1.
Neuschwanstein Castle
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Neuschwanstein Castle is a nineteenth-century Romanesque Revival palace on a rugged hill above the village of Hohenschwangau near Füssen in southwest Bavaria, Germany. The palace was commissioned by Ludwig II of Bavaria as a retreat, Ludwig paid for the palace out of his personal fortune and by means of extensive borrowing, rather than Bavarian public funds. The palace was intended as a refuge for the reclusive king. Since then more than 61 million people have visited Neuschwanstein Castle, more than 1.3 million people visit annually, with as many as 6,000 per day in the summer. The municipality of Schwangau lies at an elevation of 800 m at the south west border of the German state of Bavaria and its surroundings are characterized by the transition between the Alpine foothills in the south and a hilly landscape in the north that appears flat by comparison. In the Middle Ages, three castles overlooked the villages, in 1832, Ludwigs father King Maximilian II of Bavaria bought its ruins to replace them with the comfortable neo-Gothic palace known as Hohenschwangau Castle. Finished in 1837, the palace became his familys summer residence, vorderhohenschwangau Castle and Hinterhohenschwangau Castle sat on a rugged hill overlooking Schwanstein Castle, two nearby lakes, and the village. Separated only by a moat, they consisted of a hall, a keep. In the nineteenth century only ruins remained of the medieval castles. The ruins above the palace were known to the crown prince from his excursions. He first sketched one of them in his diary in 1859, when the young king came to power in 1864, the construction of a new palace in place of the two ruined castles became the first in his series of palace building projects. Ludwig called the new palace New Hohenschwangau Castle, only after his death was it renamed Neuschwanstein, Neuschwanstein embodies both the contemporaneous architectural fashion known as castle romanticism, and Ludwig IIs immoderate enthusiasm for the operas of Richard Wagner. In the nineteenth century, many castles were constructed or reconstructed, the king saw both buildings as representatives of a romantic interpretation of the Middle Ages as well as the musical mythology of his friend Richard Wagner. Wagners operas Tannhäuser and Lohengrin had made an impression on him. In February 1868, Ludwigs grandfather Ludwig I died, freeing the considerable sums that were spent on the abdicated kings appanage. This allowed Ludwig II to start the project of building a private refuge in the familiar landscape far from the capital Munich. The building design was drafted by the stage designer Christian Jank, for technical reasons, the ruined castles could not be integrated into the plan. The king insisted on a plan and on personal approval of each
2.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
3.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
4.
Hand-colouring of photographs
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Hand-colouring refers to any method of manually adding colour to a black-and-white photograph, generally either to heighten the realism of the photograph or for artistic purposes. Hand-colouring is also known as painting or overpainting. Typically, watercolours, oils, crayons or pastels, and other paints or dyes are applied to the surface using brushes, fingers. Hand-coloured photographs were most popular in the mid- to late-19th century before the invention of colour photography, monochrome photography was first exemplified by the daguerreotype in 1839 and later improved by other methods including, calotype, ambrotype, tintype, albumen print and gelatin silver print. In an attempt to more realistic images, photographers and artists would hand-colour monochrome photographs. Coloured powder was fixed on the surface of the daguerreotype by the application of heat. Variations of this technique were patented in England by Richard Beard in 1842 and in France by Étienne Lecchi in 1842, later, hand-colouring was used with successive photographic innovations, from albumen and gelatin silver prints to lantern slides and transparency photography. Parallel efforts to produce coloured photographic images affected the popularity of hand-colouring, in 1842 Daniel Davis Jr. patented a method for colouring daguerreotypes through electroplating, and his work was refined by Warren Thompson the following year. The results of the work of Davis and Thompson were only successful in creating colour photographs. In 1850 Levi L. Hill announced his invention of a process of daguerreotyping in natural colours in his Treatise on Daguerreotype, sales of conventional uncoloured and hand-coloured daguerreotypes fell in anticipation of this new technology. Hill delayed publication of the details of his process for years, however. When he finally did publish his treatise in 1856, the process – whether bona fide or not – was certainly impractical, hand-colouring remained the easiest and most effective method to produce full-colour photographic images until the mid-20th century when American Kodak introduced Kodachrome colour film. Another notable early photographer in Japan to use hand-colouring was Yokoyama Matsusaburō, later practitioners of hand-colouring in Japan included the firm of Stillfried & Andersen, which acquired Beatos studio in 1877 and hand-coloured many of his negatives in addition to its own. Hand-coloured photographs were produced by Kusakabe Kimbei, Tamamura Kozaburō, Adolfo Farsari, Uchida Kuichi, Ogawa Kazumasa. Many high-quality hand-coloured photographs continued to be made in Japan well into the 20th century, the so-called golden age of hand-coloured photography in the western hemisphere occurred between 1900 and 1940. The increased demand for hand-coloured landscape photography at the beginning of the 20th century is attributed to the work of Wallace Nutting, Nutting, a New England minister, pursued hand-coloured landscape photography as a hobby until 1904, when he opened a professional studio. He spent the next 35 years creating hand-coloured photographs, and became the best-selling hand-coloured photographer of all time, with the start of the Great Depression in 1929, and the subsequent decrease in the numbers of the middle class, sales of hand-coloured photographs sharply diminished. Despite their downturn in popularity, skilled photographers continued to create beautifully hand-coloured photographs, hans Bellmers hand-coloured photographs of his own doll sculptures from the 1930s provide an example of continued hand-colouring of photographs in Europe during this time
5.
Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
6.
Chromolithography
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Chromolithography is a unique method for making multi-colour prints. This type of colour printing stemmed from the process of lithography, when chromolithography is used to reproduce photographs, the term photochrome is frequently used. Lithographers sought to find a way to print on flat surfaces with the use of chemicals instead of relief or intaglio printing, hand-colouring also remained important, elements of the official British Ordnance Survey maps were coloured by hand by boys until 1875. The initial technique involved the use of multiple lithographic stones, one for each colour, depending on the number of colours present, a chromolithograph could take months to produce, by very skilled workers. However much cheaper prints could be produced by simplifying both the number of used, and the refinement of the detail in the image. Cheaper images, like advertisements, relied heavily on a black print. The process is based on the rejection of grease by water, the image is applied to stone, grained zinc or aluminium surfaces, with a grease-based crayon or ink. Limestone and zinc are two commonly used materials in the production of chromolithographs, as aluminium unfortunately corrodes easily, after the image is drawn onto one of these surfaces, the image is gummed-up with a gum arabic solution and weak nitric acid to desensitize the surface. Before printing, the image is proved before finally inking up the image with oil based transfer or printing ink, the inked image under pressure is transposed onto a sheet of paper using a flat-bed press. This describes the form of printing. The offset indirect method uses a cylinder that transfers the image from printing surface to the paper. Colours may be overprinted by using stones or plates to achieve a closer reproduction of the original. Accurate registration for multi-coloured work is achieved by the use of a key outline image, ben-Day medium, uses a raised gelatin stipple image to give tone gradation. An air-brush sprays ink to give soft edges and these are just two methods used to achieve gradations of tone. The use of twelve overprinted colours would not be considered unusual, each sheet of paper will therefore pass through the printing press as many times as there are colours in the final print. In order that each colour is placed in the position, each stone or plate must be precisely ‘registered, ’ or lined up. Chromolithographs are considered to be reproductions that are smaller than double demi, autolithographs are prints where the artist draws and perhaps prints his or her own limited number of reproductions. This is the true art form
7.
Photochrom
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The process is a photographic variant of chromolithography, a broader term that refers to color lithography in general. The process was invented in the 1880s by Hans Jakob Schmid, Füssli founded the stock company Photochrom Zürich as the business vehicle for the commercial exploitation of the process and both Füssli and Photoglob continue to exist today. From the mid-1890s the process was licensed by companies, including the Detroit Photographic Company in the US. The photochrom process was most popular in the 1890s, when color photography was first developed but was still commercially impractical. In 1898 the US Congress passed the Private Mailing Card Act which let private publishers produce postcards and these could be mailed for one cent each, while the letter rate was two cents. Publishers created thousands of prints, usually of cities or landscapes. In this format, photochrom reproductions became popular, the Detroit Photographic Company reportedly produced as many as seven million photochrom prints in some years, and ten to thirty thousand different views were offered. After World War One, which ended the craze for collecting Photochrom postcards, the last Photochrom printer operated up to 1970. A tablet of lithographic limestone called a stone was coated with a light-sensitive surface composed of a thin layer of purified bitumen dissolved in benzene. A worker then pressed a reversed half-tone negative against the coating and exposed it to daylight for 10 to 30 minutes in summer, or up to several hours in winter. The image on the negative caused varying amounts of light to fall on different areas of the coating, causing the bitumen to harden in proportion to the amount of light. The worker then used a solvent such as turpentine to remove the unhardened bitumen and this resulted in an image being imprinted on the stone in bitumen. Each tint was applied using a stone that bore the appropriate retouched image. The finished print was produced using at least six, but more commonly 10 to 15, description of the Photochrom process The Library of Congress Public Domain Photochrom Prints Search Search at the Zurich Central Library Detroit Photographic Company’s Views of North America, ca. 1897-1924 from the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library
8.
William Henry Jackson
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William Henry Jackson was an American painter, Civil War veteran, geological survey photographer and an explorer famous for his images of the American West. He was a nephew of Samuel Wilson, the progenitor of Americas national symbol Uncle Sam. Jackson was born in Keeseville, New York, on April 4,1843, Harriet, a talented water-colorist, was a graduate of the Troy Female Academy, later the Emma Willard School. Painting was his passion from a young age, by age 19, he had become a skillful, talented artist of American pre-Civil War visual arts. Orson Squire Fowler wrote that Jackson was excellent as a painter and he served in the American Civil War for nine months including one major battle, the Battle of Gettysburg. Jackson spent most of his tour on garrison duty and helped guard a train during the engagement. His regiment mustered out on July 14,1863, Jackson then returned to Rutland, where he worked as an artistic painter in post-Civil War American society. Having broken his engagement to Miss Carolina Eastman, he left Vermont for the American West, in 1867 along with his brother Edward Jackson he settled down in Omaha and entered the photography business. In 1869 Jackson won a commission from the Union Pacific to document the scenery along the railroad routes for promotional purposes. When his work was discovered by Ferdinand Hayden, who was organizing a geologic survey to explore the Yellowstone River region, he was asked to join the expedition. The following year, he got an invitation to join the 1870 U. S. government survey of the Yellowstone River. He also was a member of the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 which led to the creation of Yellowstone National Park, painter Thomas Moran was also part of the expedition, and the two artists worked closely together to document the Yellowstone region. These photographs played an important role in convincing Congress in 1872 to establish Yellowstone National Park and his involvement with Haydens survey established his reputation as one of the most accomplished explorers of the American continent. Jackson worked in multiple camera and plate sizes, under conditions that were incredibly difficult. His photography was based on the process invented in 1848. Jackson traveled with as many as three camera-types—a stereographic camera, a whole-plate or 8x10 plate-size camera, and one even larger and these cameras required fragile, heavy glass plates, which had to be coated, exposed, and developed onsite, before the wet-collodion emulsion dried. Without light metering equipment or sure emulsion speeds, exposure times required inspired guesswork, preparing, exposing, developing, fixing, washing then drying a single image could take the better part of an hour. Washing the plates in 160 °F hot spring water cut the time by more than half
9.
Color photography
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Color photography is photography that uses media capable of reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white photography records only a channel of luminance. In color photography, electronic sensors or light-sensitive chemicals record color information at the time of exposure, monochrome images which have been colorized by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are colored photographs, not color photographs. Their colors are not dependent on the colors of the objects photographed. Color photography has been the dominant form of photography since the 1970s, Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a substance which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Other experimenters, such as Edmond Becquerel, achieved better results, over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value. Gabriel Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colors by photography, based on the interference phenomenon, in 1886 Lippmanns interest had turned to a method of fixing the colors of the solar spectrum on a photographic plate. By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing color images of a glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy. He presented his theory of photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906. The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the spectrum of visible light. The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of colors, apparently including red. Creating colors by mixing colored lights in various proportions is the method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT color video displays all use this method and this is also known as the RGB color model. In photography, the dye colors are cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red, magenta, a purplish-pink which absorbs green, and yellow. The red-filtered image is used to create a dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a color image. This is also known as the CMYK color model, most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called carbon process and then carefully combined in register
10.
Postcard
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A postcard or post card is a rectangular piece of thick paper or thin cardboard intended for writing and mailing without an envelope. Shapes other than rectangular may also be used, there are novelty exceptions, such as wood postcards, made of thin wood, and copper postcards sold in the Copper Country of the U. S. state of Michigan, and coconut postcards from tropical islands. In some places, one can send a postcard for a lower fee than for a letter, stamp collectors distinguish between postcards and postal cards. While a postcard is usually printed by a company, individual or organization. The worlds oldest postcard was sent in 1840 to the writer Theodore Hook from Fulham in London, the study and collecting of postcards is termed deltiology. Cards with messages had been created and posted by individuals since the beginning of postal services. The earliest known picture postcard was a design on card, posted in Fulham in London by the writer Theodore Hook to himself in 1840. He probably created and posted the card to himself as a joke on the postal service, since the image is a caricature of workers in the post office. In 2002 the postcard sold for a record £31,750, in Britain, postcards without images were issued by the Post Office in 1870, and were printed with a stamp as part of the design, which was included in the price of purchase. These cards came in two sizes, the larger size was found to be slightly too large for ease of handling, and was soon withdrawn in favour of cards 13mm shorter. The first known printed picture postcard, with an image on one side, was created in France in 1870 at Camp Conlie by Léon Besnardeau, Conlie was a training camp for soldiers in the Franco-Prussian war. While these are certainly the first known picture postcards, there was no space for stamps, in the following year the first known picture postcard in which the image functioned as a souvenir was sent from Vienna. The first advertising card appeared in 1872 in Great Britain and the first German card appeared in 1874, Cards showing images increased in number during the 1880s. Images of the newly built Eiffel Tower in 1889 and 1890 gave impetus to the postcard, Early postcards often showcased photography of nude women. These were commonly known as French postcards, due to the number of them produced in France. The first American postcard was developed in 1873 by the Morgan Envelope Factory of Springfield and these first postcards depicted the Interstate Industrial Exposition that took place in Chicago. Later in 1873, Post Master John Creswell introduced the first pre-stamped Postal Cards, Postcards were made because people were looking for an easier way to send quick notes. The first postcard to be printed as a souvenir in the United States was created in 1893 to advertise the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, initially, the United States government prohibited private companies from calling their cards postcards, so they were known as souvenir cards
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