1.
GIMP
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GIMP /ɡɪmp/ is a free and open-source raster graphics editor used for image retouching and editing, free-form drawing, converting between different image formats, and more specialized tasks. GIMP is released under GPLv3+ licenses and is available for Linux, macOS, GIMP was originally released as the General Image Manipulation Program. In 1995 Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis began developing GIMP as a project at the University of California. In 1996 GIMP was released as the first publicly available release, in the following year Richard Stallman visited UC Berkeley where Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis asked if they could change General to GNU. Richard Stallman approved and the definition of the acronym GIMP was changed to be the GNU Image Manipulation Program and this reflected its new existence as being developed as Free Software as a part of the GNU Project. The number of architectures and operating systems supported has expanded significantly since its first release. The first release supported UNIX systems, such as Linux, SGI IRIX, lillqvist in 1997 and was supported in the GIMP1.1 release. Following the first release GIMP was quickly adopted and a community of contributors formed, the community began developing tutorials, artwork and shared better work-flows and techniques. A GUI toolkit called GTK was developed to facilitate the development of GIMP, GTK was replaced by its successor GTK+ after being redesigned using object-oriented programming techniques. The development of GTK+ has been attributed to Peter Mattis becoming disenchanted with the Motif toolkit GIMP originally used, GIMP is primarily developed by volunteers as a free software project associated to both the GNU and GNOME Projects. Development takes place in a public git source code repository, on mailing lists. New features are held in public separate source code branches and merged into the branch when the GIMP team is sure they wont damage existing functions. Sometimes this means that features that appear complete do not get merged or take months or years before they become available in GIMP, GIMP itself is released as source code. After a source code release installers and packages are made for different operating systems by parties who might not be in contact with the maintainers of GIMP. The version number used in GIMP is expressed in a format, with each number carrying a specific meaning. Each year GIMP applies for several positions in the Google Summer of Code, from 2006 to 2009 there have been nine GSoC projects that have been listed as successful, although not all successful projects have been merged into GIMP yet. Several of the GSoC projects were completed in 2008, but have not been merged into a stable GIMP release, actual Development Version is 2.9.4 with many deep improvements. Next stable Version in Roadmap is 2.10, the user interface of GIMP is designed by a dedicated design and usability team
2.
Compositing
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Compositing is the combining of visual elements from separate sources into single images, often to create the illusion that all those elements are parts of the same scene. Live-action shooting for compositing is variously called chroma key, blue screen, green screen, today, most, though not all, compositing is achieved through digital image manipulation. Pre-digital compositing techniques, however, go back as far as the films of Georges Méliès in the late 19th century. All compositing involves the replacement of selected parts of an image with other material, usually, in the digital method of compositing, software commands designate a narrowly defined color as the part of an image to be replaced. Then the software replaces every pixel within the color range with a pixel from another image. In television studios, blue or green screens may back news-readers to allow the compositing of stories behind them, in other cases, presenters may be completely within compositing backgrounds that are replaced with entire virtual sets executed in computer graphics programs. Virtual sets are used in motion pictures filmmaking, some of which are photographed entirely in blue or green screen environments, as for example in Sky Captain. More commonly, composited backgrounds are combined with sets – both full-size and models – and vehicles, furniture, and other objects that enhance the reality of the composited visuals. That way, subjects recorded in modest areas can be placed in large virtual vistas, most common of all, perhaps, are set extensions, digital additions to actual performing environments. Digital compositing is a form of matting, one of four basic compositing methods, the others are physical compositing, multiple exposure, and background projection. In physical compositing the separate parts of the image are placed together in the photographic frame, the components are aligned so that they give the appearance of a single image. The most common physical compositing elements are partial models and glass paintings, partial models are typically used as set extensions such as ceilings or the upper stories of buildings. The model, built to match the set but on a much smaller scale, is hung in front of the camera. Models are often large because they must be placed far enough from the camera so that both they and the set far beyond them are in sharp focus. Glass shots are made by positioning a large pane of glass so that it fills the camera frame, the entire scene is painted on the glass, except for the area revealing the background where action is to take place. Photographed through the glass, the action is composited with the painted area. A classic example of a shot is the approach to Ashley Wilkes plantation in Gone with the Wind. The plantation and fields are all painted, while the road, a variant uses the opposite technique, most of the area is clear, except for individual elements affixed to the glass
3.
Photo manipulation
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Photo manipulation involves transforming or altering a photograph using various methods and techniques to achieve desired results. For example, Ansel Adams employed some of the common manipulations using darkroom exposure techniques. There are a number of applications available for digital image manipulation. Photo manipulation dates back to some of the earliest photographs captured on glass, the practice began not long after the creation of the first photograph by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce who developed heliography and made the first photographic print from a photoengraved printing plate. Negatives can be manipulated while still in the camera using double-exposure techniques, in the early 19th century, photography and the technology that made it possible was rather crude and cumbersome. While the equipment and technology progressed over time, it wasnt until the late 20th Century that photography evolved into the digital realm. At the onset, digital photography was considered by some to be a new approach. Close observation of the photograph raises questions and brings to light certain details in the photograph that simply do not add up, Photo manipulation has been used to deceive or persuade viewers or improve storytelling and self-expression. Often even subtle and discreet changes can have a impact on how we interpret or judge a photograph. As early as the American Civil War, photographs were published as engravings based on more than one negative, Joseph Stalin made use of photo retouching for propaganda purposes. On May 5,1920 his predecessor Vladimir Lenin held a speech for Soviet troops that Leon Trotsky attended, Stalin had Trotsky retouched out of a photograph showing Trotsky in attendance. In a well known case of damnatio memoriae image manipulation, NKVD leader Nikolai Yezhov, in the 1930s, artist John Heartfield used a type of photo manipulation known as the photomontage to critique Nazi propaganda. Some ethical theories have been applied to image manipulation, during a panel on the topic of ethics in image manipulation Aude Oliva theorized that categorical shifts are necessary in order for an edited image to be viewed as a manipulation. In Image Act Theory, Carson Reynolds extended speech act theory by applying it to photo editing, in How to Do Things with Pictures, William Mitchell details the long history of photo manipulation and discusses it critically. A notable incident of controversial photo manipulation occurred over a photograph that was altered to fit the vertical orientation of a 1982 National Geographic magazine cover, the altered image made two Egyptian pyramids appear closer together than they actually were in the original photograph. The incident triggered a debate about the appropriateness of falsifying an image and we regarded that afterwards as a mistake, and we wouldn’t repeat that mistake today. There are other incidents of questionable photo manipulation in journalism, one such incident arose in early 2005 after Martha Stewart was released from prison. Newsweek used a photograph of Stewarts face on the body of a much slimmer woman for their cover, staley also explained that Newsweek disclosed on page 3 that the cover image of Martha Stewart was a composite
4.
Grete Stern
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Grete Stern was a German naturalized Argentine photographer. Like her husband Horacio Coppola, she helped modernize the visual arts in Argentina, the daughter of Frida Hochberger and Louis Stern, was born on May 9,1904, in Elberfeld, Germany. She often visited family in England and attended school there. Relocating to Berlin, she took lessons from Walter Peterhans. In Berlin, she met fellow student Ellen Auerbach, in 1930 Stern and Auerbach founded Ringl+Pit, a critically acclaimed, prize-winning Berlin-based photography and design studio. They used equipment purchased from Peterhans and became known for innovative work in advertising. Intermittently between April 1930 and March 1933, Stern continued her studies with Peterhans at the Bauhaus photography workshop in Dessau, where she met the Argentinian photographer Horacio Coppola. The political climate of Nazi Germany led her to emigrate with her brother to England, Stern first traveled to Argentina in the company of her new husband, as she had married Horacio Coppola in 1935. The newlyweds mounted an exhibition in Buenos Aires at Sur magazine, after a brief return to England, Stern settled in Argentina to raise a family, her daughter Silvia and her son Andrés, remaining even after she and Coppola divorced in 1943. In 1958, she became a citizen of Argentina, Stern and Coppola ran a studio together from 1937 to 1941. Around the time of the divorce, Stern began exhibiting individually, including internationally, starting in the 1970s and she provided photographs for magazine and served for a stint as a photography teacher in Resistencia at the National University of the Northeast in 1959. From 1956 until 1970, she was in charge of organizing and directing the photography workshop of the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes. In 1985, she retired from photography, but lived another 14 years until 1999, almacen magazine Proa foundation Grete Stern works in MoMAs collection
5.
Oliver Grau
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Oliver Grau is a German art historian and media theoretician with a focus on image science, modernity and media art as well as culture of the 19th century and Italian art of the Renaissance. Oliver Grau is Professor of Image Science and Head of the Department for Image Science at the Danube University Krems and his books include, Virtual Art, From Illusion to Immersion Mediale Emotionen MediaArtHistories. His main research is in the history of art, immersion. Using an interdisciplinary approach Grau also analysed methods which elicit or heighten the impression of immersion in digital image spaces for the viewer, in addition Grau undertook studies of innovative linkages of architecture and immersive moving images, as well as of immersion in the history of film. Further conferences were organised in Berlin, Melbourne, Liverpool, Riga the series continues with a conference in Montreal in 2015 and his volume Imagery in the 21st Century, MIT-Press 2011 expanded the context of Image Science. ADA is the first online archive that, since 2000, has regularly streamed video documentations, since 2000 the DVA was the first online archive to regularly stream video documentations. Since 2005 Grau is head of the database of Goettweigs Graphic Collection, Austrias largest private collection that contains 30,000 works. Moreover, with the Danube Telelectures a new format of lectures and debates came into being that is streamed worldwide. He has acted as adviser for international journals and different associations. Since 2002 Grau tried to bring together the research on art and its history which is dispersed over many fields. First International Conference on the History of Media Art, Science and Technology, O. Grau, MediaArtHistories, MIT-Press 2007 and the online text archive mediaarthistory. org result from the world conference series. 2014 he received a doctorate and in 2015 he was elected into the Academia Europaea. Die Sehnsucht, im Bild zu sein, Эмоции и иммерсия, ключевые элементы визуальных исследований / Пер. Гайсина, EDIOS Publishing House, St. Petersburg 2013, on the Visual Power of Digital Arts. For a New Archive and Museum Infrastructure in the 21st Century, Imagery of the 21st Century, Cambridge, MIT-Press 2011. Zur Lenkung von Gefühlen durch Bild und Sound, Frankfurt/Main, Fischer 2005, in A Companion to Digital Art, edited by Christiane Paul. In Oxford Bibliographies in Art History, edited by Prof. Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann, New York, Oxford University Press 2016, 1-18. Our Digital Culture threatened by Loss, in, Valentino Catricalà, Media Art, Towards a new definition of Arts in the Age of Technology, Pistoia 2015, pp. 39-44
6.
Immersion (virtual reality)
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Immersion into virtual reality is a perception of being physically present in a non-physical world. The perception is created by surrounding the user of the VR system in images, the name is a metaphoric use of the experience of submersion applied to representation, fiction or simulation. The degree to which the virtual or artistic environment faithfully reproduces reality determines the degree of suspension of disbelief, the greater the suspension of disbelief, the greater the degree of presence achieved. According to Ernest W. Players feel in the zone while perfecting actions that result in success, Strategic immersion Strategic immersion is more cerebral, and is associated with mental challenge. Chess players experience strategic immersion when choosing a correct solution among an array of possibilities. Narrative immersion Narrative immersion occurs when players become invested in a story, in addition to these, they add a new category, Spatial immersion Spatial immersion occurs when a player feels the simulated world is perceptually convincing. The player feels that he or she is there and that a simulated world looks. It is defined as a subjective sensation of being there in a scene depicted by a medium. Most designers focus on the used to create a high-fidelity virtual environment, however. It is the perception, although generated by and/or filtered through human-made technology. Virtual reality glasses can produce a feeling of being in a simulated world. According to Oculus VR, the requirements to achieve this visceral reaction are low-latency. Michael Abrash gave a talk on VR at Steam Dev Days in 2014 and it consists of immersion in an artificial environment where the user feels just as immersed as they usually feel in consensus reality. The most considered method would be to induce the sensations that made up the reality in the nervous system directly. In functionalism/conventional biology we interact with consensus reality through the nervous system, thus we receive all input from all the senses as nerve impulses. It gives your neurons a feeling of heightened sensation and it would involve the user receiving inputs as artificially stimulated nerve impulses, the system would receive the CNS outputs and process them allowing the user to interact with the virtual reality. Natural impulses between the body and central nervous system would need to be prevented, a feedback system between the user and the computer which stores the information would also be needed. Considering how much information would be required for such a system and this will allow the correct sensations in the user, and actions in the virtual reality to occur
7.
Diorama
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Dioramas are often built by hobbyists as part of related hobbies such as military vehicle modeling, miniature figure modeling, or aircraft modeling. The word diorama originated in 1823 as a type of picture-viewing device, the word literally means through that which is seen, from the Greek di- through + orama that which is seen, a sight. The diorama was invented by Louis Daguerre and Charles Marie Bouton, first exhibited in Paris in July 1822, the meaning small-scale replica of a scene, etc. is from 1902. Daguerres diorama consisted of a piece of material painted on both sides, when illuminated from the front, the scene would be shown in one state and by switching to illumination from behind another phase or aspect would be seen. Scenes in daylight changed to moonlight, a train travelling on a track would crash, or an earthquake would be shown in before, one of the first uses of dioramas in a museum was in Stockholm, Sweden, where the Biological Museum opened in 1893. It had several dioramas, over three floors and they were also implemented by the National Museum Grigore Antipa from Bucharest Romania and constituted a source of inspiration for many important museums in the world. Miniature dioramas are typically smaller, and use scale models. Such a scale model-based diorama is used, for example, in Chicagos Museum of Science and this diorama employs a common model railroading scale of 1,87. Hobbyist dioramas often use such as 1,35 or 1,48. An early, and exceptionally large example was created between 1830 and 1838 by a British Army officer, william Siborne, and represents the Battle of Waterloo at about 7.45 pm, on 18 June,1815. The diorama measures 8.33 by 6 metres and used around 70,000 model soldiers in its construction and it is now part of the collection of the National Army Museum in London. Sheperd Paine, a prominent hobbyist, popularized the modern miniature diorama beginning in the 1970s, modern museum dioramas may be seen in most major natural history museums. Often the distant painted background or sky will be painted upon a continuous curved surface so that the viewer is not distracted by corners, seams, all of these techniques are means of presenting a realistic view of a large scene in a compact space. A photograph or single-eye view of such a diorama can be especially convincing since in case there is no distraction by the binocular perception of depth. Carl Akeley, a naturalist, sculptor, and taxidermist, is credited with creating the first ever habitat diorama in the year 1889, akeleys diorama featured taxidermied beavers in a three-dimensional habitat with a realistic, painted background. With the support of curator Frank M. Chapman, Akeley designed the popular habitat dioramas featured at the American Museum of Natural History, combining art with science, these exhibitions were intended to educate the public about the growing need for habitat conservation. The modern AMNH Exhibitions Lab is charged with the creation of all dioramas, miniature dioramas may be used to represent scenes from historic events. A typical example of type are the dioramas to be seen at Norways Resistance Museum in Oslo
8.
Combination printing
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Combination printing is the photography technique of using the negatives of two or more photographic images in conjunction with one another to create a single image. Similar to dual-negative landscape photography, combination printing was technically more complex. The concept of combination printing stemmed from the desire to more of a fine art within photography. Combination printing was popular in the century due to the limitations of the negatives light sensitivity. For example, the long exposures required at the time to create an image would properly expose the subject, such as a building. The sky would then lack detail, usually appearing as solid white, the technique was also used to create new, original compositions and provided new ways for photographers to be more creative with their work. Later on, the technique paved the way for yet another artistic process, in combination printing, you use two or more negatives to make one good print. Combination printing required a lot of work to plan out the concept of what the final image was desired to look like. It was also a task of great skill and patience, in actually exposing the negatives to combine them, the photographer must control the exposure of the portion of the initial photo that they will be adding to or replacing. Therefore, for adding clouds into the sky, the photographer would have to back light from the sky area. Then, when printing the negative of the clouds, do the opposite and only expose the cloud, after this, they would be able to combine the two negatives by blending them together. Photographers such as William Frederick Lake Price and Oscar Rejlander are famous for using combination printing, starting as early as the mid-19th century, new methods such as the combination printing, began to change the way people looked at different photographic techniques. Controversy broke out in the community about the use of combination printing. Photographs originally had been regarded as truth and that the camera never lied, however, with the newfound ability to manipulate the final product, the notion that photographs depicted truth was soon shattered. Henry Peach Robinson, considered to be one of the pioneers of combination printing, was not only an artist, but also an author. He then published a book in 1869 entitled Pictorial Effect in Photography, in pointing this out, he is saying that it is often necessary to add artistic techniques to photographs. His writings show his knowledge and his passion for creating new content in his photos using this process. During the Victorian Era, another proponent of the technique of printing was Queen Victoria herself
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Oscar Gustave Rejlander
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Oscar Gustave Rejlander was a pioneering Victorian art photographer and an expert in photomontage. His collaboration with Charles Darwin on The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals has assured him a position in the history of behavioural science and his exact date of birth is uncertain, but was probably 1813. He was the son of Carl Gustaf Rejlander, a stonemason and he studied art in Rome where he saw photographs of the sights, and then initially settled in Lincoln, England. He abandoned his profession as a painter and portrait miniaturist. Other accounts say he was inspired by one of Fox Talbots assistants and he set up as a portraitist in the industrial Midlands town of Wolverhampton, probably around 1846. Around 1850 he learned the wet-collodion and waxed-paper processes at great speed with Nicholas Henneman in London and he undertook genre work and portraiture. He also created erotic work, using as models the circus girls of Mme Wharton, street children, Rejlander undertook many experiments to perfect his photography, including combination printing from around 1853, which it is possible he may have invented. He had articles feature in the Wolverhampton Chronicle, on 15 November 1854 an article called Improvement in Calotypes, Rejlander, of Wolverhampton it suggests that by 1854 he was experimenting with combination printing from several negatives. He was a friend of photographer Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, who collected Rejlanders early child work, Rejlander later created one of the best known & most revealing portraits of Dodgson. His early work only slightly sullied his later reputation, and he participated in the Paris Exhibition of 1855, in 1857 he made his best-known allegorical work, The Two Ways of Life. This was a seamlessly montaged combination print made of images in about six weeks. First exhibited at the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition of 1857, the shows two youths being offered guidance by a patriarch. Each youth looks toward a section of a stage-like tableaux vivant - one youth is shown the virtuous pleasures, the images partial nudity was deemed indecent by some - and those familiar with Rejlanders more commercial work might also suspect that prostitutes had been used as cheap models. But the indecency faded when Queen Victoria ordered a 10-guinea copy to give to Prince Albert and they objected to the picture being shown with one half of it concealed by drapes. The picture was shown at the Birmingham Photographic Society with no such furore or censorship. However the Photographic Society of Scotland later made amends and invited Rejlander to a dinner in his honour in 1866. The success of The Two Ways of Life, and membership of the Royal Photographic Society of London and he moved his studio to Malden Road, London around 1862 and further experimented with double exposure, photomontage, photographic manipulation and retouching. He became an expert in photographic techniques, lecturing and publishing widely
10.
Henry Peach Robinson
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He joined vigorously in contemporary debates in the photographic press and associations about the legitimacy of art photography and in particular the combining of separate images into one. Robinson was the oldest of four children of John Robinson, a Ludlow schoolmaster, while continuing to study art, his initial career was in bookselling, in 1850 working for the Bromsgrove bookseller Benjamin Maund, then in 1851 for the London-based Whittaker & Co. In 1852 he exhibited an oil painting, On the Teme Near Ludlow, in 1856, with Rejlander, he was a founding member of the Birmingham Photographic Society. In 1859 he married Selina Grieves, daughter of a Ludlow chemist, in 1864, at the age of thirty-four, Robinson was forced to give up his studio due to ill-health from exposure to toxic photographic chemicals. Gernsheim has shown that thereafter he preferred the easier scissors and paste-pot method of making his combination prints, around this time his health had improved sufficiently to open a new studio in Tunbridge Wells with Nelson King Cherrill, and in 1870 he became vice-president of the Royal Photographic Society. He advocated strongly for photography to be regarded as an art form, the partnership with Cherrill dissolved in 1875, Robinson continuing the business until his retirement in 1888. Robinson was a supporter of the Photographic Convention of the United Kingdom. He was subsequently persuaded to serve as President in 1896, when his speeches were read out by a colleague. He died and was buried in Tunbridge Wells in early 1901 and he was one of the most prominent art photographers of his day. His third and the most famous picture, Fading Away was both popular and fashionably morbid. He was a follower of the pre-Raphaelites and was influenced by the views of John Ruskin. In his Pre-Raphaelite phase he attempted to realize moments of significance in a mediaeval setting, anticipating the work of Julia Margaret Cameron, Burne-Jones. According to his letters, he was influenced by the paintings of J. M. W and he defended composite photography, asserting that the creation of combination photographs were as demanding of the photographer as paintings were of the artist. Robinson compared the making of Fading Away with Zeuxis legendary combining of the best features of five young ladies from Crotona to produce his picture of Helena. Robinson was author of a number of texts in which he promoted the photography as an art form, pictorial Effect in Photography, Being Hints On Composition And Chiaroscuro For Photographers. Robinson, H. P. and William de Wiveleslie Abney, the Art And Practice of Silver Printing. London, Hazell, Watson, & Viney,1889, Art photography in short chapters London, Hazell Watson & Viney. The Studio And What To Do in It, the elements of a pictorial photograph
11.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
12.
Tableau vivant
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Tableau vivant, French for living picture, is a style of artistic presentation, often shortened to simply tableau. It most often describes a group of costumed actors, carefully posed. In the theatrical context, the actors/models do not speak or move throughout the duration of the display, the approach thus marries the art forms of the stage with those of the more static visual arts, and it has thus been of interest to modern photographers. Occasionally, a Mass was punctuated with short dramatic scenes and painting-like tableaux and they were a major feature of festivities for royal weddings, coronations and royal entries into cities. Often the actors imitated statues of painting, much in the manner of street entertainers, but in larger groups. The Realism movement, with more naturalistic depictions, did not begin until the mid-19th century, before radio, film and television, tableaux vivants were popular forms of entertainment, even in frontier towns. Before the age of reproduction of images, the tableau was sometimes used to recreate artworks on stage. They thus influenced the form taken by later Victorian and Edwardian era magic lantern shows, Tableaux vivants were often performed as the basis for school Nativity plays in England during the Victorian period, the custom is still practiced at Loughborough High School. Several tableaux are performed each year at the carol service. Theatrical censorship in Britain and the United States forbade actresses to move when nude or semi-nude on stage, in the early 1900s, German dancer Olga Desmond appeared in Schönheitsabende in which she posed nude in living pictures, imitating classical works of art. In the nineteenth century, tableaux vivants took such titles as Nymphs Bathing and Diana the Huntress and were to be found at such places as the Hall of Rome in Great Windmill Street, other venues were the Coal Hole in the Strand and the Cyder Cellar in Maiden Lane. Nude and semi-nude poses plastiques were also a frequent feature of variety shows in the US, first on Broadway in New York City, the Ziegfeld Follies featured such tableaux from 1917. The Windmill Theatre in London featured nude poses plastiques on stage, it was the first, Tableaux vivants were often included in fairground sideshows. Such shows had largely died out by the 1970s, Tableaux remain a major attraction at the annual Pageant of the Masters in Laguna Beach, California. The initial translation of this text substitutes the English word picture for the French word tableau, however Michael Fried retains the French term when referring to Chevriers essay, because according to Fried, there is no direct translation into English for tableau in this sense. It lacks the connotations of constructedness, of being the product of an act that the French word carries. Other texts and Clement Greenbergs theory of medium specificity also cover this topic, the key characteristics of the contemporary photographic tableau according to Chevrier are, firstly, They are designed and produced for the wall. But size has another function, it distances the viewer from the object and this confrontational experience, Fried notes, is actually quite a large break from the conventional reception of photography, which up to that point was often consumed in books or magazines
13.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
14.
Edwardian era
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The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the end of the Victorian era. The new king Edward VII was already the leader of an elite that set a style influenced by the art. The Liberals returned to power in 1906 and made significant reforms, below the upper class, the era was marked by significant shifts in politics among sections of society that had been largely excluded from wielding power in the past, such as common labourers. The Edwardian period is sometimes imagined as a golden age of long summer afternoons and garden parties. This perception was created in the 1920s and later by those who remembered the Edwardian age with nostalgia, the Edwardian age was also seen as a mediocre period of pleasure between the great achievements of the preceding Victorian age and the catastrophe of the following war. Recent assessments emphasise the differences between the wealthy and the poor during the Edwardian era and describe the age as heralding great changes in political and social life. Robert Tressells popular novel The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists is an example of the eras social critique. Despite this, this type of perception has been challenged more recently by modern historians, the British historian Lawrence James has argued that, during the early 20th century, the British felt increasingly threatened by rival powers such as Germany, Russia, and the United States. There was a political awareness of the working class, leading to a rise in trade unions. The aristocracy remained in control of top government offices, the Conservatives – at the time called Unionists – were dominant from the 1890s to 1906. The party had many strengths, appealing to voters supportive of imperialism, tariffs, the Church of England, a powerful Royal Navy, and traditional hierarchical society. There was a powerful leadership base in the aristocracy and landed gentry in rural England, plus strong support from the Church of England. Historians have used election returns to demonstrate that Conservatives did surprisingly well in working-class districts and they had an appeal as well to the better-off element of traditional working class Britons in the larger cities. Nevertheless, the weaknesses were accumulating, and proved so overwhelming in 1906 that they did not return to power until 1922. The Conservative Party was losing its drive and enthusiasm, especially after the retirement of the charismatic Joseph Chamberlain, there was a bitter split on tariff reform, that drove many of the free traders over to the Liberal camp. Tariff reform was an issue that the Conservative leadership inexplicably clung to. Support among the top tier of the class, and in lower middle class weakened. The 1906 election was a landslide for the opposition, which saw its total vote jump 25 percent, the Liberal Party lacked a unified ideological base in 1906
15.
Holmfirth
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Holmfirth is a small town on the A6024 Woodhead Road in the Holme Valley, within the Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees, West Yorkshire, England. Centred upon the confluence of the Holme and Ribble rivers, Holmfirth is 6 miles south of Huddersfield and 13 miles northeast of Glossop and it mostly consists of stone-built cottages nestled in the Pennine hills. The Peak District National Park around Holme Moss is 4 miles to the south of the town, historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Holmfirth was once a centre for pioneering film-making by Bamforth & Co. which later switched to the production of saucy seaside postcards. Between 1973 and 2010 both Holmfirth and the Holme Valley became well known as the location of the BBCs situation comedy Last of the Summer Wine. The town originally grew up around a mill and bridge in the 13th century. Three hundred years later Holmfirth expanded rapidly as the cloth trade grew. The present parish church was built in 1778 after the church built in 1476 was swept away in a flood the previous year, in 1850 Holmfirth railway station opened, on the branch line built by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company. Local men who served and died in the First and Second World Wars are commemorated on the Holme Valley War Memorial found outside Holme Valley Memorial Hospital. Holmfirth was the home of Bamforth & Co Ltd, who were known for their cheeky seaside postcards – although around the time of the First World War. The printing works on Station Road has now converted into residential flats. Bamforths company were pioneers of film-making, before they abandoned the business in favour of postcards. There are a number of instances when flooding has occurred in the Holme Valley affecting Holmfirth, the earliest recorded Holmfirth flood was in 1738 and the most recent was 1944. The most severe flood occurred early on the morning of 5 February 1852, following a severe storm in 1777 the River Holme burst its banks, sweeping away people and property with the loss of three lives, the stone church built in 1476, was also swept away. A storm in 1821 again caused the river to burst its banks, the flooding on the night of 29 May 1944 was not nationally reported and it was then overshadowed by the D-Day landings the following week. Holmfirth is the setting for the BBCs long-running comedy Last of the Summer Wine, thousands of tourists flock to the area each year to enjoy scenery and locations familiar from the series. Filming of the TV Slaithwaite-based drama, Where the Heart Is, had taken place in. The former Lodges supermarket building had been sitting empty in the heart of the town since the Co-op moved to new premises in Crown Bottom, Lodges was built in the 1970s by the prominent local grocery company. It was opened by Radio 1 DJ Tony Blackburn and occupied a location over the River Holme beside the towns small bus station
16.
Watercolor painting
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Watercolor or watercolour, also aquarelle, a diminutive of the Latin for water, is a painting method in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-based solution. Watercolor refers to both the medium and the resulting artwork, the traditional and most common support—material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is paper. Other supports include papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum, or leather, fabric, wood, Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton, which gives a good texture and minimizes distortion when wet. Watercolors are usually translucent, and appear luminous because the pigments are laid down in a form with few fillers obscuring the pigment colors. Watercolors can also be made opaque by adding Chinese white, in East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean, and Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, india, Ethiopia, and other countries have long watercolor painting traditions as well. Fingerpainting with watercolor paints originated in mainland China, however, its continuous history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer, who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, an important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol as part of the Dürer Renaissance. Despite this early start, watercolors were used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons. Notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were Van Dyck, Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, however, botanical illustration and wildlife illustration perhaps form the oldest and most important traditions in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular during the Renaissance, both as hand-tinted woodblock illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on vellum or paper. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with such as John James Audubon. Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, Watercolor artists were commonly brought with the geological or archaeological expeditions, funded by the Society of Dilettanti, to document discoveries in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the New World. This example popularized watercolors as a form of personal tourist journal, the confluence of these cultural, engineering, scientific, tourist, and amateur interests culminated in the celebration and promotion of watercolor as a distinctly English national art. William Blake published several books of hand-tinted engraved poetry, provided illustrations to Dantes Inferno, from the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium. Satirical broadsides by Thomas Rowlandson, many published by Rudolph Ackermann, were extremely popular. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin, were John Varley, John Sell Cotman, Anthony Copley Fielding, Samuel Palmer, William Havell, the Swiss painter Louis Ducros was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor. These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists, in particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors by Richard Parkes Bonington created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s
17.
George Grosz
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George Grosz was a German artist known especially for his caricatural drawings and paintings of Berlin life in the 1920s. He was a prominent member of the Berlin Dada and New Objectivity group during the Weimar Republic and he emigrated to the United States in 1933, and became a naturalized citizen in 1938. Abandoning the style and subject matter of his work, he exhibited regularly. In 1956 he returned to Berlin where he died, George Grosz was born Georg Ehrenfried Groß in Berlin, Germany, the son of a pub owner. Grosz grew up in the Pomeranian town of Stolp, where his mother became the keeper of the local Hussars Officers mess after his father died in 1901. At the urging of his cousin, the young Grosz began attending a weekly drawing class taught by a painter named Grot. Grosz developed his skills further by drawing meticulous copies of the scenes of Eduard von Grützner. From 1909 to 1911, he studied at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, where his teachers were Richard Müller, Robert Sterl, Raphael Wehle and he subsequently studied at the Berlin College of Arts and Crafts under Emil Orlik. In November 1914 Grosz volunteered for service, in the hope that by thus preempting conscription he would avoid being sent to the front. He was given a discharge after hospitalization for sinusitis in 1915, in January 1917 he was drafted for service, but in May he was discharged as permanently unfit. In the last months of 1918, Grosz joined the Spartacist League and he was arrested during the Spartakus uprising in January 1919, but escaped using fake identification documents. In 1921 Grosz was accused of insulting the army, which resulted in a 300 German Mark fine and the destruction of the collection Gott mit uns, by contrast, in 1942 Time magazine identified Grosz as a pacifist. In 1922 Grosz traveled to Russia with the writer Martin Andersen Nexø, upon their arrival in Murmansk they were briefly arrested as spies, after their credentials were approved they were allowed to meet with Grigory Zinoviev, Anatoly Lunacharsky, and Vladimir Lenin. Groszs six-month stay in the Soviet Union left him unimpressed by what he had seen and he ended his membership in the KPD in 1923, although his political positions were little changed. Bitterly anti-Nazi, Grosz left Germany shortly before Hitler came to power, in June 1932, he accepted an invitation to teach the summer semester at the Art Students League of New York. In October 1932, Grosz returned to Germany, but on January 12,1933 he, Grosz became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1938, and made his home in Bayside, New York. In the 1930s he taught at the Art Students League, where one of his students was Romare Bearden and he taught at the Art Students League intermittently until 1955. In America, Grosz determined to make a break with his past
18.
John Heartfield
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John Heartfield was an artist and a pioneer in the use of art as a political weapon. Some of his photomontages were anti-Nazi and anti-fascist statements, Heartfield also created book jackets for authors such as Upton Sinclair, as well as stage sets for such noted playwrights as Bertolt Brecht and Erwin Piscator. John Heartfield was born on 19 June 1891 in Berlin-Schmargendorf and his father was Franz Herzfeld, a socialist writer, and his mother was Alice, a textile worker and political activist. In 1899, Helmut, his brother Wieland Herzfelde, and his sisters Lotte, for a while, the four children resided with an uncle in the small town of Aigens. Heartfield, his brother and George Grosz launched the publishing house Malik-Verlag in 1917, in 1908, Heartfield studied art in Munich at the Royal Bavarian Arts and Crafts School. Two commercial designers, Albert Weisgerber and Ludwig Hohlwein, were early influences, on the back of a photograph which was taken in 1912, his name is written as Helmut. While living in Berlin, in 1917, he anglicised his name from Helmut Herzfeld to John Heartfield, in 1916, crowds in the street were shouting, Gott strafe England. In 1916, John Heartfield and George Grosz experimented with pasting pictures together, in January,1918, Heartfield joined the newly founded German Communist Party. In 1917, Heartfield became a member of Berlin Club Dada, Heartfield later became active in the Dada movement, helping to organise the Erste Internationale Dada-Messe in Berlin in 1920. Dadaists were the lions of the German art scene, provocateurs who disrupted public art gatherings. They labeled traditional art trivial and bourgeois, Heartfield was a member of a circle of German titans that included Erwin Piscator, Bertolt Brecht, Hannah Höch, and a host of others. Heartfield built theatre sets for Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht, using Heartfields minimal props and stark stages, Brecht interrupted his plays at key junctures to have the audience to be part of the action and not to lose themselves in it. In 1919, Heartfield was dismissed from the Reichswehr film service because of his support for the strike that followed the assassination of Karl Liebknecht, with George Grosz, he founded Die Pleite, a satirical magazine. Heartfield met Bertolt Brecht in 1924, though he was a prolific producer of stage sets and book jackets, Heartfields main form of expression was photomontage. Heartfield produced the first political photomontages and he mainly worked for two publications, the daily Die Rote Fahne and the weekly Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung, the latter of which published the works for which Heartfield is best remembered. In the Museum of Modern Art in New York hangs a George Grosz Montage entitled, during the 1920s, Heartfield produced a great number of photomontages, many of which were reproduced as dust jackets for books such as his montage for Upton Sinclairs The Millennium. Heartfield lived in Berlin until April 1933, when the National Socialists took power, on Good Friday, the SS broke into his apartment, and the 52 Heartfield escaped by jumping from his balcony and hiding in a trash bin. He left Germany by walking over the Sudeten Mountains to Czechoslovakia, in Czechoslovakia, John Heartfield rose to number-five on the Gestapos most-wanted list
19.
Kurt Schwitters
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Kurt Hermann Eduard Karl Julius Schwitters was a German artist who was born in Hanover, Germany. He is most famous for his collages, called Merz Pictures, Kurt Schwitters was born on 20 June 1887 in Hanover, at Rumannstraße No.2, now, No. 8, the child of Eduard Schwitters and his wife Henriette. His father was proprietor of a clothes shop. In 1893, the moved to Waldstraße 5, future site of the Merzbau. In 1901, Schwitters suffered his first epileptic seizure, a condition that would exempt him from service in World War I until late in the war. After studying art at the Dresden Academy alongside Otto Dix and George Grosz, 1909–15, Schwitters returned to Hanover, in 1911 he took part in his first exhibition, in Hanover. As the First World War progressed his work became darker, gradually developing a distinctive expressionist tone, Schwitters spent the last one-and-half years of the war working as a drafter in a factory just outside Hanover. He was conscripted into the 73rd Hanoverian Regiment in March 1917, by his own account, his time as a draftsman influenced his later work, and inspired him to depict machines as metaphors of human activity. In the war I discovered my love for the wheel and realized that machines are abstractions of the human spirit and he married his cousin Helma Fischer on 5 October 1915. In 1918, his art was to change dramatically as a consequence of Germanys economic, political. In the war, things were in terrible turmoil, what I had learned at the academy was of no use to me and the useful new ideas were still unready. Everything had broken down and new things had to be out of the fragments. It was like a revolution within me, not as it was, Schwitters was to come into contact with Herwarth Walden after exhibiting expressionist paintings at the Hanover Secession in February 1918. He showed two Abstraktionen at Waldens gallery Der Sturm, in Berlin, in June 1918 and this resulted in meetings with members of the Berlin Avant-garde, including Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, and Hans Arp in the autumn of 1918. The night he introduced himself in the Café des Westens, im a painter, he said, and I nail my pictures together. Schwitters asked to join Berlin Dada either in late 1918 or early 1919, Hausmanns anecdote about Schwitters asking to join Berlin Dada is, however, somewhat dubious, for there is well-documented evidence that Schwitters and Huelsenbeck were on amicable terms at first. When they first met in 1919, Huelsenbeck was enthusiastic about Schwitters’s work and promised his assistance, when Huelsenbeck visited him at the end of the year, Schwitters gave him a lithograph and though their friendship was by now strained, Huelsenbeck wrote him a conciliatory note
20.
Raoul Hausmann
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Raoul Hausmann was an Austrian artist and writer. Raoul Hausmann was born in Vienna but moved to Berlin with his parents at the age of 14 and his earliest art training was from his father, a professional conservator and painter. He met Johannes Baader, an architect and another future member of Dada. At around the time he met Elfride Schaeffer, a violinist, whom he married in 1908. That same year Hausmann enrolled at a private Art School in Berlin, Hausmann met Hannah Höch in 1915, and embarked upon an extramarital affair that produced an artistically productive but turbulent bond that would last until 1922. The notion of destruction as an act of creation was the point of departure for Hausmanns Dadasophy, Huelsenbeck delivered his First Dada Speech in Germany, January 22,1918 at the fashionable art dealer IB Neumanns gallery, Kurfurstendamm Berlin. Over the course of the few weeks, Hausmann, Huelsenbeck, George Grosz, John Heartfield, Jung, Höch, Walter Mehring. One envisioned Corinths pictures torn to shreds with chair legs, but in the end it didnt come to that. As Raoul Hausmann shouted his programmatic plans for dadaist painting into the noise of the crowd, the call for new materials in painting bore fruit later the same year when Hausmann and Höch holidayed on the Baltic Sea. The guest room they were staying in had a portrait of soldiers. It was like a thunderbolt, one could – I saw it instantaneously – make pictures, back in Berlin that september, I began to realize this new vision, and I made use of photographs from the press and the cinema. It should also be pointed out that Grosz, Heartfield and Baader all laid claim to having invented the technique in later memoirs, although no works have surfaced to justify these claims. Later poems used words which were reversed, chopped up and strung out, then typed out using a full range of typographical strategies. Schwitters Ursonate was directly influenced by a performance of one of Hausmanns poems, fmsbwtazdu, after Hausmann contributed to the first group show, held at Isaac Neumanns Gallery, April 1919, the first edition of Der Dada appeared in June 1919. Edited by Hausmann and Baader, after receiving permission from Tristan Tzara in Zurich to use the name, the periodical contained drawings, polemics, poems and satires, all typeset in a multiplicity of opposing fonts and signs. The most famous work by Hausmann, Mechanischer Kopf, The Mechanical Head,1920, is the only surviving assemblage that Hausmann produced around 1919–20. Der Geist Unserer Zeit – Mechanischer Kopf specifically evokes the philosopher George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, among Hegels disciples and critics was Karl Marx. Hausmanns sculpture might be seen as an aggressively Marxist reversal of Hegel, however, there are deeper targets in western culture that give this modern masterpiece its force
21.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
22.
Surrealism
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Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream, leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement. Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I, the word surrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings and art works, after the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vaché, Breton felt that Vaché was the son of writer. He admired the young writers anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition, later Breton wrote, In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most. Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal Littérature along with Louis Aragon and they began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the magazine. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields, continuing to write, they came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than the Dada form of attack on prevailing values. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin, freuds work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. They embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness, as Salvador Dalí later proclaimed, There is only one difference between a madman and me. Beside the use of analysis, they emphasized that one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be−the greater its emotional power, the group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to people from false rationality, and restrictive customs. Breton proclaimed that the aim of Surrealism was long live the social revolution. To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism, in 1924 two Surrealist factions declared their philosophy in two separate Surrealist Manifestos. That same year the Bureau of Surrealist Research was established, leading up to 1924, two rival surrealist groups had formed. Each group claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Guillaume Apollinaire, the other group, led by Breton, included Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Jacques Baron, Jacques-André Boiffard, Jean Carrive, René Crevel and Georges Malkine, among others. Goll and Breton clashed openly, at one point literally fighting, at the Comédie des Champs-Élysées, in the end, Breton won the battle through tactical and numerical superiority
23.
Harue Koga
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Harue Koga was a Japanese surrealist/avant-garde painter active in the Taishō period and early Showa Period. His birth name was Yoshio Koga and he was born in Kurume on the island of Kyushu in western Japan. His father was the head priest of the Buddhist Zenpuku Temple in the city and he enjoyed painting when he was he child and in 1912 he dropped out of school and moved to Tokyo to study art. He studied at the Pacific Ocean Art Institute and the Japanese Watercolor Painting Institute and he returned to his hometown after the suicide of his housemate in 1915. The following year he entered the Buddhist priesthood and returned to Tokyo, on entering the priesthood he was renamed Harue. In order to follow in his fathers footstep, he entered university to study theology in 1916 and he dropped out in 1918 though, and from this point on would concentrate on painting. After a slump lasting several years, he won Nika Prize for Burial and he became one of the 13 founder members of an avant-garde art group Action in the same year. He was heavily influenced by Paul Klee between 1926 and 1929 and painted a series of magical childlike works, in 1929 he became good friends with Yasunari Kawabata. A lot of his art works were influenced by the movements and painters in the West such as cubism, surrealism, Klee, etc. Sea, Kogas most famous work first appeared at the 16th Nika Exhibition in 1929. It contains various motifs which Koga had copied from magazines and post cards, Koga continued to paint in this photomontage-style with the Asahi Graph becoming the most common source of motifs. Other notable Koga photomontage-style works are Makeup Out-of-Doors and Intellectual Expression Traversing a Real Line, in 1929 the work Innocent Moonlit Night was also first exhibited. This colorful work displays the influence of Giorgio de Chirico, an influence that would reappear intermittently in Kogas works over the next year years, the years following Sea are generally considered to be the beginning of surrealism painting in Japan
24.
Typography
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Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible, readable, and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line-spacing, and letter-spacing, the term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography, most typographers do not design typefaces, Typography also may be used as a decorative device, unrelated to communication of information. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation, as the capability to create typography has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay, Typography also was implemented in the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete, which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B. C. It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing, the essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc. The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches, apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries. Other early examples include individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng. His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty, wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down, metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however. Modern lead-based movable type, along with the printing press, is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439. His type pieces, made from an alloy, suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts and this technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg Bible. Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as introduced by IBM. During the mid-1980s personal computers such as the Macintosh allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software, Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, the cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses
25.
Constructivism (art)
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Constructivism was an artistic and architectural philosophy that originated in Russia beginning in 1913 by Vladimir Tatlin. This was a rejection of the idea of autonomous art, the movement was in favour of art as a practice for social purposes. Constructivism had an effect on modern art movements of the 20th century, influencing major trends such as the Bauhaus. Its influence was pervasive, with effects upon architecture, graphic design, industrial design, theatre, film, dance, fashion. The term Construction Art was first used as a term by Kazimir Malevich to describe the work of Alexander Rodchenko in 1917. Constructivism first appears as a term in Naum Gabos Realistic Manifesto of 1920. Aleksei Gan used the word as the title of his book Constructivism, Constructivism was a post-World War I development of Russian Futurism, and particularly of the counter reliefs of Vladimir Tatlin, which had been exhibited in 1915. Constructivism as theory and practice was derived largely from a series of debates at INKhUK in Moscow, later the definition would be extended to designs for two-dimensional works such as books or posters, with montage and factography becoming important concepts. As much as involving itself in designs for industry, the Constructivists worked on public festivals, perhaps the most famous of these was in Vitebsk, where Malevichs UNOVIS Group painted propaganda plaques and buildings. Inspired by Vladimir Mayakovskys declaration the streets our brushes, the squares our palettes, artists, in addition some Constructivists were heavily involved in the ROSTA Windows, a Bolshevik public information campaign of around 1920. Some of the most famous of these were by the poet-painter Vladimir Mayakovsky, the constructivists tried to create works that would make the viewer an active viewer of the artwork. These theories were tested in theatre, particularly with the work of Vsevolod Meyerhold, Meyerhold developed a biomechanical acting style, which was influenced both by the circus and by the scientific management theories of Frederick Winslow Taylor. Meanwhile, the sets by the likes of Vesnin, Popova and Stepanova tested Constructivist spatial ideas in a public form. A more populist version of this was developed by Alexander Tairov, with sets by Aleksandra Ekster. These ideas would influence German directors like Bertolt Brecht and Erwin Piscator, Gabo publicly criticized Tatlins design saying, Either create functional houses and bridges or create pure art, not both. This had already caused a controversy in the Moscow group in 1920 when Gabo. This was opposed to the utilitarian and adaptable version of Constructivism held by Tatlin, the tower was never built, however, due to a lack of money following the revolution. A Constructivist international was formed, which met with Dadaists and De Stijl artists in Germany in 1922, participants in this short-lived international included Lissitzky, Hans Richter, and László Moholy-Nagy
26.
El Lissitzky
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Lazar Markovich Lissitzky, known as El Lissitzky, was a Russian artist, designer, photographer, typographer, polemicist and architect. His work greatly influenced the Bauhaus and constructivist movements, and he experimented with production techniques, Lissitzkys entire career was laced with the belief that the artist could be an agent for change, later summarized with his edict, das zielbewußte Schaffen. Lissitzky, of Lithuanian Jewish оrigin, began his career illustrating Yiddish childrens books in an effort to promote Jewish culture in Russia, when only 15 he started teaching, a duty he would maintain for most of his life. Over the years, he taught in a variety of positions, schools and this continued until his deathbed, where in 1941 he produced one of his last works – a Soviet propaganda poster rallying the people to construct more tanks for the fight against Nazi Germany. Lissitzky was born on November 23,1890 in Pochinok, a small Jewish community 50 kilometres southeast of Smolensk, former Russian Empire. Always expressing an interest and talent in drawing, he started to receive instruction at 13 from Yehuda Pen, a local Jewish artist, in 1909, he applied to an art academy in Saint Petersburg, but was rejected. While he passed the exam and was qualified, the law under the Tsarist regime only allowed a limited number of Jewish students to attend Russian schools. Like many other Jews then living in the Russian Empire, Lissitzky went to study in Germany and he left in 1909 to study architectural engineering at a Technische Hochschule in Darmstadt, Germany. Also in 1912 some of his pieces were included for the first time in an exhibit by the St. Petersburg Artists Union, a notable first step. During this work, he took an active and passionate interest in Jewish culture which, the new Provisional Government repealed a decree that prohibited the printing of Hebrew letters and that barred Jews from citizenship. These books were Lissitzkys first major foray in book design, a field that he would greatly innovate during his career and his first designs appeared in the 1917 book, Sihas hulin, Eyne fun di geshikhten, where he incorporated Hebrew letters with a distinctly art nouveau flair. His next book was a retelling of the traditional Jewish Passover song Had gadya. In the book, he integrated letters with images through a system that matched the color of the characters in the story with the word referring to them. In the designs for the page, Lissitzky depicts the mighty hand of God slaying the angel of death. This representation links the redemption of the Jews with the victory of the Bolsheviks in the Russian Revolution, an alternative view asserts that the artist was wary of Bolshevik internationalization, leading to destruction of traditional Jewish culture. The quantity of these posters is sufficient to them as a separate genre in the artists output. Chagall also invited other Russian artists, most notably the painter and art theoretician Kazimir Malevich and Lissitzkys former teacher, however, it was not until October 1919 when Lissitzky, then on an errand in Moscow, persuaded Malevich to relocate to Vitebsk. The move coincided with the opening of the first art exhibition in Vitebsk directed by Chagall, Malevich would bring with him a wealth of new ideas, most of which inspired Lissitzky but clashed with local public and professionals who favored figurative art and with Chagall himself
27.
Alexander Rodchenko
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Aleksander Mikhailovich Rodchenko was a Russian artist, sculptor, photographer and graphic designer. He was one of the founders of constructivism and Russian design, Rodchenko was one of the most versatile Constructivist and Productivist artists to emerge after the Russian Revolution. He worked as a painter and graphic designer before turning to photomontage and his photography was socially engaged, formally innovative, and opposed to a painterly aesthetic. Concerned with the need for analytical-documentary photo series, he shot his subjects from odd angles—usually high above or down below—to shock the viewer. Rodchenko was born in St. Petersburg to a family who moved to Kazan after the death of his father. He became an artist without having had any exposure to the art world, in 1910, Rodchenko began studies under Nicolai Fechin and Georgii Medvedev at the Kazan Art School, where he met Varvara Stepanova, whom he later married. After 1914, he continued his training at the Stroganov Institute in Moscow. The following year, he participated in The Store exhibition organized by Vladimir Tatlin, Rodchenkos work was heavily influenced by Cubism and Futurism, as well as by Malevichs Suprematist compositions, which featured geometric forms deployed against a white background. He utilized a compass and ruler in creating his paintings, with the goal of eliminating expressive brushwork, Rodchenko worked in Narkompros and he was one of the organizers of RABIS. Rodchenko was appointed Director of the Museum Bureau and Purchasing Fund by the Bolshevik Government in 1920, responsible for the reorganization of art schools and museums. He became secretary of the Moscow Artists Union and set up the Fine Arts Division of the Peoples Commissariat for Education and he taught from 1920 to 1930 at the Higher Technical-Artistic Studios, a Bauhaus organization with a checkered career. In 1921 he became a member of the Productivist group, with Stepanova and Aleksei Gan and he gave up painting in order to concentrate on graphic design for posters, books, and films. He was deeply influenced by the ideas and practice of the filmmaker Dziga Vertov, impressed by the photomontage of the German Dadaists, Rodchenko began his own experiments in the medium, first employing found images in 1923, and from 1924 on, shooting his own photographs as well. His first published photomontage illustrated Mayakovskys poem, About This, in 1923, from 1923 to 1928 Rodchenko collaborated closely with Mayakovsky on the design and layout of LEF and Novy LEF, the publications of Constructivist artists. Many of his photographs appeared in or were used as covers for these journals and his images eliminated unnecessary detail, emphasized dynamic diagonal composition, and were concerned with the placement and movement of objects in space. During this period, he and Stepanova did the well-known painted panels of the Mosselprom building in Moscow and their daughter, Varvara Rodchenko, was born in 1925. Throughout the 1920s, Rodchenkos work was very abstract, in the 1930s, with the changing Party guidelines governing artistic practice, he concentrated on sports photography and images of parades and other choreographed movements. Rodchenko joined the October Group of artists in 1928 but was expelled three years later, charged with formalism and he returned to painting in the late 1930s, stopped photographing in 1942, and produced abstract expressionist works in the 1940s
28.
Gustav Klutsis
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Gustav Klutsis was a pioneering Latvian photographer and major member of the Constructivist avant-garde in the early 20th century. He is known for the Soviet revolutionary and Stalinist propaganda he produced with his wife, born in Ķoņi parish, near Rūjiena, Klucis began his artistic training in Riga in 1912. In 1915 he was drafted into the Russian Army, serving in a Latvian riflemen detachment and he would continue to be associated with VKhUTEMAS as a professor of color theory from 1924 until the school closed in 1930. Klucis taught, wrote, and produced art for the Soviet state for the rest of his life. As the political background degraded through the 1920s and 1930s, Klutsis and Kulagina came under increasing pressure to limit their subject matter, once joyful, revolutionary and utopian, by 1935 their art was devoted to furthering Joseph Stalins cult of personality. Despite his active and loyal service to the party, Klucis was arrested in Moscow on January 17,1938, Kulagina agonized for months, then years, over his disappearance. In 1989 it was found that he had executed by Stalins order soon after his arrest. Klutsis worked in a variety of experimental media and he liked to use propaganda as a sign or revolutionary background image. Like other Constructivists he worked in sculpture, produced exhibition installations, illustrations, but Klutsis and Kulagina are primarily known for their photo montages. For economy they often posed for, and inserted themselves into and their dynamic compositions, distortions of scale and space, angled viewpoints and colliding perspectives make them perpetually modern. Klutsis is one of four artists with a claim to having invented the subgenre of political photo montage in 1918 and he worked alongside Lissitzky on the Pressa International exhibition in Cologne
29.
Propaganda
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Propaganda is information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, in the 2010s, the term propaganda is associated with a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive term. Propaganda is a modern Latin word, the form of propagare, meaning to spread or to propagate. Originally this word derived from a new body of the Catholic church created in 1622, called the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. Its activity was aimed at propagating the Catholic faith in non-Catholic countries, from the 1790s, the term began being used also to refer to propaganda in secular activities. The term began taking a pejorative or negative connotation in the mid-19th century, primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an example of propaganda. During the era of the American Revolution, the American colonies had a network of newspapers and printers who specialized in the topic on behalf of the Patriots. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era, propaganda was widely used, abolitionists in Britain and the United States in the 19th century developed large, complex propaganda campaigns against slavery. The first large-scale and organised propagation of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of war in 1914, after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, military officials such as Erich Ludendorff suggested that British propaganda had been instrumental in their defeat. Adolf Hitler came to echo this view, believing that it had been a cause of the collapse of morale. Later, the Nazis adapted many British propaganda techniques during their time in power, most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry, the 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of totalitarian states and the Second World War, are arguably the Golden Age of Propaganda. Leni Riefenstahl, a filmmaker working in Nazi Germany, created one of the propaganda movies. US war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create a patriotic mindset, the West and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, george Orwells novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. During the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda, Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the Vietnam War as means of controlling peoples opinions. During the Yugoslav wars, propaganda was used as a strategy by governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia
30.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
31.
Americana
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Americana are artifacts, or a collection of artifacts, related to the history, geography, folklore and cultural heritage of the United States. Patriotism and nostalgia play defining roles in the subject, the things involved need not be old, but need to have the appropriate associations. The term may be used to describe the theme of a museum or collection, the term can also be used to describe studies of American culture, especially studies based in other countries. It was believed much of the structure of 20th Century American life and culture had been cemented in that time. Henry Seidel Canby wrote t is the town, the small city. We have made twentieth-century America from it, and some account of communities as they were. We owe our children and grandchildren, as Canby put it, Americans at this time really believed all they heard on the Fourth of July or read in school readers. It was all there at once, better than elsewhere, their own and they had just the country they wanted. and they believed it would be the same, except for more bathtubs and faster trains, forever. For the last time in living memory everyone knew exactly what it meant to be an American, columbia, the personification of the United States Coca-Cola Levis blue jeans, especially Levis 501s White picket fences American Studies American Studies in Britain Culture of the United States
32.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
33.
Collage
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Collage is a technique of an art production, primarily used in the visual arts, where the artwork is made from an assemblage of different forms, thus creating a new whole. The origins of collage can be traced back hundreds of years, the term collage was coined by both Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso in the beginning of the 20th century when collage became a distinctive part of modern art. Techniques of collage were first used at the time of the invention of paper in China, around 200 BC. The use of collage, however, wasnt used by many people until the 10th century in Japan, when began to apply glued paper, using texts on surfaces. The technique of collage appeared in medieval Europe during the 13th century, gold leaf panels started to be applied in Gothic cathedrals around the 15th and 16th centuries. Gemstones and other metals were applied to religious images, icons. An 18th-century example of art can be found in the work of Mary Delany. In the 19th century, collage methods also were used among hobbyists for memorabilia, the exhibition later traveled to The Metropolitan Museum of Art and The Art Gallery of Ontario. For example, the Tate Gallerys online art glossary states that collage was first used as a technique in the twentieth century. The glued-on patches which Braque and Picasso added to their canvases offered a new perspective on painting when the patches collided with the plane of the painting. Collage in the modernist sense began with Cubist painters Georges Braque, according to some sources, Picasso was the first to use the collage technique in oil paintings. According to the Guggenheim Museums online article about collage, Braque took up the concept of collage itself before Picasso, applying it to charcoal drawings. Picasso adopted collage immediately after, It was Braque who purchased a roll of simulated oak-grain wallpaper and began cutting out pieces of the paper, Picasso immediately began to make his own experiments in the new medium. In 1912 for his Still Life with Chair Caning, Picasso pasted a patch of oilcloth with a design onto the canvas of the piece. Surrealist artists have made use of collage. Cubomania is a made by cutting an image into squares which are then reassembled automatically or at random. Collages produced using a similar, or perhaps identical, method are called etrécissements by Marcel Mariën from a method first explored by Mariën, surrealist games such as parallel collage use collective techniques of collage making. Many of these artists used techniques in their work
34.
Romare Bearden
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Romare Bearden was an Afro-American artist. He worked with many types of media including cartoons, oils, born in Charlotte, North Carolina, educated in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Bearden moved to New York City after high school and went on to graduate from NYU in 1935. He began his career creating scenes of the American South. Later, he endeavored to express the humanity he felt was lacking in the world after his experience in the US Army during World War II on the European front and he later returned to Paris in 1950 and studied Art History and Philosophy at the Sorbonne in 1950. Beardens early work focused on unity and cooperation within the African-American community and his lifelong support of young, emerging artists led him and his wife to create the Bearden Foundation to support young or emerging artists and scholars. In 1987, Bearden was awarded the National Medal of Arts and his work in collage led the New York Times to describe Bearden as “the nations foremost collagist” in his 1988 obituary. Bearden was born in Charlotte, North Carolina and his family moved him to New York City as a toddler, and their household soon became a meeting place for major figures of the Harlem Renaissance. His mother, Bessye Bearden, played a role with New York Citys Board of Education. Bessye Bearden was also a New York correspondent for The Chicago Defender, young Romare Bearden traveled frequently, to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and to visit family members in Charlotte, North Carolina. In 1929 he graduated from Peabody High School in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and he then enrolled in Lincoln University, the nations first Historically Black College and University founded in 1854. He later transferred to Boston University where he served as art director for Beanpot, Bearden studied art, education, science and mathematics, graduating with a degree in science and education in 1935. He continued his study under German artist George Grosz at the Art Students League in 1936 and 1937. During this period he supported himself as a political cartoonist for African-American newspapers, including the Baltimore Afro-American, Bearden grew as an artist not by learning how to create new techniques and mediums, but by his life experiences. His early paintings were often of scenes in the American South, in 1935, Bearden became a case worker for the Harlem office of the New York City Department of Social Services. Throughout his career as an artist, Bearden worked as a case worker off, during World War II, Bearden joined the United States Army, serving from 1942 until 1945. After serving in the army, Bearden joined the Samuel Kootz Gallery, a commercial gallery in New York. He would return to Europe in 1950 to study philosophy with Gaston Bachelard, Bearden then traveled throughout Europe visiting Picasso and other artists. This completely changed his style of art as he started producing abstract representations of what he deemed as human and his works were exhibited at the Samuel M. Kootz gallery until his work was deemed not abstract enough
35.
Offset printing
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Offset printing is a commonly used printing technique in which the inked image is transferred from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. The modern web process feeds a large reel of paper through a press machine in several parts, typically for several metres. Development of the press came in two versions, in 1875 by Robert Barclay of England for printing on tin, and in 1904 by Ira Washington Rubel of the United States for printing on paper. Lithography was initially created to be a method of reproducing artwork. This printing process was limited to use on flat, porous surfaces because the plates were produced from limestone. In fact, the word lithograph historically means an image from stone or printed from stone, tin cans were popular packaging materials in the 19th century, but transfer technologies were required before the lithographic process could be used to print on the tin. The first rotary offset lithographic printing press was created in England and this development combined mid-19th century transfer printing technologies and Richard March Hoes 1843 rotary printing press—a press that used a metal cylinder instead of a flat stone. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the image from the stone to the surface of the metal. Later, the covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber. As the 19th century closed and photography became popular, many lithographic firms went out of business, photoengraving, a process that used halftone technology instead of illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. Many printers, including Ira Washington Rubel of New Jersey, were using the low-cost lithograph process to produce copies of photographs, Rubel discovered in 1901—by forgetting to load a sheet—that when printing from the rubber roller, instead of the metal, the printed page was clearer and sharper. After further refinement, the Potter Press printing Company in New York produced a press in 1903, by 1907 the Rubel offset press was in use in San Francisco. The Harris Automatic Press Company also created a similar press around the same time, charles and Albert Harris modeled their press on a rotary letter press machine. One of the most important functions in the process is prepress production. This stage makes sure that all files are processed in preparation for printing. This includes converting to the proper CMYK color model, finalizing the files, Offset lithography is one of the most common ways of creating printed materials. A few of its common applications include, newspapers, magazines, brochures, stationery, compared to other printing methods, offset printing is best suited for economically producing large volumes of high quality prints in a manner that requires little maintenance. Many modern offset presses use computer-to-plate systems as opposed to the older computer-to-film work flows, advantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include, consistent high image quality
36.
Image editing
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Image editing encompasses the processes of altering images, whether they are digital photographes, traditional photochemical photographs, or illustrations. Traditional analog image editing is known as photo retouching, using such as an airbrush to modify photographs. Many image editing programs are used to render or create computer art from scratch. Raster images are stored in a computer in the form of a grid of picture elements and these pixels contain the images color and brightness information. Image editors can change the pixels to enhance the image in many ways, the pixels can be changed as a group, or individually, by the sophisticated algorithms within the image editors. This article mostly refers to bitmap graphics editors, which are used to alter photographs. It is easier to rasterize a vector image than to vectorize a raster image, vector images can be modified more easily, because they contain descriptions of the shapes for easy rearrangement. They are also scalable, being rasterizable at any resolution and these are called automatic because generally they happen without user interaction or are offered with one click of a button or mouse button or by selecting an option from a menu. Additionally, some automatic editing features offer a combination of editing actions with little or no user interaction, many image file formats use data compression to reduce file size and save storage space. Digital compression of images may take place in the camera, or can be done in the computer with the image editor, when images are stored in JPEG format, compression has already taken place. Both cameras and computer programs allow the user to set the level of compression, some compression algorithms, such as those used in PNG file format, are lossless, which means no information is lost when the file is saved. JPEG uses knowledge of the way the brain and eyes perceive color to make this loss of detail less noticeable. Listed below are some of the most used capabilities of the better graphic manipulation programs, the list is by no means all inclusive. There are a myriad of choices associated with the application of most of these features, one of the prerequisites for many of the applications mentioned below is a method of selecting part of an image, thus applying a change selectively without affecting the entire picture. The border of an area in an image is often animated with the marching ants effect to help the user to distinguish the selection border from the image background. Image editors can resize images in a process often called image scaling, making them larger, High image resolution cameras can produce large images which are often reduced in size for Internet use. Image editor programs use a process called resampling to calculate new pixel values whose spacing is larger or smaller than the original pixel values. Images for Internet use are kept small, say 640 x 480 pixels which would equal 0.3 megapixels, digital editors are used to crop images
37.
Xerox
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Xerox Corporation /ˈzɪərɒks/ is an American global corporation that sells document solutions and services, and document technology products in more than 160 countries. Xerox is headquartered in Norwalk, Connecticut, though its largest population of employees is based around Rochester, New York, the company purchased Affiliated Computer Services for $6.4 billion in early 2010. As a large developed company, it is placed in the list of Fortune 500 companies. Xerox completed the separation of Conduent Incorporated effective on Dec.31,2016, creating two market-leading, publicly- traded companies. In connection with the spin-off, Xerox received a transfer from Conduent of $1.8 billion. Xerox continues to trade on the NYSE under the ticker symbol “XRX”, researchers at Xerox and its Palo Alto Research Center invented several important elements of personal computing, such as the desktop metaphor GUI, the computer mouse and desktop computing. These concepts were frowned upon by the board of directors. The concepts were adopted by Apple and, later, Microsoft, with the help of these innovations, Apple and Microsoft came to dominate the personal computing revolution of the 1980s, whereas Xerox was not a major player. Xerox was founded in 1906 in Rochester as The Haloid Photographic Company, in 1938 Chester Carlson, a physicist working independently, invented a process for printing images using an electrically charged photoconductor-coated metal plate and dry powder toner. However, it would more than 20 years of refinement before the first automated machine to make copies was commercialized, using a document feeder, scanning light. Wilson, credited as the founder of Xerox, took over Haloid from his father and he saw the promise of Carlsons invention and, in 1946, signed an agreement to develop it as a commercial product. Wilson remained as President/CEO of Xerox until 1967 and served as Chairman until his death in 1971, looking for a term to differentiate its new system, Haloid coined the term Xerography from two Greek roots meaning dry writing. Haloid subsequently changed its name to Haloid Xerox in 1958 and then Xerox Corporation in 1961, before releasing the 914, Xerox tested the market by introducing a developed version of the prototype hand-operated equipment known as the Flat-plate 1385. The 1385 was not actually a viable copier because of its speed of operation and it was little more than a high quality, commercially available plate camera mounted as a horizontal rostrum camera, complete with photo-flood lighting and timer. The glass film/plate had been replaced with an aluminum plate. Clever electrics turned this into a developing and reusable substitute for film. A skilled user could produce fast, paper and metal printing plates of a higher quality than almost any other method, having started as a supplier to the offset lithography duplicating industry, Xerox now set its sights on capturing some of offsets market share. The 1385 was followed by the first automatic xerographic printer, the Copyflo, the Copyflo was a large microfilm printer which could produce positive prints on roll paper from any type of microfilm negative
38.
Adobe Photoshop
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Adobe Photoshop is a raster graphics editor developed and published by Adobe Systems for macOS and Windows. Photoshop was created in 1988 by Thomas and John Knoll and it can edit and compose raster images in multiple layers and supports masks, alpha compositing and several color models including RGB, CMYK, CIELAB, spot color and duotone. Photoshop has vast support for file formats but also uses its own PSD. In addition to graphics, it has limited abilities to edit or render text, vector graphics, 3D graphics. Photoshops featureset can be expanded by Photoshop plug-ins, programs developed and distributed independently of Photoshop that can run inside it, Photoshops naming scheme was initially based on version numbers. Photoshop CS3 through CS6 were also distributed in two different editions, Standard and Extended, in June 2013, with the introduction of Creative Cloud branding, Photoshops licensing scheme was changed to that of software as a service rental model and the CS suffixes were replaced with CC. Historically, Photoshop was bundled with software such as Adobe ImageReady, Adobe Fireworks, Adobe Bridge, Adobe Device Central. Alongside Photoshop, Adobe also develops and publishes Photoshop Elements, Photoshop Lightroom, Photoshop Express, collectively, they are branded as The Adobe Photoshop Family. It is currently a licensed software, Photoshop was developed in 1987 by the American brothers Thomas and John Knoll, who sold the distribution license to Adobe Systems Incorporated in 1988. Thomas Knoll, a PhD student at the University of Michigan, began writing a program on his Macintosh Plus to display images on a monochrome display. This program, called Display, caught the attention of his brother John Knoll, an Industrial Light & Magic employee, Thomas took a six-month break from his studies in 1988 to collaborate with his brother on the program. Thomas renamed the program ImagePro, but the name was already taken, during this time, John traveled to Silicon Valley and gave a demonstration of the program to engineers at Apple and Russell Brown, art director at Adobe. Both showings were successful, and Adobe decided to purchase the license to distribute in September 1988, while John worked on plug-ins in California, Thomas remained in Ann Arbor writing code. Photoshop 1.0 was released on 19 February 1990 for Macintosh exclusively, the Barneyscan version included advanced color editing features that were stripped from the first Adobe shipped version. The handling of color slowly improved with each release from Adobe, at the time Photoshop 1.0 was released, digital retouching on dedicated high end systems, such as the Scitex, cost around $300 an hour for basic photo retouching. Photoshop files have default file extension as. PSD, which stands for Photoshop Document, a PSD file stores an image with support for most imaging options available in Photoshop. These include layers with masks, transparency, text, alpha channels and spot colors, clipping paths and this is in contrast to many other file formats that restrict content to provide streamlined, predictable functionality. A PSD file has a height and width of 30,000 pixels
39.
PaintShop Pro
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PaintShop Pro is a raster and vector graphics editor for Microsoft Windows. It was originally published by Jasc Software, in October 2004, Corel purchased Jasc Software and the distribution rights to Paint Shop Pro. PSP functionality can be extended by Photoshop-compatible plugins, the particular bundled programs have varied with each numbered version and have not been sold by Corel as separate products. PSP comes with an interface for automating tasks with scripts written in Python, originally called simply Paint Shop, the first version,1.0, was a basic picture converter between BMP, GIF and PCX formats, released by Robert Voit in August 1990. Paint Shop was originally distributed as shareware and is available at many download sites. Most newer versions are only commercially available although some have been distributed in the United Kingdom in computer magazine CDs after they became obsolete. On November 28,2007, Corel announced that the office in Eden Prairie, Minnesota, where Paint Shop Pro was created, would be shut down, with development moving to offices in California and China. Paint Shop Pro 5 added support for layers as well as CMYK and HSL colour modes, included JASC Animation Shop for creating animations, PaintShop Pro X6 was the first to be available as a native 64 bit version. PaintShop Pro X7 includes content-aware features such as Magic Fill and Smart Edge as well as support for XMP sidecar files that preserve edit settings for raw formats, from 2006 to 2011, PaintShop Pro was marketed as Corel Paint Shop Pro Photo. Having dropped the Photo part of the name in version X4, Picture tubes are graphic images with no background. They are often used as a point for complex images. Tubes can also be regarded as graphic brushes based on a pre-created image, instead of leaving a trace of color on the canvas, they would leave a trail of images. Popular tube subjects include alphabets, humans, animal and toy figures, flowers, love messages, the tube system originated with PSP Pro version 5. Native tube files may be in. tub. psp. pspimage, xnView, IrfanView, and TubeEx are separate graphics programs that can convert tube files to. png. PaintShop Pro Photo X2 Ultimate was released towards the end of life of PaintShop Pro Photo X2, subsequent Ultimate editions were released contemporaneously with the basic version. PaintShop Pro X4 Ultimate included Nik Color Efex Pro 3.0, a voucher for 21 images from Fotolia at high quality, and additional Picture Tubes. X5 Ultimate included Reallusion FaceFilter Studio 2.0, NIK Color Efex Pro 3.0, PaintShop Pro X6 Ultimate includes Athentech Imagings Perfectly Clear and Reallusions FaceFilter3 Standard. PaintShop Pro X7 Ultimate includes those two items
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Corel Photo-Paint
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Corel Photo-Paint is a raster graphics editor developed and marketed by Corel since 1992. Corel currently markets the software for Windows operating systems, previously having marketed versions for Linux and its primary market competitor is Adobe Photoshop. In 2006, Corel released version 13 as Photo-Paint X3, employing this naming convention for subsequent releases as well as for CorelDraw, the current version is Photo-Paint X8. Corel has marketed a limited edition of Photo-Paint called Corel Photo-Paint SELECT with HP scanning hardware, photo-Paints native format is. CPT, which stores image data as well as information within an image, including objects, colour profiles, text, transparency, effect filters. The program also supports plug-in functionality including those developed for Adobe Photoshop, other extensions such as brushes are also compatible with Photo-Paint. Corel PHOTO-PAINT X6 - X7 supports OpenType font features, with X7 Update 4 the Font List new additional features in X7 Update 4 allows for filtering type fonts by weight, width, supported scripts, font Technology, Character Range, Style. As other raster graphics editors, Corel Photo-Paint allows an image to be edited in multiple layers, a gradient line going from opaque to transparent, for instance, can be used to have a darker foreground color fade into a lighter background color. The UI is highly customizable, and the user can freely move dialogs or adjust button sizes, effects can be applied to a picture including Smart Blur—a type of Gaussian blur effect which however retains sharpness around sharper edges—Mesh Warp, Camera Lens Flare, Trace Contour and others. There is limited support for vector paths to be integrated, CorelDraw and Photo-Paint are also copy-paste compatible, with format and effects retention — and without file conversion. Just like in Corel Draw, Photo Paint tasks can be automatized by scripts and macros, Corel calls the smaller macros created with COREL Script Scripts, and the scripts created with the Microsoft tools macros. Corel Photo-Paint is available in English, German, French, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Brazilian Portuguese, Swedish, Finnish, Polish, Czech, Russian, Hungarian and Turkish
