1.
Unbiased rendering
–
In computer graphics, unbiased rendering refers to a rendering technique that does not introduce any systematic error, or bias, into the radiance approximation. Because of this, it is used to generate the reference image to which other rendering techniques are compared. Mathematically speaking, the value of the unbiased estimator will always be the population mean. Error found in an unbiased rendering will be due to variance, variance is reduced by n and standard deviation by n for n data points, meaning that four times as many data points are needed to halve the standard deviation of the error. This makes unbiased rendering techniques less attractive for realtime or interactive rate applications, conversely, an image produced by an unbiased renderer that appears smooth and noiseless is probabilistically correct. A biased rendering method is not necessarily wrong, and it can still converge to the answer if the estimator is consistent. It does, however, introduce a certain bias error, usually in the form of a blur and it is important to note that an unbiased technique may not consider all possible paths. Path tracing can not consistently handle caustics generated from a point light source, progressive photon mapping, a biased rendering technique, can handle caustics quite well. Although biased, PPM is provably consistent, meaning that as the number of samples goes to infinity, the error goes to zero
2.
John Baeder
–
John Baeder is an American painter closely associated with the Photorealist movement. He is best known for his paintings of American roadside diners. John Baeder was born in 1938 in South Bend, Indiana, the interest in small towns across America began when he was young by photographing old cars and other relics with a Baby Brownie camera. While attending Auburn University in the late 1950s, he made frequent trips between Atlanta and Alabama, which drew his attention to landscapes and roadside diners. He started working as an art director in Atlanta for a branch of a New York advertising agency in 1960 and he went on to have a successful career in advertising through the early 1970s, while continuing to paint, draw and photograph on his own time. One of his ad agency offices in New York City was located near the Museum of Modern Art, in the late 1960s he also started collecting postcards of roadside America such as diners, gas stations, campsites, and motels. Baeder left the field in 1972 to pursue his artistic career full-time. The same year, OK Harris Gallery in New York began exhibiting his artworks, according to John Arthur, “John Baeder is much more than a painter of diners. He is a knowledgeable and deeply committed chronicler of that rapidly disappearing facet of American vernacular architecture that has played such a role in our social and cultural history. Most of the painters of the contemporary Pop scene blow our minds with massive disjunctions, explosive changes of scale, Baeder does not employ any of those devices. He sees everything as its own size in its proper environment and his diners fit into their urban context like modest folk heroes. Baeder is the recipient of the Tennessee Governor’s Distinguished Artist Award in 2009 and he lives and works in Nashville, Tennessee. With an introduction by Vincent Scully, New York, NY, Harry N. Abrams,1978. Baeder, John, Diners, Revised and Updated, with a foreword by John Arthur and a preface by Vincent Scully. New York, NY, Harry N. Abrams,1995, Baeder, John, Sign Language, Street Signs as Folk Art. New York, NY, Harry N. Abrams,1996, Baeder, John, Gas, Food, and Lodging. New York, NY, Abbeville Press,1982, frank, Peter, John Baeder’s American Roadside, Early Photographs. Los Angeles, California, Thomas Paul Fine Art,2009, Baeder, John, Jay Williams, ed. Pleasant Journeys And Good Eats Along The Way, A Retrospective Exhibition Of Paintings By John Baeder
3.
Painting
–
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
4.
Drawing
–
Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. A drawing instrument releases small amount of material onto a surface, the most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard or indeed almost anything, the medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas, the wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities. In addition to its artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, Drawing is one of the major forms of expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks, dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a medium, applied with brushes or pens. Drawing is often exploratory, with emphasis on observation, problem-solving. Drawing is also used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called studies, there are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, free hand and shading. There are also many drawing methods, such as drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania. A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch, in fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called drawings even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing. Drawing as a Form of Communication Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression and these drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts. The sketches and paintings produced in prehistoric times were eventually stylised and simplified, Drawing in the Arts Drawing is used to express ones creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practise, initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings
5.
Photograph
–
A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scenes visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography, the word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, together meaning drawing with light. The first permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based heliography process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process, after Niépces death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype and its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the image surface. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera, inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type, the needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. Non-digital photographs are produced with a chemical process. In the two-step process the film captures a negative image. To produce an image, the negative is most commonly transferred onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film, originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color
6.
Art movement
–
Art movements were especially important in modern art, when each consecutive movement was considered as a new avant-garde. According to theories associated with modernism and the concept of postmodernism, the period of time called modern art is posited to have changed approximately halfway through the 20th century and art made afterward is generally called contemporary art. Postmodernism in visual art begins and functions as a parallel to late modernism, the postmodern period began during late modernism, and according to some theorists postmodernism ended in the 21st century. During the period of time corresponding to modern art each movement was often considered a new avant-garde. Also during the period of time referred to as modern art movement was seen corresponding to a somewhat grandiose rethinking of all that came before it. Generally there was a commonality of visual style linking the works, postmodernist theorists posit that the idea of art movements are no longer as applicable, or no longer as discernible, as the notion of art movements had been before the postmodern era. There are many theorists however who doubt as to whether or not such an era was actually a fact, the term refers to tendencies in visual art, novel ideas and architecture, and sometimes literature. In music it is common to speak about genres and styles instead. See also cultural movement, a term with a broader connotation, as the names of many art movements use the -ism suffix, they are sometimes referred to as isms. 20th-century Western painting Art periods List of art movements Post-expressionism Western art history the-artists. org Art movements since 1900, 20th-Century Art Compiled by Dr. Witcombe, Sweet Briar College, Virginia. WebMuseum, Paris Themes index and detailed glossary of art periods
7.
Pop art
–
Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and the late 1950s in the United States. Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising. In pop art, material is sometimes removed from its known context, isolated. Pop art employs aspects of culture, such as advertising, comic books. One of its aims is to use images of popular culture in art, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of any culture and it is also associated with the artists use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. Pop art is interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism. Due to its utilization of found objects and images, it is similar to Dada, Pop art and minimalism are considered to be art movements that precede postmodern art, or are some of the earliest examples of postmodern art themselves. Pop art often takes imagery that is currently in use in advertising, product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, seen in the labels of Campbells Soup Cans, by Andy Warhol. Even the labeling on the outside of a box containing food items for retail has been used as subject matter in pop art. The origins of pop art in North America developed differently from Great Britain, in the United States, pop art was a response by artists, it marked a return to hard-edged composition and representational art. They used impersonal, mundane reality, irony, and parody to defuse the personal symbolism, in the U. S. some artwork by Larry Rivers, Alex Katz and Man Ray anticipated pop art. By contrast, the origins of pop art in post-War Britain, while employing irony, early pop art in Britain was a matter of ideas fueled by American popular culture when viewed from afar. Similarly, pop art was both an extension and a repudiation of Dadaism, among those artists in Europe seen as producing work leading up to pop art are, Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, and Kurt Schwitters. During the 1920s, American artists Gerald Murphy, Charles Demuth and Stuart Davis created paintings that contained pop culture imagery, the Independent Group, founded in London in 1952, is regarded as the precursor to the pop art movement. They were a gathering of young painters, sculptors, architects, writers and their group discussions centered on pop culture implications from elements such as mass advertising, movies, product design, comic strips, science fiction and technology. This material of found objects such as advertising, comic characters, magazine covers. One of the collages in that presentation was Paolozzis I was a Rich Mans Plaything, following Paolozzis seminal presentation in 1952, the IG focused primarily on the imagery of American popular culture, particularly mass advertising. Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the critics to defend the inclusion of the imagery of mass culture in the fine arts
8.
Abstract expressionism
–
Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
9.
Minimalism (visual arts)
–
As a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in post–World War II Western Art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Artists themselves have reacted against the label due to the negative implication of the work being simplistic. Minimalism is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract expressionism and a bridge to Postminimal art practices, Minimalism in visual art, generally referred to as minimal art, literalist art and ABC Art emerged in New York in the early 1960s. Guggenheim Museum curated by Lawrence Alloway also in 1966 that showcased Geometric abstraction in the American art world via Shaped canvas, Color Field, in the wake of those exhibitions and a few others the art movement called minimal art emerged. Others will come after us who will do the same and that is the tremendous secret of the future. Monochrome painting was initiated at the first Incoherent arts exhibition in 1882 in Paris, with a black painting by poet Paul Bilhaud entitled Combat de Nègres dans un tunnel. Minimal art is inspired in part by the paintings of Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Josef Albers, and the works of artists as diverse as Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, Giorgio Morandi. Minimalism was also a reaction against the painterly subjectivity of Abstract Expressionism that had been dominant in the New York School during the 1940s and 1950s. The wide range of possibilities of interpretation of monochrome paintings is arguably why the monochrome is so engaging to so many artists, critics, although the monochrome has never become dominant and few artists have committed themselves exclusively to it, it has never gone away. It reappears as though a spectre haunting high modernism, or as a symbol of it, appearing during times of aesthetic and sociopolitical upheavals. The philosopher or art historian who can envision me—or anyone at all—arriving at aesthetic judgments in this way reads shockingly more into himself or herself than into my article. They very explicitly stated that their art was not about self-expression, in general, Minimalisms features included geometric, often cubic forms purged of much metaphor, equality of parts, repetition, neutral surfaces, and industrial materials. Robert Morris, an influential theorist and artist, wrote a three part essay, Notes on Sculpture 1-3, originally published across three issues of Artforum in 1966. In these essays, Morris attempted to define a conceptual framework and formal elements for himself and these essays paid great attention to the idea of the gestalt - parts. Bound together in such a way that create a maximum resistance to perceptual separation. Morris later described an art represented by a marked lateral spread, the general shift in theory of which this essay is an expression suggests the transitions into what would later be referred to as postminimalism. The decisions about structures on the front surface of the canvas were therefore not entirely subjective, in the show catalog, Carl Andre noted, Art excludes the unnecessary. Frank Stella has found it necessary to paint stripes, there is nothing else in his painting
10.
Camera
–
Thumb|A2016 Nikon D810 A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both. The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of images constituting videos or movies, the camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects without physical contact. The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means dark chamber and is the Latin name of the device for projecting an image of external reality onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura, the functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye. A camera may work with the light of the spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A still camera is a device which creates a single image of an object or scene. All cameras use the basic design, light enters an enclosed box through a converging lens/convex lens. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera, a display, often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved, the forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi, Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham s wrote very influential essays about experiments with light through an opening in a darkened room. The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a room to project images used as a drawing aid has been traced back to circa 1550. Since the late 17th century portable camera obscura devices in tents, before the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. The first person to use this chemistry to create images was Thomas Wedgwood, to create images, Wedgwood placed items, such as leaves and insect wings, on ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate, and exposed the set-up to light. These images werent permanent, however, as Wedgwood didnt employ a fixing mechanism and he ultimately failed at his goal of using the process to create fixed images created by a camera obscura. The first permanent photograph of an image was made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles. Niépce had been experimenting with ways to fix the images of a camera obscura since 1816, the photograph Niépce succeeded in creating shows the view from his window
11.
Modernism
–
Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
12.
Ralph Goings
–
Ralph Goings is an American painter closely associated with the Photorealism movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. He is best known for his detailed paintings of hamburger stands, pick-up trucks. He was born to a family in Corning, California. During his freshman year of school, Goings became exposed to art. He was encouraged by his aunt growing up to pursue drawing, as she bought him books, as he began painting in his earlier years, he used materials such as paint from the local hardware store and used old bed sheets when canvas was unavailable. Goings studied art at the California College of Arts and Crafts in Oakland and he was inspired by artists such as Wayne Thiebaud, Johannes Vermeer, Thomas Eakins. Goings helped to define the Photorealist Movement along with Robert Bechtle, Robert Cottingham, Audrey Flack, Don Eddy, in 1963 I wanted to start painting again but I decided I wasnt going to do abstract pictures. It occurred to me that I should go as far to the opposite as I could and it occurred to me that projecting and tracing the photograph instead of copying it freehand would be even more shocking. To copy a photograph literally was considered a bad thing to do and it went against all of my art school training. Some people were upset by what I was doing and said its not art and that gave me encouragement in a perverse way, because I was delighted to be doing something that was really upsetting people. I was having a hell of a lot of fun, artists website Ralph Goings at the OK Harris Gallery Ralph Goings at Artnet Ralph Goings signed prints on Artnet/Dumbo Auctions, Affiliate of Rare Posters Oral Interview
13.
Realism (arts)
–
Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in part a matter of technique and training. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the depiction of lifeforms, perspective. Realist works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid, such as works of realism, regionalism. There have been various movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, the realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes. Realism in this sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism, realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan van Eyck, however such realism is often used to depict, for example, angels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever seen in real life. It is the choice and treatment of matter that defines Realism as a movement in painting. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions. However these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance, pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life
14.
Edward Hopper
–
Edward Hopper was a prominent American realist painter and printmaker. While he was most popularly known for his oil paintings, he was proficient as a watercolorist. Both in his urban and rural scenes, his spare and finely calculated renderings reflected his vision of modern American life. Hopper was born in Upper Nyack, New York, a center on the Hudson River north of New York City. He was one of two children of a comfortably well-to-do family and his parents, of mostly Dutch ancestry, were Elizabeth Griffiths Smith and Garret Henry Hopper, a dry-goods merchant. Although not so successful as his forebears, Garrett provided well for his two children with help from his wifes inheritance. Edward and his only sister Marion attended both private and public schools and they were raised in a strict Baptist home. His father had a nature, and the household was dominated by women, Hoppers mother, grandmother, sister. His birthplace and boyhood home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000 and it serves as a nonprofit community cultural center featuring exhibitions, workshops, lectures, performances, and special events. Hopper was a student in grade school and showed talent in drawing at age five. He readily absorbed his fathers intellectual tendencies and love of French and he also demonstrated his mothers artistic heritage. Hoppers parents encouraged his art and kept him supplied with materials, instructional magazines. By his teens, he was working in pen-and-ink, charcoal, watercolor, in 1895, he created his first signed oil painting, Rowboat in Rocky Cove. It shows his early interest in nautical subjects, in his early self-portraits, Hopper tended to represent himself as skinny, ungraceful, and homely. Though a tall and quiet teenager, his sense of humor found outlet in his art. Later in life, he mostly depicted women as the figures in his paintings, in high school, he dreamed of being a naval architect, but after graduation he declared his intention to follow an art career. Hoppers parents insisted that he study commercial art to have a means of income. In developing his self-image and individualistic philosophy of life, Hopper was influenced by the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and he later said, I admire him greatly. I read him over and over again
15.
Hyperrealism (visual arts)
–
Hyperrealism is a genre of painting and sculpture resembling a high-resolution photograph. Hyperrealism is considered an advancement of Photorealism by the used to create the resulting paintings or sculptures. The term is applied to an independent art movement and art style in the United States. Belgian art dealer Isy Brachot coined the French word Hyperréalisme, meaning Hyperrealism, as the title of a major exhibition, since then, Hyperealisme has been used by European artists and dealers to apply to painters influenced by the Photorealists. Early 21st century Hyperrealism was founded on the principles of Photorealism. American painter Denis Peterson, whose pioneering works are universally viewed as an offshoot of Photorealism, first used Hyperrealism to apply to the new movement and its splinter group of artists. Graham Thompson wrote One demonstration of the way photography became assimilated into the art world is the success of photorealist painting in the late 1960s, however, Hyperrealism is contrasted with the literal approach found in traditional photorealist paintings of the late 20th century. Strict Photorealist painters tended to imitate photographic images, omitting or abstracting certain finite detail to maintain a consistent over-all pictorial design and they often omitted human emotion, political value, and narrative elements. Since it evolved from Pop Art, the style of painting was uniquely tight, precise. Hyperrealism, although photographic in essence, often entails a softer, much more focus on the subject depicted, presenting it as a living. These objects and scenes in Hyperrealism paintings and sculptures are meticulously detailed to create the illusion of a reality not seen in the original photo and that is not to say theyre surreal, as the illusion is a convincing depiction of reality. Textures, surfaces, lighting effects, and shadows appear clearer, Hyperrealism has its roots in the philosophy of Jean Baudrillard, the simulation of something which never really existed. As such, Hyperrealists create a reality, a convincing illusion based on a simulation of reality. Hyperreal paintings and sculptures are an outgrowth of extremely high-resolution images produced by digital cameras, as Photorealism emulated analog photography, Hyperrealism uses digital imagery and expands on it to create a new sense of reality. Hyperrealistic paintings and sculptures confront the viewer with the illusion of manipulated high-resolution images, the Hyperrealist style focuses much more of its emphasis on details and the subjects. Hyperreal paintings and sculptures are not strict interpretations of photographs, nor are they literal illustrations of a scene or subject. Instead, they utilize additional, often subtle, pictorial elements to create the illusion of a reality which in fact either does not exist or cannot be seen by the human eye. Hyperrealist painters and sculptors make allowances for some means of transferring images to the canvas or mold, including preliminary drawings or grisaille underpaintings
16.
Smithsonian Institution
–
The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
17.
Canvas
–
Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, and other items for which sturdiness is required. It is also used by artists as a painting surface. It is also used in such objects as handbags, electronic device cases. The word canvas is derived from the 13th century Anglo-French canevaz, both may be derivatives of the Vulgar Latin cannapaceus for made of hemp, originating from the Greek κάνναβις. Modern canvas is made of cotton or linen, although. It differs from other cotton fabrics, such as denim. Canvas comes in two types, plain and duck. The threads in duck canvas are more tightly woven, the term duck comes from the Dutch word for cloth, doek. In the United States, canvas is classified in two ways, by weight and by a number system. The numbers run in reverse of the weight so a number 10 canvas is lighter than number 4, canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting, replacing wooden panels. One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, however, panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change, Venetian sail canvas was readily available, as lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Early canvas was made of linen, a sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength, linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint. In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as cotton duck, linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint. Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, the advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant, respectively. Gessoed canvases on stretchers are also available and they are available in a variety of weights, light-weight is about 4 oz or 5 oz, medium-weight is about 7 oz or 8 oz, heavy-weight is about 10 oz or 12 oz. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away, artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso
18.
Virtuoso
–
A virtuoso is an individual who possesses outstanding technical ability in a particular art or field such as fine arts, music, singing, playing a musical instrument, or composition. This word also refers to a person who has cultivated appreciation of artistic excellence, the plural form of virtuoso is either virtuosi or the Anglicisation, virtuosos, and the feminine forms are virtuosa and virtuose. According to Music in the Western civilization by Piero Weiss and Richard Taruskin, the defining element of virtuosity is the performance ability of the musician in question, who is capable of displaying feats of skill well above the average performer. Especially in music, both critics and musicians have mixed opinions on virtuosity, while the skill implied is clearly positive, musicians focused on virtuosity have been criticized for overlooking substance and emotion in favor of raw technical prowess. For instance, Ken Jennings initial success on Jeopardy was described as a virtuoso performance, the meaning of virtuoso has its roots in the Italian usage of the 16th and 17th centuries, signifying an honorific term reserved for a person distinguished in any intellectual or artistic field. The term evolved with time, simultaneously broadening and narrowing in scope as interpretations went in and out of fashion, originally a musician was honored the classification by being a composer, theorist or famous maestro, more importantly than being a skilled performer. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the word shifted in meaning, sébastien de Brossard in his Dictionnaire de Musique approached the word virtuoso by its Latin root virtu emphasizing exceptional training, especially in theory. This position was defended in Johann Gottfried Walthers Musicalisches Lexicon favoring the theorist over the performer. Johan Matthensons Der brauchbare Virtuoso maintained the respect for the traditional theoretische Virtuosen, in the late 18th century, people began to use the term to describe a instrumentalist or vocalist who pursued a career as a soloist. The tension about the merit of practical virtuosity started to grow at the time and intensified in the 19th century. Franz Liszt, considered one of the greatest of all virtuosos, declared that virtuosity is not an outgrowth, media related to Musicians at Wikimedia Commons
19.
Reflection (physics)
–
Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves, the law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected. In acoustics, reflection causes echoes and is used in sonar, in geology, it is important in the study of seismic waves. Reflection is observed with surface waves in bodies of water, Reflection is observed with many types of electromagnetic wave, besides visible light. Reflection of VHF and higher frequencies is important for radio transmission, even hard X-rays and gamma rays can be reflected at shallow angles with special grazing mirrors. Reflection of light is either specular or diffuse depending on the nature of the interface, a mirror provides the most common model for specular light reflection, and typically consists of a glass sheet with a metallic coating where the reflection actually occurs. Reflection is enhanced in metals by suppression of wave propagation beyond their skin depths, Reflection also occurs at the surface of transparent media, such as water or glass. In the diagram, a light ray PO strikes a vertical mirror at point O, by projecting an imaginary line through point O perpendicular to the mirror, known as the normal, we can measure the angle of incidence, θi and the angle of reflection, θr. The law of reflection states that θi = θr, or in other words, in fact, reflection of light may occur whenever light travels from a medium of a given refractive index into a medium with a different refractive index. In the most general case, a fraction of the light is reflected from the interface. This is analogous to the way impedance mismatch in a circuit causes reflection of signals. Total internal reflection of light from a denser medium occurs if the angle of incidence is above the critical angle, total internal reflection is used as a means of focusing waves that cannot effectively be reflected by common means. X-ray telescopes are constructed by creating a tunnel for the waves. As the waves interact at low angle with the surface of this tunnel they are reflected toward the focus point, a conventional reflector would be useless as the X-rays would simply pass through the intended reflector. When light reflects off a material denser than the external medium, in contrast, a less dense, lower refractive index material will reflect light in phase. This is an important principle in the field of thin-film optics, specular reflection at a curved surface forms an image which may be magnified or demagnified, curved mirrors have optical power. Such mirrors may have surfaces that are spherical or parabolic, if the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular or regular reflection. The laws of reflection are as follows, The incident ray, the reflected ray, the angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the reflected ray makes to the same normal
20.
Geometry
–
Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
21.
Richard Estes
–
For the wildebeest expert, see Richard Despard Estes. Richard Estes is an American artist, best known for his photorealist paintings, the paintings generally consist of reflective, clean, and inanimate city and geometric landscapes. He is regarded as one of the founders of the international photo-realist movement of the late 1960s, with painters as John Baeder, Ralph Goings, Chuck Close, Audrey Flack. Author Graham Thompson writes One demonstration of the way photography became assimilated into the art world is the success of photorealist painting in the late 1960s and early 1970s. At an early age, Estes moved to Chicago with his family and he frequently studied the works of realist painters such as Edgar Degas, Edward Hopper, and Thomas Eakins, who are strongly represented in the Art Institutes collection. During this period, he painted in his spare time and he had lived in Spain since 1962 and, by 1966, was financially able to paint full-time. Estes stayed true to the photographs he used, when his paintings include stickers, signs and his work rarely included litter or snow around the buildings because he believed these details detract from the buildings themselves. The paintings are set during daylight hours, suggesting vacant. Estess works strive to create convincing three-dimensionality on a two-dimensional canvas and his work has been described via a variety of terms, ranging from super-realism, sharp-focus realism, neo-realism, photo-realism, to radical realism. The most frequently used term is super-realism, most of Estess paintings from the early 1960s are of city dwellers engaged in everyday activities. Beginning around 1967, he began to paint storefronts and buildings with windows and, more importantly. The paintings were based on photographs he took, which trapped the evanescent nature of the reflections, which would change with the lighting. Estess paintings were based on photographs of the subject. He avoided using famous New York landmarks and his paintings provided fine detail that were invisible to the naked eye, and gave depth and intensity of vision that only artistic transformation can achieve. He had a show in 1968 at the Allan Stone Gallery. His works have also exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Whitney Museum, the Thyssen-Bornemisza. In 1971, Estes was granted a National Council for the Arts fellowship, the same year, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and he became a full Academician in 1984. Paintings by Richard Estes Art done by Richard Estes Richard Estes Artwork Examples on AskART
22.
Chuck Close
–
Charles Thomas Chuck Close is an American painter and artist and photographer who achieved fame as a photorealist, through his massive-scale portraits. Close often paints abstract portraits of himself and others, which hang in collections internationally, although a catastrophic spinal artery collapse in 1988 left him severely paralyzed, he has continued to paint and produce work that remains sought after by museums and collectors. Close also creates photo portraits using a large format camera. Chuck Close was born in Monroe, Washington and his father, Leslie Durward Close, died when Chuck was eleven years old. His mothers name was Mildred Wagner Close, Close suffered, as a child, from a neuromuscular condition that made it difficult to lift his feet and a bout with nephritis that kept him out of school for most of sixth grade. Even when in school, he did poorly, as result of dyslexia, most of his early works are very large portraits based on photographs of family and friends, often other artists. Chuck suffers from prosopagnosia and has suggested that this condition is what first inspired him to do portraits, I saw this Jackson Pollock drip painting with aluminum paint, tar, gravel and all that stuff. It was so far removed from what I thought art was, however, within 2 or 3 days, I was dripping paint all over my old paintings. In a way Ive been chasing that experience ever since, Close attended Everett Community College in 1958–60. Notable Snohomish County resident, author John Patric, was an intellectual influence on Chuck Close. In 1962, Close received his B. A. from the University of Washington in Seattle. In 1961 he won a scholarship to the Yale Summer School of Music and Art, and the following year entered the graduate degree program at Yale University. Among Closes classmates at Yale were Brice Marden, Vija Celmins, Janet Fish, Richard Serra, Nancy Graves, Jennifer Bartlett, Robert Mangold, after Yale, he studied at Academy of Fine Arts Vienna for a while on a Fulbright grant. When he returned to the US, he worked as an art teacher at the University of Massachusetts, Close came to New York City in 1967 and established himself in SoHo. His early airbrush techniques inspired the development of the ink jet printer, Close had been known for his skillful brushwork as a graduate student at Yale University. There, he emulated Willem de Kooning and seemed destined to become an abstract expressionist. I threw away my tools, Close said, I chose to do things I had no facility with. The choice not to do something is in a way more positive than the choice to do something
23.
Charles Bell (painter)
–
Charles Bell was an American Photorealist known primarily for his large scale still lifes. According to a Guggeheim Foundation biography, Bell never received any training in his art. He claimed inspiration from Richard Diebenkorn and Wayne Thiebaud and he also worked in the San Francisco studio of Donald Timothy Flores, where painted mostly small-scale landscapes and still lifes. He was given the Society of Western Artists Award in 1968, after moving to New York, Bell created his paintings by photographing a subject in still life. With a subject matter primarily of toys, pinball machines, gumball machines. Bells work, created in his New York loft studio on West Broadway, is noted not only for the surface of his works, done largely in oil. In 1995 he was included in the exhibition American Masters, curated by Michael McKenzie for the Museu dArte Moderne in São Paulo, along with Robert Indiana and Andy Warhol, two artists Bell admired. For the exhibit, Bell created a print titled The Viking largely regarded as a masterpiece of the medium which required 51 plates,11 proofings and 10 months to produce. Bell was born and raised in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he graduated from Will Rogers High School in 1953. He earned a Bachelor of Business Administration degree from the University of Oklahoma in 1957, Bell lived in the San Francisco Bay Area after leaving the navy, and began his artistic activity in San Francisco. He moved to New York City in 1967 and set up his own studio, Bell worked as an accountant and served as comptroller of the International Nickel Corporation until 1980. Thereafter, he was a full-time artist and he had exhibited his works as early as 1969 at the gallery owned by Louis K. Meisel. Bell died in Manhattan, New York of lymphoma on April 1,1995 and he had AIDS at the time of his death. His partner of 22 years, interior decorator Willard Ching, had died of an AIDS-related illness three years earlier, in 1992. After Bells death, Louis K. Meisel of the Louis K. Meisel Gallery became the owner of all property rights to the body of art created by Charles Bell. According to art critic and historian, Henry Geldzaler, Bells best works were in the pinball series, the New York Times quoted Geldzaler as saying. the artists greatest achievement -- visually, technically and technologically. Charles Bell, The Complete Works, 1970-1990,1991 article about Charles Bell, list of exhibits Charles Bell at the Louis K. Meisel Gallery
24.
Audrey Flack
–
Audrey L. Flack is an American artist. Her work pioneered the art genre of photorealism, her work encompasses painting, sculpture, Flack has numerous academic degrees, including both a graduate and an honorary doctorate degree from Cooper Union in New York City. Additionally she has a degree in Fine Arts from Yale University. In May 2015, Flack received an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from Clark University, where she also gave a commencement address. Flacks work is displayed in major museums, including the Museum of Modern Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Whitney Museum of American Art. Flack attended New Yorks High School of Music & Art and she studied fine arts in New York from 1948 to 1953, studying under Josef Albers among others. She earned a degree and received an honorary doctorate from Cooper Union in New York City. She studied art history at the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, the ironic kitsch themes in her early work influenced Jeff Koons. But gradually, Flack became a New Realist and then evolved into photorealism during the 1960s and she was the first photorealist painter to be added to the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in 1966. The critic Graham Thompson wrote, One demonstration of the way photography became assimilated into the art world is the success of photorealist painting in the late 1960s, Flack has claimed to have found the photorealist movement too restricting, and now gains much of her inspiration from Baroque art. Flack is currently represented by the Louis K. Meisel Gallery and she was awarded the St. Gaudens Medal from Cooper Union, and the honorary Albert Dome professorship from Bridgeport University. In 1986 Flack published Art & Soul, Notes on Creating, Flack lives and works in New York City and Long Island. Audrey Flack is best known for her photorealist paintings, the genre, taking its cues from Pop Art, incorporates depictions of the real and the regular, from advertisements to cars to cosmetics. Flacks work brings in everyday items like tubes of lipstick and, most commonly. These inanimate objects often disturb or crowd the pictorial space, which are composed as table-top still lives. Flack often brings in actual accounts of history into her photorealist paintings, such as World War II, Audrey Flacks sculpture is often overlooked in light of her better-known Photorealist paintings. In this interview, Flack discusses the fact that she is self-taught in sculpture and she incorporates religion and mythology into her sculpture rather than the historical or everyday subjects of her paintings. Government National Design for Transportation Award, presented by Jane Alexander, breaking the Rules, Audrey Flack, a Retrospective 1950-1990
25.
Robert Bechtle
–
Robert Bechtle is an American painter. He received his Bachelor of Fine Arts and Master of Fine Arts from the California College of Arts and Crafts, now the California College of the Arts, in Oakland, California. Except for his service in Germany, Bechtle has lived all his life in the Bay Area. He started drawing at an age and, with encouragement from his teachers and his family. By submitting a portfolio of artwork to a competition, Bechtle won a scholarship that paid for his first year of college. When he graduated, he was drafted and sent to Berlin, besides making paintings, watercolors, and drawings—he is an accomplished printmaker. Bechtle began in lithography but, after 1982 when Crown Point Press began publishing his prints and he taught at San Francisco State University and lives in San Franciscos Potrero Hill neighborhood. Along with John Baeder, Richard Estes, Chuck Close, Richard McLean, by the mid-1960s, he had started developing a style and subject matter that he has maintained over his career. Working from his own photographs, Bechtle creates paintings described as photographic, taking inspiration from his local San Francisco surroundings, he painted friends and family and the neighborhoods and street scenes, paying special attention to automobiles. Bechtles brushwork is barely detectable in his photo-like renditions and his paintings reveal his perspective on how things look to him, the color, and the light of a commonplace scene. Peter Schjeldahl wrote in The New Yorker that in 1969, when he first noticed a Bechtle painting, he was “rattled by the middle-class ordinariness of the scene. ”As he looked more closely, he discovered “a feat of resourceful painterly artifice” that he realized was “beautiful. ”The article concludes, “Life is incredibly complicated, and the proof is that when you confront any simple, stopped part of it you are stupefied. ”Bechtle is represented by the Barbara Gladstone Gallery in New York City. Bechtle has created prints with the Crown Point Press in San Francisco since 1982, Robert Bechtles work has been exhibited internationally. C. Retrospective exhibits The Oakland Museum of California held an exhibit in 2000 of Bechtles paintings, California Classic. SFmoma. org, Major Retrospective of San Francisco Artist Robert Bechtle At SFMOMA — Robert Bechtle, newyorker. com, Parked Cars, The New Yorker article, May 2005 issue, by Peter Schjeldahl. Oral history interview with Robert Bechtle — digital transcript, Smithsonian Archives of American Art Oral History Program, Oral history interview with Robert Bechtle, — digital transcript, Smithsonian Archives of American Art Oral History Program. Louis K. Meisel Gallery. com, Robert Bechtle website — images of works + biography, photorealism, by Louis K. Meisel, Abradale/Harry N. Abrams, New York, NY, ISBN0810980924, ISBN 978-0810980921
26.
Landscape
–
A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and it is the dynamic backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park, the activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context, the term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. Land may be taken in its sense of something to people belong. The suffix ‑scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix ‑ship, the roots of ‑ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix ‑schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that ‑ship, the word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters term. An example of this usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer, Could we but climb where Moses stood. Setting, In works of narrative, it includes the moment in time and geographic location in which a story takes place. Picturesque, The word literally means in the manner of a picture, fit to be made into a picture, and used as early as 1703, gilpin’s Essay on Prints defined picturesque as a term expressive of that peculiar kind of beauty, which is agreeable in a picture. A view, A sight or prospect of some landscape or extended scene, wilderness, An uncultivated, uninhabited, and inhospitable region. Cityscape, The urban equivalent of a landscape, in the visual arts a cityscape is an artistic representation, such as a painting, drawing, print or photograph, of the physical aspects of a city or urban area. Seascape, A photograph, painting, or other work of art depicts the sea. Geomorphology is the study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near Earths surface. Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology and this broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate, the Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes. Desert, Plain, Taiga, Tundra, Wetland, Mountain, Mountain range, Cliff, Coast, Littoral zone, Glacier, Polar regions of Earth, Shrubland, Forest, Rainforest, Woodland, Jungle, Moors
27.
Cityscape
–
In the visual arts a cityscape is an artistic representation, such as a painting, drawing, print or photograph, of the physical aspects of a city or urban area. It is the equivalent of a landscape. Townscape is roughly synonymous with cityscape, though it implies the same difference in urban size, in urban design the terms refer to the configuration of built forms and interstitial space. From the first century A. D. dates a fresco at the Baths of Trajan in Rome depicting a birds eye view of an ancient city, in the Middle Ages, cityscapes appeared as a background for portraits and biblical themes. From the 16th up to the 18th century numerous copperplate prints, the function of these prints was to provide a map-like overview. Halfway the 17th century the cityscape became an independent genre in the Netherlands, in his famous View of Delft in 1660-1661 Jan Vermeer painted a quite accurate portrait of the city Delft. Cities like Amsterdam, Haarlem and The Hague also became subjects for paintings. Painters from other European countries followed the Dutch example, the 18th century was a flourishing period for cityscape painting in Venice. At the end of the 19th century the impressionists focused on the atmosphere, suburban and industrial areas, building sites and railway yards also became subjects for cityscapes. During the 20th century attention became focused on abstract and conceptual art, American painter Edward Hopper, who stayed loyal to figurative painting, created intriguing images of the American scene. With a revival of art at the end of the 20th century comes a revaluation of the cityscape. Well-known living cityscape painters are Rackstraw Downes, Antonio López García, American artist Yvonne Jacquette has made a specialty of aerial cityscapes. Stephen Wiltshire, a London born artist with autism, is known for his panoramic cityscape renderings composed from memory, gordon Cullen Landscape painting List of cities with most skyscrapers Skyline Veduta Media related to Cityscape paintings at Wikimedia Commons
28.
Portrait
–
A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person, for this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c.2144 -2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality. Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypts Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, the art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of a symbol of what that person looked like. In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized, true portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings. Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits and these works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the elite, priests, warriors. They were represented during several stages of their lives, the faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found, there is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting. One of the portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vincis painting titled Mona Lisa. What has been claimed as the worlds oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old. Profile view, full view, and three-quarter view, are three common designations for portraits, each referring to a particular orientation of the head of the individual depicted. Such terms would tend to have greater applicability to two-dimensional artwork such as photography, in the case of three-dimensional artwork, the viewer can usually alter their orientation to the artwork by moving around it
29.
Still life
–
A still life is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life gives the artist more freedom in the arrangement of elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of such as landscape or portraiture. Early still-life paintings, particularly before 1700, often contained religious, some modern still life breaks the two-dimensional barrier and employs three-dimensional mixed media, and uses found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as video and sound. Still life emerged from the painting of details in larger compositions with subjects, the term includes the painting of dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered art, although in practice they were often painted from dead models. The still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration, generally a still life includes a fully depicted background, and puts aesthetic rather than illustrative concerns as primary. Still life occupied the lowest rung of the hierarchy of genres, the trompe-lœil painting, which intends to deceive the viewer into thinking the scene is real, is a specialized type of still life, usually showing inanimate and relatively flat objects. Still-life paintings often adorn the interior of ancient Egyptian tombs and it was believed that food objects and other items depicted there would, in the afterlife, become real and available for use by the deceased. Ancient Greek vase paintings also demonstrate great skill in depicting everyday objects, by the 16th century, food and flowers would again appear as symbols of the seasons and of the five senses. Also starting in Roman times is the tradition of the use of the skull in paintings as a symbol of mortality and earthly remains and these vanitas images have been re-interpreted through the last 400 years of art history, starting with Dutch painters around 1600. As Pliny the Elder recorded in ancient Roman times, Greek artists centuries earlier were already advanced in the arts of painting, genre painting. He singled out Peiraikos, whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few, by 1300, starting with Giotto and his pupils, still-life painting was revived in the form of fictional niches on religious wall paintings which depicted everyday objects. Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, still life in Western art remained primarily an adjunct to Christian religious subjects, painters like Jan van Eyck often used still-life elements as part of an iconographic program. Petrus Christus’ portrait of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith is an example of a transitional still life depicting both religious and secular content. Another similar type of painting is the family portrait combining figures with a table of food. Around this time, simple still-life depictions divorced of figures were beginning to be painted on the outside of shutters of private devotional paintings, another step toward the autonomous still life was the painting of symbolic flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits around 1475. This was a development by Pieter Aertsen, whose A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms introduced the type with a painting that still startles. A small religious scene can often be out in the distance
30.
Duane Hanson
–
Duane Hanson was an American artist and sculptor from Minnesota. He spent most of his career in South Florida and he was known for his lifecast realistic works of people. He casted in various materials, including resin, fiberglass, Bondo. His work is associated with the Pop Art movement as well as hyperrealism. Duane Elwood Hanson was born January 17,1925 in Alexandria, after attendance at Luther College and the University of Washington, he graduated from Macalaster College in 1946. Following a period where he taught high school art, he received a Master of Fine Arts degree from the Cranbrook Academy of Art in Bloomfield Hills in 1951, around 1966 Hanson began making figural casts using fiberglass and vinyl. Works that first brought him notice were of figures grouped in tableaux, usually of brutal and violent subjects, Hansons Abortion was inspired by the horrors of an illicit backroom procedure, and Accident showed a motorcycle crash. Race Riot included among its seven figures a white policeman terrorizing an African American man as well as an African American rioter attacking the policeman, other works which dealt with physical violence or other explosive social issues of the 1960s were Riot, Football Players, and Vietnam Scene. These sculptures, cast from people, were made of fiberglass. Hanson then clothed the figures with garments from second-hand clothing stores, few of Hansons early sculptures would survive because he later destroyed many of them, preferring to be known for his more mature style. Around 1970, Hanson abandoned gut-wrenching scenes for more subtle, though no less vivid ones, in that year he made the Supermarket Shopper, Hardhat, and Tourists, Woman Eating was completed in 1971. These were also life-sized, clothed, fiberglass figures, unlike the earlier works, however, these were single or paired figures, and not overtly engaged in a violent activity. Instead, his figures often had a listless, bored affect, staring into the distance, in 1967, art dealer Ivan Karp attempted to persuade Hanson to move from South Florida to New York City, and the artist moved to Manhattan in 1969. However, in 1973, Hanson moved back south, to Davie, Florida, while the earlier works tended to be more contained spatially, the later figures had no clearly defined boundaries separating them from the viewer. They quite literally inhabited the viewers space—with amusing results at times, Hanson sometimes would cast his own children in his work, as in Cheerleader, and Surfer. Although detractors may liken his work to figures in a wax museum, duane Hanson at the Serpentine Galleries, London, UK. Louis Art Museum, St
31.
Sculpture
–
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
32.
Glennray Tutor
–
Glennray Tutor is an American painter who is known for his photorealistic paintings. He is considered to be part of the Photorealism art movement and his paintings are immersed with bright colors, nostalgic items, metaphor, and with a complete focus on detail. Tutor is a graduate of the University of Mississippi where he received his Bachelor of Arts degree in Art and English in 1974, Glennray Tutors earliest work was that of barren landscapes resembling the South West United States and Mexico, with titles such as The Road to the Mesa. This work is marked by muted colors and rich blacks and is called The Structure Series. During this time he illustrated several book covers by Michael Bishop which can be described as fantasy pieces. Tutors first Photorealist paintings were done in the early 1980s, without knowledge of the original Photorealism movement and his subject matter ranged from Still Lifes of mason jars, fireworks, and toys to rural landscapes. In the mid-1980s he became aware of the original Photorealism painters and was receptive to the work of Ralph Goings. Many of Tutors paintings have appeared in and on the covers of books, record albums, Tutors work was displayed alongside other artists such as Roy Lichtenstein, Chuck Close, Audrey Flack, Robert Gniewek and Robert Rauschenberg as well as many others. The traveling gallery show started in Washington, DC and then toured South Eastern Asia, Glennray Tutor lives in Oxford, Mississippi. His son, Zach Tutor, is an artist and curator of the art blog Supersonic Electronic, Photorealism Hyperrealism Ralph Goings Charles Bell Glennray Tutor In-depth Interview with Glennray Tutor
33.
Franz Gertsch
–
Franz Gertsch is a Swiss painter known for his large format hyperrealistic portraits. Gertsch was born 1930 in Mörigen, Switzerland, between 1947 and 1952 he studied with Max von Mühlenen and Hans Schwarzenbach in Bern. In 1972, he took part in the documenta 5 in Kassel with his painting Medici and he is known for his realistic paintings and woodcuts. Museo Cantonale dArte, Lugano, Franz Gertsch
34.
Juxtapoz
–
Juxtapoz is published by High Speed Productions, the same company that publishes Thrasher skateboard magazine in San Francisco, California. Although based in San Francisco, Juxtapoz was founded upon the belief in the virtues of Southern California pop culture, ferus Gallery, run by Walter Hopps and Irving Blum in the 1950s and 1960s, was the ultimate cultural touchstone for the magazine. Juxtapoz expanded its range in the early 2000s to cover other nascent styles and subgenres of underground art, artists who have received coverage in Juxtapoz include KAWS, Mark Ryden, Barry McGee, Todd Schorr, Tara McPherson, Camille Rose Garcia, Tim Biskup, and Tom Sachs. As of 2009, Juxtapoz had the largest circulation of any art magazine in the United States, more established counterparts like Art News, Art in America. In addition to printed subscriptions which offer alternative cover images to the newsstand version, hot Rod Lowbrow art Niagara Official website Photos from In the Land of Retinal Delights, The Juxtapoz Factor, an exhibition curated by Meg Linton
35.
Ian Hornak
–
Ian Hornak was an American draughtsman, painter and printmaker and one of the founding artists of the Hyperrealist and Photorealist art movements. During an interview with the 57th Street Review in 1976, Hornak remarked I picked up my technique as a child through my interest in art, I especially loved Renaissance painting, because it had clarity and simplification of form and great organization. Hornak produced Hyperrealist and Photorealist artwork with surreal overtones in the midst of the pop art movement and he was introduced into the New York City art scene in 1968 by Pop Artist, Lowell Blair Nesbitt, with whom Hornak lived and worked until 1969. While living in East Hampton, Hornak came to work with and befriend art world figures, Robert Motherwell, Willem de Kooning, Robert Indiana, Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg and Fairfield Porter. When Hornak began his career in New York in 1968 he created artworks that were pen & ink drawings and paintings of floating figures both clothed and nude, in addition to an art series. In 1970, Hornak began to produce conceptual multiple exposure landscape paintings as well as landscape paintings. In 1974 John Canaday wrote in the New York Times, Mr. Hornak is right at the top of the list of romantically descriptive painters today. Hornak said of the development and creation of paintings, I begin with one flower, then add and subtract. The finesse of the surface, the appeal of the subject matter are there. Gerrit Henry wrote of these works, Hornak is a rather self-explanatory if not wholly tautological postmodernism, additionally the artist commented on his influences, *What I so like about Poussin and Cézanne is their sense of organization. I like the way in which they develop space and shape in architectural continuity - the rhythm across their paintings, when I paint a landscape, I get the greatest pleasure out of composing it. As I paint, I try to out a visual sonata form or a fugue. Upon the recommendation of Lowell Blair Nesbitt, beginning in 1969, in 1970, Lee Krasner suggested to Jackson Pollocks nephew, Jason McCoy who was the assistant director of the Tibor de Nagy Gallery on West 57th Street that he consider Hornak for the gallery stable. The gallery, however, had yet to represent any of the artists of the then-forming Photorealist movement, McCoy and de Nagy agreed to Krasners recommendation and entered into an exclusive contract with Hornak, a relationship that produced the artists first New York solo exhibition in 1971. Art Critic, Joy Colby said of that period Hornaks career, collectors wait in line for Hornaks landscape paintings since his third one man show sold out at New Yorks Tibor de Nagy Gallery. In 1984, Jimmy Ernst gave his recommendation for Hornak to be represented by the Armstrong Gallery on West 57th Street, Ian Hornak suffered an aortic aneurysm on November 17,2002 while painting in his studio in East Hampton, New York. Though Hornak was immediately rushed to the Southampton Hospital in New York and surgery was performed to repair the aorta, on January 21,2011, Ian Hornak was buried in a private section of the Great Mausoleum in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale in California. C. Under the sponsorship of the Ben Bernanke Administration, Ian Hornaks personal papers and effects entered into the permanent collection of the Smithsonian Institutions Archives of American Art in 2007
36.
Howard Kanovitz
–
Howard Kanovitz was a pioneering painter in the Photorealist and Hyperrealist Movements, which emerged in the 1960s and 1970s in response to the abstract art movement. Howard Kanovitz, whose 50-year career ranged from abstract expressionism to computer imaging, was at the forefront of the art movement known as photorealism and his 1966 landmark Jewish Museum solo exhibition launched this new genre of photo-based painting. Though dubbed by Barbara Rose “the grandfather of photorealism”, Kanovitz’s work transcended that classification in “realistic paintings for which the concept of realism is too narrow. ”After moving to New York City in the 1950s Kanovitz worked as the assistant to Franz Kline. He began using photographs as source material, either appropriated from the media or taken himself and he also represented America in documenta VI,1977. He taught at the Salzburger Summer Art School, founded by Oscar Kokoschka, as well as at the School of Visual Arts in New York and he participated in over 100 group shows in America and Europe
37.
Malcolm Morley
–
Malcolm Morley is an English artist now living in the United States. He is best known as a photorealist, Morley was born in north London. After release, he studied art first at the Camberwell School of Arts and then at the Royal College of Art, in 1956, he saw an exhibition of contemporary American art at the Tate Gallery, and began to produce paintings in an abstract expressionist style. In the mid-1960s, Morley briefly taught at Ohio State University, and then moved back to New York City, where he taught at SUNY Stony Brook from 1970 through 1974 and the School of Visual Arts. He now lives in Bellport, New York, in a church that serves as his home/studio. His work was featured as the first temporary exhibit at the Parrish Art Museum in Watermill, New York and he considers Cézanne the quintessential sensationalist, and has acknowledged that artists deep influence on his own work. When Morley moved to New York he also met Barnett Newman and he painted a number of works at this time made up of only horizontal black and white bands. He also met Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and, influenced in part by them and he often used a grid to transfer photographics images from a variety of sources to canvas as accurately as possible, and became one of the most noted photorealists. In the 1970s, Morleys work began to be more expressionist, many of his paintings from the mid-70s, such as Train Wreck, depict catastrophes. Later in the decade, he began to use his own earlier drawings, in 1984, Morley won the inaugural Turner Prize. In the 1990s he returned again to a more precise photorealist style and his work often draws upon various sources in a process of cross-fertilization. For example, his painting The Day of the Locust draws its title from the novel The Day of the Locust, by Nathanael West. One scene in the painting is drawn from the scene of the novel, and other scenes are drawn from the 1954 film Suddenly. His most significant student is his ex-wife, Fran Bull, Malcolm Morley is represented by Sperone Westwater, New York and Xavier Hufkens, Brussels. Richard Milazzo has written the book Malcolm Morley in 2000, and Jean-Claude Lebensztijn wrote Malcolm Morley, Itineraries
The dictionary definition of photo-realism at Wiktionary
