C at a pressure of 1 atm. The IUPAC recommended standard boiling point of water at a standard pressure of 100 kPa is 99.61 °C. For comparison, on top of Mount Everest, at 8,848 m elevation, the pressure is about 34 kPa and the boiling point of water is 71 °C; the Celsius temperature scale was defined until 1954 by two points: 0 °C being defined by the wate
Solvent
A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute, resulting in a solution. A solvent is a liquid but can be a solid, a gas, or a supercritical fluid; the quantity of solute that can dissolve in a specific volume of solvent varies with temperature. Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning, as paint thinners, as nail polish removers and glue solvents, in spot removers, in detergents and in perfumes. Water is a solvent for the most common solvent used by living things. Solvents find various applications in chemical, pharmaceutical and gas industries, including in chemical syntheses and purification processes; when one substance is dissolved into another, a solution is formed. This is opposed to the situation. In a solution, all of the ingredients are uniformly distributed at a molecular level and no residue remains. A solvent-solute mixture consists of a single phase with all solute molecules occurring as solvates, as opposed to separate continuous phases as in suspensions and other types of non-solution mixtures.
The ability of one compound to be dissolved in another is known as solubility. In addition to mixing, the substances in a solution interact with each other at the molecular level; when something is dissolved, molecules of the solvent arrange around molecules of the solute. Heat transfer is involved and entropy is increased making the solution more thermodynamically stable than the solute and solvent separately; this arrangement is mediated by the respective chemical properties of the solvent and solute, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole moment and polarizability. Solvation does not cause a chemical chemical configuration changes in the solute. However, solvation resembles a coordination complex formation reaction with considerable energetics and is thus far from a neutral process. Solvents can be broadly classified into two categories: non-polar. A special case is mercury; the dielectric constant of the solvent provides a rough measure of a solvent's polarity. The strong polarity of water is indicated by its high dielectric constant of 88.
Solvents with a dielectric constant of less than 15 are considered to be nonpolar. The dielectric constant measures the solvent's tendency to cancel the field strength of the electric field of a charged particle immersed in it; this reduction is compared to the field strength of the charged particle in a vacuum. Heuristically, the dielectric constant of a solvent can be thought of as its ability to reduce the solute's effective internal charge; the dielectric constant of a solvent is an acceptable predictor of the solvent's ability to dissolve common ionic compounds, such as salts. Dielectric constants are not the only measure of polarity; because solvents are used by chemists to carry out chemical reactions or observe chemical and biological phenomena, more specific measures of polarity are required. Most of these measures are sensitive to chemical structure; the Grunwald–Winstein mY scale measures polarity in terms of solvent influence on buildup of positive charge of a solute during a chemical reaction.
Kosower's Z scale measures polarity in terms of the influence of the solvent on UV-absorption maxima of a salt pyridinium iodide or the pyridinium zwitterion. Donor number and donor acceptor scale measures polarity in terms of how a solvent interacts with specific substances, like a strong Lewis acid or a strong Lewis base; the Hildebrand parameter is the square root of cohesive energy density. It can not accommodate complex chemistry. Reichardt's dye, a solvatochromic dye that changes color in response to polarity, gives a scale of ET values. ET is the transition energy between the ground state and the lowest excited state in kcal/mol, identifies the dye. Another correlated scale can be defined with Nile red; the polarity, dipole moment and hydrogen bonding of a solvent determines what type of compounds it is able to dissolve and with what other solvents or liquid compounds it is miscible. Polar solvents dissolve polar compounds best and non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar compounds best: "like dissolves like".
Polar compounds like sugars or ionic compounds, like inorganic salts dissolve only in polar solvents like water, while non-polar compounds like oils or waxes dissolve only in non-polar organic solvents like hexane. Water and hexane are not miscible with each other and will separate into two layers after being shaken well. Polarity can be separated to different contributions. For example, the Kamlet-Taft parameters are dipolarity/polarizability, hydrogen-bonding acidity and hydrogen-bonding basicity; these can be calculated from the wavelength shifts of 3–6 different solvatochromic dyes in the solvent including Reichardt's dye and diethylnitroaniline. Another option, Hansen's parameters, separate the cohesive energy density into dispersion and hydrogen bonding contributions. Solvents with a dielectric constant (more relative
Density
The density, or more the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume: ρ = m V where ρ is the density, m is the mass, V is the volume. In some cases, density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume, although this is scientifically inaccurate – this quantity is more called specific weight. For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials have different densities, density may be relevant to buoyancy and packaging. Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material water.
Thus a relative density less than one means. The density of a material varies with pressure; this variation is small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid; this causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material. The reciprocal of the density of a substance is called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. In a well-known but apocryphal tale, Archimedes was given the task of determining whether King Hiero's goldsmith was embezzling gold during the manufacture of a golden wreath dedicated to the gods and replacing it with another, cheaper alloy.
Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated and compared with the mass. Baffled, Archimedes is said to have taken an immersion bath and observed from the rise of the water upon entering that he could calculate the volume of the gold wreath through the displacement of the water. Upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!". As a result, the term "eureka" entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment; the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius' books of architecture, two centuries after it took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time. From the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume; as there are many units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use.
The SI unit of kilogram per cubic metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are the most used units for density. One g/cm3 is equal to one thousand kg/m3. One cubic centimetre is equal to one millilitre. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are more practical and US customary units may be used. See below for a list of some of the most common units of density. A number of techniques as well as standards exist for the measurement of density of materials; such techniques include the use of a hydrometer, Hydrostatic balance, immersed body method, air comparison pycnometer, oscillating densitometer, as well as pour and tap. However, each individual method or technique measures different types of density, therefore it is necessary to have an understanding of the type of density being measured as well as the type of material in question; the density at all points of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume. The mass is measured with a scale or balance.
To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively. Hydrostatic weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object. If the body is not homogeneous its density varies between different regions of the object. In that case the density around any given location is determined by calculating the density of a small volume around that location. In the limit of an infinitesimal volume the density of an inhomogeneous object at a point becomes: ρ = d m / d V, where d V is an elementary volume at position r; the mass of the body t
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