1.
Pic du Midi d'Ossau
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The Pic du Midi dOssau is a mountain rising above the Ossau Valley in the French Pyrenees. Despite possessing neither a glacier nor, in the context of the range and this familiar shape also makes it easily recognisable from afar, and it is particularly distinctive from the Boulevard des Pyrénées in Pau, some 55 km to the north. As normally seen from the north, the mountain itself as having two distinct peaks, although from the south two other summits are also visible. It stands separate from any surrounding peaks, being surrounded by the valleys of the Gave de Bious, to the west. These two mountain streams come together in the hamlet of Gabas at the foot of the northern slopes. The Pic du Midi dOssau was reputedly first climbed in 1552 by a led by François de Foix-Candale. The first fully recorded climb was by Guillaume Delfau accompanied by Mathieu on October 2,1797, the mountain offers many routes of ascent, the voie normale is a serious scramble and rock climb with a grading of PD, II+,550 m. It approaches the summit via the Refuge de Pombie, a Club Alpin Francais owned mountain hut situated at 2,031 m, politically, the mountain lies within the commune of Laruns, in the département of Pyrénées-Atlantiques and the Aquitaine region of France. It lies within the protected area of the Pyrenees National Park
2.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
5.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
6.
Pyrenees
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The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain. For the most part, the main crest forms a divide between France and Spain, with the microstate of Andorra sandwiched in between. The Crown of Aragon and the Kingdom of Navarre have historically extended on both sides of the range, with smaller northern portions now in France and larger southern parts now in Spain. The demonym for the noun Pyrenees in English is Pyrenean, in Greek mythology, Pyrene is a princess who gave her name to the Pyrenees. The Greek historian Herodotus says Pyrene is the name of a town in Celtic Europe, Hercules, characteristically drunk and lustful, violates the sacred code of hospitality and rapes his hosts daughter. Pyrene gives birth to a serpent and runs away to the woods, alone, she pours out her story to the trees, attracting the attention of wild beasts who tear her to pieces. After his victory over Geryon, Hercules passes through the kingdom of Bebryx again, and all the rock-cliffs and wild-beast haunts echo back Pyrene. … The mountains hold on to the name through the ages. Pliny the Elder connects the story of Hercules and Pyrene to Lusitania, the Spanish Pyrenees are part of the following provinces, from east to west, Girona, Barcelona, Lleida, Huesca, Navarra and Gipuzkoa. The French Pyrenees are part of the following départements, from east to west, Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude, Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrénées, the independent principality of Andorra is sandwiched in the eastern portion of the mountain range between the Spanish Pyrenees and French Pyrenees. Physiographically, the Pyrenees may be divided into three sections, the Atlantic, the Central, and the Eastern Pyrenees, together, they form a distinct physiographic province of the larger Alpine System division. In the Western Pyrenees, from the Basque mountains near the Bay of Biscay of the Atlantic Ocean, at the eastern end on the southern side lies a distinct area known as the Sub-Pyrenees. On the French side the slopes of the range descend abruptly. The Pyrenees are older than the Alps, their sediments were first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, the intense pressure and uplifting of the Earths crust first affected the eastern part and moved progressively to the entire chain, culminating in the Eocene Epoch. The eastern part of the Pyrenees consists largely of granite and gneissose rocks, the massive and unworn character of the chain comes from its abundance of granite, which is particularly resistant to erosion, as well as weak glacial development. Low passes are lacking, and the roads and the railroads between France and Spain run only in the lowlands at the western and eastern ends of the Pyrenees. A notable visual feature of mountain range is La Brèche de Roland, a gap in the ridge line. Coal deposits capable of being profitably worked are situated chiefly on the Spanish slopes, the open pit of Trimoun close to the commune of Luzenac is one of the greatest sources of talc in Europe
7.
Minor planet
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A minor planet is an astronomical object in direct orbit around the Sun that is neither a planet nor exclusively classified as a comet. Minor planets can be dwarf planets, asteroids, trojans, centaurs, Kuiper belt objects, as of 2016, the orbits of 709,706 minor planets were archived at the Minor Planet Center,469,275 of which had received permanent numbers. The first minor planet to be discovered was Ceres in 1801, the term minor planet has been used since the 19th century to describe these objects. The term planetoid has also used, especially for larger objects such as those the International Astronomical Union has called dwarf planets since 2006. Historically, the asteroid, minor planet, and planetoid have been more or less synonymous. This terminology has become complicated by the discovery of numerous minor planets beyond the orbit of Jupiter. A Minor planet seen releasing gas may be classified as a comet. Before 2006, the IAU had officially used the term minor planet, during its 2006 meeting, the IAU reclassified minor planets and comets into dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies. Objects are called dwarf planets if their self-gravity is sufficient to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium, all other minor planets and comets are called small Solar System bodies. The IAU stated that the minor planet may still be used. However, for purposes of numbering and naming, the distinction between minor planet and comet is still used. Hundreds of thousands of planets have been discovered within the Solar System. The Minor Planet Center has documented over 167 million observations and 729,626 minor planets, of these,20,570 have official names. As of March 2017, the lowest-numbered unnamed minor planet is 1974 FV1, as of March 2017, the highest-numbered named minor planet is 458063 Gustavomuler. There are various broad minor-planet populations, Asteroids, traditionally, most have been bodies in the inner Solar System. Near-Earth asteroids, those whose orbits take them inside the orbit of Mars. Further subclassification of these, based on distance, is used, Apohele asteroids orbit inside of Earths perihelion distance. Aten asteroids, those that have semi-major axes of less than Earths, Apollo asteroids are those asteroids with a semimajor axis greater than Earths, while having a perihelion distance of 1.017 AU or less. Like Aten asteroids, Apollo asteroids are Earth-crossers, amor asteroids are those near-Earth asteroids that approach the orbit of Earth from beyond, but do not cross it
8.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
9.
Observatory
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An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geology, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed, historically, observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant or Stonehenge. Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories, space based, airborne, ground based, ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes, for optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a percentage of clear nights per year, dry air. At high elevations, the Earths atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence, sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra. Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the USA, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory in Chile. Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A — a place in the part of Eastern Antarctica. This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility, beginning in 1930s, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since the mid-20th century, a number of observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes, above 4. The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory, the Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at 5,230 m, was the worlds highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory. As a result, the resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price, Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all, Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earths atmosphere
10.
Tarbes
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Tarbes is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department in the Occitanie region of southwestern France. It is the capital of Bigorre and it has been a commune since 1790. It was known as Turba or Tarba in Roman times, Tarbes is part of the historical region of Gascony. Formerly of strong industrial tradition, Tarbes today tries to diversify its activities, particularly in aeronautics, the recent development of Tarbais beans and other regional specialties also shows a willingness to develop the agri-food industry thus justifying its nickname of market town. With 116,056 inhabitants in 2011, it is the second largest metropolitan area in the Occitanie region and its 42,888 inhabitants are called Tarbaises and the Tarbais. It is the seat of the diocese of Tarbes-et-Lourdes, the 1st Parachute Hussar Regiment and 35th Parachute Artillery Regiment are stationed in Tarbes. Tarbes is 1 hr 30 mins from the Atlantic Ocean,2 hrs 50 mins from the Languedoc coast and 35 minutes from the nearest ski resorts and it is located at an average elevation of 304 metres. To the south of Tarbes, along with the town of Lourdes, is the border with Spain. The Pyrenees mountains, lying along the border between France and Spain, can be seen from the town. Tarbes is crossed to the east by the Adour river and to the west by the Échez and by the Gespe, Tarbes features an oceanic climate, with relatively hot summers, mild winters and abundant rainfall. Tarbes benefits from its location in the area of the Adour, a milder microclimate than at Lourdes, from a higher altitude, and somewhat less rainy than in Pau. Summers are warm and often stormy, while spring is rainy and cool and autumn is mild, winter, meanwhile, is less rigorous but can still hold some surprises. The lowest temperature was recorded in January 1985 with a temperature under shelter of −17.9 °C, conversely, there was a maximum temperature of 39 °C in August 2003. The town was named for the first time in the 5th century as Civitas Turba ubi castrum Bigòrra and it was an important city of the Novempopulania. Gregory of Tours in the 6th century named Talvam vicum, in the Middle Ages it was called Tarbé, Tursa, Tarvia and also Tarbia. Not to be confused with the Tarbelles, whose capital was Dax, legend holds that the Queen of Ethiopia, Tarbis, proposed her love to Moses and that he refused. Inconsolable, she decided to leave her throne and hide her disappointment, after many wanderings, she arrived in Bigorre and built her home on the Adour to found the town of Tarbes, and its sister, on the banks of the Gave de Pau, arose as Lourdes. In the 3rd century BC, the foundations of Tarbes began to emerge, by need for salt trade, merchants who were likely Aquitanians travelled across the Pyrenean foothills
11.
Lannemezan
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Lannemezan is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department and the Occitanie region in south-western France. Since 24 December 2003, Lannemezan has belonged to the Communauté de communes du Plateau de Lannemezan, since 1 January 2014, it belongs to the Communauté de communes du Plateau de Lannemezan et des Baïses, of which it is still the largest city. The Petite Baïse has its source in the commune, Lannemezan is around 30 kilometres east of Tarbes, and around 100 km south-west of Toulouse. Over 50 million years, driven by movements of compression, low relief which constitutes the Pre-Pyrenees has risen, glaciers and streams that cascade down its slopes subject to mountain erosion which flows off from the foot of it. High up and submitted to the four winds, the site already assigns itself an identity that would assist in its history, the soil is composed of uncultivated and barren land, dotted with woodlands, taillis, cut of marshes and heath. The terrain is of limestone origin with a topsoil up to 20 centimetres deep, peat moor is exploited near La Barthe-de-Neste. Analysis of the soil in the commune of Lannemezan shows the results presented in the following table, the plateau rises to over 600 metres above sea level in the vicinity of Lannemezan. The top of the face the Pyrenean part of the Neste Valley. Other rivers, flow radially from this point to the northwest, north and northeast, on the south side, this plateau is still connected to the Pyrenean massif by a narrow tongue of land between Izaux and Avezac. Otherwise, it ends to the southwest and the southeast by a steep overhang, the natural vegetation of Lannemezan and its small region is characterised by a heathland landscape, although moisture of soils is highly variable depending on their location. Thus, in wet areas near the rivers extend many bogs characterised by dwarf gorse, St. Johns wort marshes or wet meadows which extend Medusas trumpets, of oatgrass or alder. In drier areas grow more woody species such as Pyreneean oak, also known under the name of tauzin oak, in all cases, the soils are rather acidic type with adjustable humidity, which imposes certain constraints for the development of plant species. These development constraints are represented on the adjoining humidity/acidity chart, eighteen rivers have their sources on the Plateau de Lannemezan or pass through the territory of the commune. The main are listed in the following table, between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, at the outlet of the valleys of the Pyrenees, Lannemezan imposes itself as a privileged strategic its geographical position city. The minimum altitude is 442 metres, the altitude is 647 metres. The average elevation is 545 metres, and the Town Hall lies Meanwhile,580 metres, tarbes-Ossun weather station normals reveal a rather cool climate, rainy in winter and hot and stormy in summer. The average annual temperature is low for such latitude, with a fairly low seasonal amplitude,6 °C on average during the winter and 19 °C during the summer. However, the temperature has reached a record low of −21 °C in January 1985 and has also exceeded 39 °C in midsummer
12.
Auch
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Auch is a commune in southwestern France. Located in the region of Occitanie, it is the capital of the Gers department, Auch is the historical capital of Gascony. The River Gers flows through the town, Auch is well connected to nearby cities and towns such as Agen, Toulouse and Tarbes by Routes Nationales. Auch is an ancient town, whose settlement was noted by the Romans during their conquest of the area in the 50s BC. At that time, it was settled by an Aquitanian tribe known to the Romans as the Ausci and their name for the town was Climberrum or Elimberris. Following their conquest, the Romans renamed the town Augusta Auscorum or Ausciorum, Augusta Auscorum was one of the twelve civitates of the province of Novempopulana and became the provincial capital after the 409 destruction of Eauze by the Vandals. The common term Augusta was eventually dropped and the name evolved into the modern Gascon Aush, the town became the seat of a Catholic archdiocese which lasted until the French Revolution. Its archbishops claimed the title of Primate of Aquitaine, Novempopulana, and Navarre. R
13.
Benjamin Baillaud
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Édouard Benjamin Baillaud was a French astronomer. Born in Chalon-sur-Saône, Baillaud studied at the École Normale Supérieure and he worked as an assistant at the Paris Observatory beginning in 1872. Later he was director of the Toulouse Observatory from 1878 to 1907 and he greatly expanded the observatory and enthusiastically supported the Carte du Ciel project. He specialized in mechanics, in particular the motions of the satellites of Saturn. In 1903, the took over a facility on the Pic du Midi in the Pyrenees that had been founded by amateurs in the 1850s with the goal of putting a telescope there. However, the height of 2865 metres posed formidable logistical challenges, Baillaud organised a team of soldiers to erect a 0.5 metre reflecting telescope, and 0.25 metre refracting telescope on the summit. Though the French government agreed to fund the project, it was becoming clear that its objectives were hopelessly unrealistic. Baillaud was the President of the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society, Baillaud was active in time standardisation, becoming the founding president of the International Time Bureau and initiating the transmission of a time signal from the Eiffel Tower. Baillauds concern for the time standard led him to be an outspoken opponent of daylight saving time. Baillaud became founding president of the International Astronomical Union in 1919 and he retired as director of the Paris Observatory in 1926. He was an academician in the astronomy section of the Académie des Sciences. He won the Bruce Medal in 1923, the crater Baillaud on the Moon is named after him, and so are asteroids 11764 Benbaillaud and 1280 Baillauda. Distribution des prix du lycée de Saint-Quentin, impr. de J. Vidallet, -16 pages Thèses présentées à la Faculté des sciences de Paris pour obtenir le grade de docteur ès sciences mathématiques, par M. B. Exposition de la méthode de M. Gylden pour le développement des perturbations des cometes, Gauthier-Villars, -47 pages Theses de mathematiques, L. et J. -M. Douladoure -108 Pages Sur la méthode de Hansen pour la détermination des perturbations absolues des petites planètes,4 pages Sur une transformation trigonométrique employée par Hansen dans la théorie des perturbations,7 pages Détermination des éléments des orbites des cinq satellites intérieurs de Saturne. Gauthier-Villars Sur le calcul numérique des intégrales définies, Éd. Gauthier-Villar Recherches complémentaires sur le développement de la fonction pertubatrice. Cours dastronomie à lusage des étudiants des facultés des sciences, Éd, Gauthier-Villars,38 pages Étude du climat de Toulouse de 1863 à1900. -444 pages Comparaison des catalogues méridiens de Toulouse et de Leipzig, extrait des Comptes rendus de lAssociation française pour lavancement des sciences, congrès de Montauban,1902
14.
Martian canal
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For a time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was erroneously believed that there were canals on Mars. These were a network of straight lines in the equatorial regions from 60° N. to 60° S. Lat. on the planet Mars observed by astronomers using early low-resolution telescopes without photography. They were first described by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli during the opposition of 1877, Schiaparelli called these canali, which was translated into English as canals. The Irish astronomer Charles E. Burton made some of the earliest drawings of features on Mars. Some observers drew maps in which if not hundreds of canals were shown with an elaborate nomenclature for all of them. Some observers saw a phenomenon they called gemination, or doubling - two parallel canals, other observers disputed the notion of canals. The observer E. E. Barnard did not see them, in 1903, Joseph Edward Evans and Edward Maunder conducted visual experiments using schoolboy volunteers that demonstrated how the canals could arise as an optical illusion. This is because when a poor-quality telescope views many point-like features they appear to join up to form lines, in 1907 the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace published the book Is Mars Habitable. that severely criticized Lowells claims. He concluded that life was impossible, let alone the planet-girding irrigation system claimed by Lowell. Around this time spectroscopic analysis also began to show that no water was present in the Martian atmosphere, however, as of 1916 Waldemar Kaempffert was still vigorously defending the Martian canals theory against skeptics. A surface atmospheric pressure of 4.1 to 7.0 millibars, no magnetic field or Martian radiation belts were detected. William Kenneth Hartmann, a Mars imaging scientist from the 1960s to the 2000s, explains the canals as streaks of dust caused by wind on the side of mountains. The Italian word canale can mean canals or channels or gullies and it is not necessarily odd that the idea of Martian canals was so readily accepted by many. At this time in the late 19th century, astronomical observations were made without photography, astronomers had to stare for hours through their telescopes, waiting for a moment of still air when the image was clear, and then draw a picture of what they had seen. They saw some lighter or darker features and believed that they were seeing oceans. They also believed that Mars had a substantial atmosphere. They could also see Mars polar ice caps shrinking and growing with these changing seasons and it was only when they interpreted changes in surface features as being due to the seasonal growth of plants that life was hypothesized by them. By the late 1920s, however, it was known that Mars was very dry and had a very low atmospheric pressure, in addition, the late 19th century was a time of great canal building on Earth
15.
Spectrograph
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A spectrograph is an instrument that separates light into a frequency spectrum and records the signal using a camera. There are several kinds of machines referred to as spectrographs, depending on the nature of the waves. The term was first used in July,1876 by Dr. Henry Draper when he invented the earliest version of this device, and this earliest version of the spectrograph was cumbersome to use and difficult to manage. One way to define a spectrograph is as a device that separates light by its wavelength, a spectrograph typically has a multi-channel detector system or imaging system that detects the spectrum of light. The first spectrographs used photographic paper as the detector, the star spectral classification and discovery of the main sequence, Hubbles law and the Hubble sequence were all made with spectrographs that used photographic paper. The plant pigment phytochrome was discovered using a spectrograph that used living plants as the detector, more recent spectrographs use electronic detectors, such as CCDs which can be used for both visible and UV light. The exact choice of detector depends on the wavelengths of light to be recorded, the forthcoming James Webb Space Telescope will contain both a near-infrared spectrograph and a mid-infrared spectrometer. An echelle spectrograph uses two diffraction gratings, rotated 90 degrees with respect to other and placed close to one another. Therefore, a point and not a slit is used. The small chip also means that the collimating optics need not to be optimized for coma or astigmatism, but the spherical aberration can be set to zero
16.
Telescope
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A telescope is an optical instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation. The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 1600s and they found use in both terrestrial applications and astronomy. Within a few decades, the telescope was invented, which used mirrors to collect. In the 20th century many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s, the word telescope now refers to a wide range of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors. The word telescope was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galileis instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei, in the Starry Messenger, Galileo had used the term perspicillum. The earliest recorded working telescopes were the telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is credited to three individuals, Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, Galileo heard about the Dutch telescope in June 1609, built his own within a month, and improved upon the design in the following year. Also in 1609, Thomas Harriot became the first person known to point a telescope skyward in order to make observations of a celestial object. The idea that the objective, or light-gathering element, could be a mirror instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors—reduction of spherical aberration and no chromatic aberration—led to many proposed designs, in 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope, of a design which now bears his name, the Newtonian reflector. The invention of the lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter. The largest reflecting telescopes currently have objectives larger than 10 m, the 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The first purpose built radio telescope went into operation in 1937, since then, a tremendous variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed. The name telescope covers a range of instruments. Most detect electromagnetic radiation, but there are differences in how astronomers must go about collecting light in different frequency bands. The near-infrared can be collected much like light, however in the far-infrared and submillimetre range. For example, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope observes from wavelengths from 3 μm to 2000 μm, on the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from about 3 μm to 180 μm uses a mirror. Also using reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can observe in the range from about 0.2 μm to 1.7 μm
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NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
18.
Moon
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The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth, being Earths only permanent natural satellite. It is the fifth-largest natural satellite in the Solar System, following Jupiters satellite Io, the Moon is second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known. The average distance of the Moon from the Earth is 384,400 km, the Moon is thought to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth. It is the second-brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earths sky, after the Sun and its surface is actually dark, although compared to the night sky it appears very bright, with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt. Its prominence in the sky and its cycle of phases have made the Moon an important cultural influence since ancient times on language, calendars, art. The Moons gravitational influence produces the ocean tides, body tides, and this matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future. The Moons linear distance from Earth is currently increasing at a rate of 3.82 ±0.07 centimetres per year, since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, the Moon has been visited only by uncrewed spacecraft. The usual English proper name for Earths natural satellite is the Moon, the noun moon is derived from moone, which developed from mone, which is derived from Old English mōna, which ultimately stems from Proto-Germanic *mǣnōn, like all Germanic language cognates. Occasionally, the name Luna is used, in literature, especially science fiction, Luna is used to distinguish it from other moons, while in poetry, the name has been used to denote personification of our moon. The principal modern English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar, a less common adjective is selenic, derived from the Ancient Greek Selene, from which is derived the prefix seleno-. Both the Greek Selene and the Roman goddess Diana were alternatively called Cynthia, the names Luna, Cynthia, and Selene are reflected in terminology for lunar orbits in words such as apolune, pericynthion, and selenocentric. The name Diana is connected to dies meaning day, several mechanisms have been proposed for the Moons formation 4.51 billion years ago, and some 60 million years after the origin of the Solar System. These hypotheses also cannot account for the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. This hypothesis, although not perfect, perhaps best explains the evidence, eighteen months prior to an October 1984 conference on lunar origins, Bill Hartmann, Roger Phillips, and Jeff Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists, You have eighteen months. Go back to your Apollo data, go back to computer, do whatever you have to. Dont come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moons birth, at the 1984 conference at Kona, Hawaii, the giant impact hypothesis emerged as the most popular. Afterward there were only two groups, the giant impact camp and the agnostics. Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System, computer simulations of a giant impact have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the present angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system
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Apollo program
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Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon, Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration, Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a lifeboat for these functions, Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds of rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moons composition. The program laid the foundation for NASAs subsequent human spaceflight capability, Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, while the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a station, circumlunar flights. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that I was naming the spacecraft like Id name my baby. Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, in July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs. In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of prestige, pledging to make the US not first but, first and, first if. Despite Kennedys rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president and he knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. On April 12,1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on Americas response to the Soviets
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Mars
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Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, after Mercury. Named after the Roman god of war, it is referred to as the Red Planet because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. Mars is a planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet, Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Mars trojan, there are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers, liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is about 6⁄1000 that of the Earths, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be largely of water. The volume of ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted. On November 22,2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior, Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye, as can its reddish coloring. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.91, which is surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometers across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earths atmosphere. Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth with an area only slightly less than the total area of Earths dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earths volume and 11% of Earths mass, the red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron oxide, or rust. It can look like butterscotch, other common colors include golden, brown, tan. Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a metallic core overlaid by less dense materials. Current models of its interior imply a core with a radius of about 1,794 ±65 kilometers, consisting primarily of iron and this iron sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements than Earths. The core is surrounded by a mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet
21.
Venus
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Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. It has the longest rotation period of any planet in the Solar System and it is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. It is the second-brightest natural object in the sky after the Moon, reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6. Because Venus orbits within Earths orbit it is a planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun. Venus is a planet and is sometimes called Earths sister planet because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun. It is radically different from Earth in other respects and it has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than 96% carbon dioxide. The atmospheric pressure at the surface is 92 times that of Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a surface temperature of 735 K. Venus is shrouded by an layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid. It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a greenhouse effect. The water has probably photodissociated, and the hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field. Venuss surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism. As one of the brightest objects in the sky, Venus has been a fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed. It has been sacred to gods of many cultures, and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the morning star. Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky, as the closest planet to Earth, Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration. It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft, Venuss thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light, and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991. Plans have been proposed for rovers or more missions. Venus is one of the four planets in the Solar System
22.
Infrared spectroscopy
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Infrared spectroscopy involves the interaction of infrared radiation with matter. It covers a range of techniques, mostly based on absorption spectroscopy, as with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be used to identify and study chemicals. Sample may be solid, liquid, or gas, the method or technique of infrared spectroscopy is conducted with an instrument called an infrared spectrometer to produce an infrared spectrum. An IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared light absorbance on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis, typical units of frequency used in IR spectra are reciprocal centimeters, with the symbol cm−1. Units of IR wavelength are commonly given in micrometers, symbol μm, a common laboratory instrument that uses this technique is a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. Two-dimensional IR is also possible as discussed below, the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three regions, the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 14000–4000 cm−1 can excite overtone or harmonic vibrations, the mid-infrared, approximately 4000–400 cm−1 may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated rotational-vibrational structure. The far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm−1, lying adjacent to the region, has low energy. The names and classifications of these subregions are conventions, and are loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic properties. Infrared spectroscopy exploits the fact that molecules absorb frequencies that are characteristic of their structure and these absorptions occur at resonant frequencies, i. e. the frequency of the absorbed radiation matches the vibrational frequency. The energies are affected by the shape of the potential energy surfaces, the masses of the atoms. In particular, in the Born–Oppenheimer and harmonic approximations, i. e, the resonant frequencies are also related to the strength of the bond and the mass of the atoms at either end of it. Thus, the frequency of the vibrations are associated with a normal mode of motion. In order for a mode in a sample to be IR active. A permanent dipole is not necessary, as the rule requires only a change in dipole moment, a molecule can vibrate in many ways, and each way is called a vibrational mode. For molecules with N number of atoms, linear molecules have 3N –5 degrees of vibrational modes, as an example H2O, a non-linear molecule, will have 3 ×3 –6 =3 degrees of vibrational freedom, or modes. Simple diatomic molecules have only one bond and only one vibrational band, if the molecule is symmetrical, e. g. N2, the band is not observed in the IR spectrum, but only in the Raman spectrum. Asymmetrical diatomic molecules, e. g. CO, absorb in the IR spectrum, more complex molecules have many bonds, and their vibrational spectra are correspondingly more complex, i. e. big molecules have many peaks in their IR spectra
23.
Chemical equilibrium
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In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time. Usually, this results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and backward reactions are not zero. Thus, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant, such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium. The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed after Berthollet found that chemical reactions are reversible. For any reaction mixture to exist at equilibrium, the rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal, conversely the equilibrium position is said to be far to the left if hardly any product is formed from the reactants. Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal, k + α β = k − σ τ, K c = k + k − = σ τ α β By convention the products form the numerator. Equality of forward and backward reaction rates, however, is a condition for chemical equilibrium. Adding a catalyst will affect both the reaction and the reverse reaction in the same way and will not have an effect on the equilibrium constant. The catalyst will speed up both reactions thereby increasing the speed at which equilibrium is reached, although the macroscopic equilibrium concentrations are constant in time, reactions do occur at the molecular level. This is an example of dynamic equilibrium, equilibria, like the rest of thermodynamics, are statistical phenomena, averages of microscopic behavior. Le Châteliers principle gives an idea of the behavior of a system when changes to its reaction conditions occur. If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to partially reverse the change. For example, adding more S from the outside will cause an excess of products, and this can also be deduced from the equilibrium constant expression for the reaction, K = If increases must increase and CH 3CO−2 must decrease. The H2O is left out, as it is the solvent and its concentration remains high, a quantitative version is given by the reaction quotient. J. W. Gibbs suggested in 1873 that equilibrium is attained when the Gibbs free energy of the system is at its minimum value, what this means is that the derivative of the Gibbs energy with respect to reaction coordinate vanishes, signalling a stationary point. This derivative is called the reaction Gibbs energy and corresponds to the difference between the chemical potentials of reactants and products at the composition of the reaction mixture and this criterion is both necessary and sufficient. If a mixture is not at equilibrium, the liberation of the excess Gibbs energy is the force for the composition of the mixture to change until equilibrium is reached
24.
James Lovelock
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James Ephraim Lovelock CH CBE FRS is an independent scientist, environmentalist and futurist who lives in Devon, England. He is best known for proposing the Gaia hypothesis, which postulates that the Earth functions as a self-regulating system, James Lovelock was born in Letchworth Garden City in Hertfordshire, England, to working class parents who were strong believers in education. Nell, his mother, started work at 13 in a pickle factory and his father, Tom, had served six months hard labour for poaching in his teens and was illiterate until attending technical college. The family moved to London, where Lovelocks dislike of authority made him, by his own account, Lovelock could not afford to go to university after school, something which he believes helped prevent him becoming over-specialised and aided the development of Gaia theory. Lovelock worked at a Quaker farm before a recommendation from his professor led to him taking up a Medical Research Council post, working on ways of shielding soldiers from burns. Lovelock refused to use the shaved and anaesthetised rabbits that were used as burn victims, and exposed his own skin to heat radiation instead and his student status enabled temporary deferment of military service during the Second World War, but he registered as a conscientious objector. He later abandoned this position in the light of Nazi atrocities, and tried to enlist in the armed forces, in 1948 Lovelock received a PhD degree in medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. In the United States, he has conducted research at Yale, Baylor College of Medicine, a lifelong inventor, Lovelock has created and developed many scientific instruments, some of which were designed for NASA in its program of planetary exploration. It was while working as a consultant for NASA that Lovelock developed the Gaia Hypothesis and he also claims to have invented the microwave oven. In early 1961, Lovelock was engaged by NASA to develop instruments for the analysis of extraterrestrial atmospheres. During work on a precursor of this program, Lovelock became interested in the composition of the Martian atmosphere, reasoning that many life forms on Mars would be obliged to make use of it. However, the atmosphere was found to be in a condition close to its chemical equilibrium, with very little oxygen, methane, or hydrogen. To Lovelock, the stark contrast between the Martian atmosphere and chemically dynamic mixture of that of the Earths biosphere was strongly indicative of the absence of life on the planet, however, when they were finally launched to Mars, the Viking probes still searched for extant life there. Lovelock invented the electron capture detector, which assisted in discoveries about the persistence of CFCs. Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974 and he served as the president of the Marine Biological Association from 1986 to 1990, and has been an Honorary Visiting Fellow of Green Templeton College, Oxford since 1994. H. Heineken Prize for the Environment and the Royal Geographical Society Discovery Lifetime award, in 2006 he received the Wollaston Medal, the Geological Societys highest Award, whose previous recipients include Charles Darwin. He became a Commander of the Order of the British Empire CBE in 1990, and he is a patron of population concern charity Population Matters. On 8 May 2012, he appeared on the Radio Four series The Life Scientific, on the program, he mentioned how his ideas had been received by various people, including Jonathan Porritt
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory
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The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is a federally funded research and development center and NASA field center in La Cañada Flintridge, California and Pasadena, California, United States. The JPL is managed by the nearby California Institute of Technology for NASA, the laboratorys primary function is the construction and operation of planetary robotic spacecraft, though it also conducts Earth-orbit and astronomy missions. It is also responsible for operating NASAs Deep Space Network and they are also responsible for managing the JPL Small-Body Database, and provides physical data and lists of publications for all known small Solar System bodies. The JPLs Space Flight Operations Facility and Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator are designated National Historic Landmarks, JPL traces its beginnings to 1936 in the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology when the first set of rocket experiments were carried out in the Arroyo Seco. Malinas thesis advisor was engineer/aerodynamicist Theodore von Kármán, who arranged for U. S. Army financial support for this GALCIT Rocket Project in 1939. In 1941, Malina, Parsons, Forman, Martin Summerfield, in 1943, von Kármán, Malina, Parsons, and Forman established the Aerojet Corporation to manufacture JATO motors. The project took on the name Jet Propulsion Laboratory in November 1943, during JPLs Army years, the laboratory developed two deployed weapon systems, the MGM-5 Corporal and MGM-29 Sergeant intermediate range ballistic missiles. These missiles were the first US ballistic missiles developed at JPL and it also developed a number of other weapons system prototypes, such as the Loki anti-aircraft missile system, and the forerunner of the Aerobee sounding rocket. At various times, it carried out testing at the White Sands Proving Ground, Edwards Air Force Base. A lunar lander was developed in 1938-39 which influenced design of the Apollo Lunar Module in the 1960s. The team lost that proposal to Project Vanguard, and instead embarked on a project to demonstrate ablative re-entry technology using a Jupiter-C rocket. They carried out three successful flights in 1956 and 1957. Using a spare Juno I, the two organizations then launched the United States first satellite, Explorer 1, on February 1,1958, JPL was transferred to NASA in December 1958, becoming the agencys primary planetary spacecraft center. JPL engineers designed and operated Ranger and Surveyor missions to the Moon that prepared the way for Apollo, JPL also led the way in interplanetary exploration with the Mariner missions to Venus, Mars, and Mercury. In 1998, JPL opened the Near-Earth Object Program Office for NASA, as of 2013, it has found 95% of asteroids that are a kilometer or more in diameter that cross Earths orbit. JPL was early to employ women mathematicians, in the 1940s and 1950s, using mechanical calculators, women in an all-female computations group performed trajectory calculations. In 1961, JPL hired Dana Ulery as their first woman engineer to work alongside male engineers as part of the Ranger and Mariner mission tracking teams, when founded, JPLs site was a rocky flood-plain just outside the city limits of Pasadena. Almost all of the 177 acres of the U. S, the city of La Cañada Flintridge, California was incorporated in 1976, well after JPL attained international recognition with a Pasadena address
26.
Astronomical seeing
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The astronomical seeing conditions on a given night at a given location describe how much the Earths atmosphere perturbs the images of stars as seen through a telescope. The most common seeing measurement is the diameter of the intensity across the seeing disc. The size of the disc is determined by the astronomical seeing conditions at the time of the observation. The best conditions give a seeing disk diameter of ~0.4 arcseconds and are found at high-altitude observatories on small islands such as Mauna Kea or La Palma and this can easily mean a factor of 100 between the potential and practical resolution. Starting in the 1990s, new adaptive optics have been introduced that can correct for these effects. In viewing an object such as Mars, occasionally a still patch of air will come in front of the planet. Before the use of charge-coupled devices, there was no way of recording the image of the planet in the brief moment other than having the observer remember the image and draw it later. This had the effect of having the image of the planet be dependent on the observers memory, the effects of atmospheric seeing are qualitatively similar throughout the visible and near infra-red wavebands. At large telescopes the long exposure image resolution is slightly higher at longer wavelengths. However, when light enters the Earths atmosphere, the different temperature layers and different wind speeds distort the light waves, the effects of the atmosphere can be modeled as rotating cells of air moving turbulently. At most observatories, the turbulence is only significant on scales larger than r0, the distortion changes at a high rate, typically more frequently than 100 times a second. In a typical image of a star with an exposure time of seconds or even minutes. The diameter of the disk, most often defined as the full width at half maximum, is a measure of the astronomical seeing conditions. It follows from definition that seeing is always a variable quantity, different from place to place, from night to night. Astronomers often talk about good nights with a low average seeing disc diameter, the FWHM of the seeing disc is usually measured in arcseconds, abbreviated with the symbol. A1. 0″ seeing is a one for average astronomical sites. The seeing of an environment is usually much worse. Good seeing nights tend to be clear, cold nights without wind gusts, warm air rises, degrading the seeing, as do wind and clouds
27.
Coronagraph
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A coronagraph is a telescopic attachment designed to block out the direct light from a star so that nearby objects – which otherwise would be hidden in the stars bright glare – can be resolved. The coronagraph was introduced in 1931 by the French astronomer Bernard Lyot, since then, coronagraphs operating within Earths atmosphere suffer from scattered light in the sky itself, due primarily to Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in the upper atmosphere. At view angles close to the Sun, the sky is much brighter than the background corona even at high altitude sites on clear, dry days. Coronagraph instruments are examples of stray light rejection and precise photometry because the total brightness from the solar corona is less than one millionth the brightness of the Sun. The apparent surface brightness is even fainter because, in addition to delivering less total light, during a solar eclipse, the Moon acts as an occulting disk and any camera in the eclipse path may be operated as a coronagraph until the eclipse is over. More common is an arrangement where the sky is imaged onto a focal plane containing an opaque spot. Either way, the instrument design must take into account scattering, as an example, imaging instruments on the Hubble Space Telescope offer coronagraphic capability. A band-limited coronagraph uses a kind of mask called a band-limited mask. This mask is designed to light and also manage potangina effects caused by removal of the light. The band-limited coronagraph has served as the design for the canceled Terrestrial Planet Finder coronagraph. Band-limited masks will also be available on the James Webb Space Telescope, see also, A phase-mask coronagraph uses a transparent mask to shift the phase of the stellar light in order to create a self-destructive interference, rather than a simple opaque disc to block it. See also, An optical vortex coronagraph uses a phase-mask in which the phase-shift varies azimuthally around the center, several varieties of optical vortex coronagraphs exist, the scalar optical vortex coronagraph based on a phase ramp directly etched in a dielectric material, like fused silica. The vector vortex coronagraph employs a mask that rotates the angle of polarization of photons, a mask of this kind can be synthesized by various technologies, ranging from liquid crystal polymer, and micro-structured surfaces. Such a vector vortex coronagraph made out of liquid crystal polymers is currently in use at the 200-inch Hale telescope at the Palomar Observatory and it has recently been operated with adaptive optics to image extrasolar planets. This works with other than the sun because they are so far away their light is, for this purpose. The coronagraph using interference masks out the light along the axis of the telescope. Coronagraphs in outer space are more effective than the same instruments would be if located on the ground. This is because the absence of atmospheric scattering eliminates the largest source of glare present in a terrestrial coronagraph
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Prime meridian (Greenwich)
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A prime meridian, based at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in London, was established by Sir George Airy in 1851. By 1884, over two-thirds of all ships and tonnage used it as the meridian on their charts. In October of that year, at the behest of U. S. President Chester A. Arthur,41 delegates from 25 nations met in Washington, United States, for the International Meridian Conference. This conference selected the meridian passing through Greenwich as the prime meridian due to its popularity. However, France abstained from the vote, and French maps continued to use the Paris meridian for several decades, the prime meridian passes through the Airy transit circle of the Greenwich observatory. The actual reason for the discrepancy is that the strip is indeed at astronomical longitude zero degrees, zero minutes. Before the establishment of a meridian, most maritime countries established their own prime meridian. In 1721, Great Britain established its own meridian passing through a transit circle at the newly established Royal Observatory at Greenwich. The meridian was moved around 10 metres or so east on three occasions as transit circles with newer and better instruments were built, on each occasion next door to the existing one and this was to allow uninterrupted observation during each new construction. The final meridian was established as a line from the north pole to the south pole passing through the Airy transit circle. This became Great Britains meridian in 1851, for all practical purposes of the period, the changes as the meridian was moved went unnoticed. Transit instruments are installed to be perpendicular to the local level, in 1884, the International Meridian Conference took place to establish an internationally recognised single meridian. The meridian chosen was that which passed through the Airy transit circle at Greenwich, at around the time of this conference, scientists were making measurements to determine the deflection of the vertical on a large scale. The downward extended plumb lines dont even all intersect the axis of the Earth. To make computations feasible, scientists defined ellipsoids of revolution, a given ellipsoid would be a compromise for measurements in a given area. When the Airy transit circle was built, a basin was used to align the telescope to the perpendicular. While the local vertical defined at the Airy transit circle still points to the celestial meridian. As a result of this, the ITRF zero meridian, defined by a passing through the Earths rotation axis, is 102 metres to the east of the prime meridian
29.
Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas 2
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Tom Clancys Rainbow Six, Vegas 2 is the seventh installment in the Rainbow Six series. It is a shooter video game and the sequel to Tom Clancys Rainbow Six. It was announced by Ubisoft on November 20,2007, the game was released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 on March 18,2008 in North America and March 20,2008 in Europe, except in Germany, where the game was delayed. The Microsoft Windows version, however, was delayed until April 15,2008 and it was released in Japan on April 24,2008 for the Xbox 360 and on May 29,2008 for the PlayStation 3. A world-exclusive first-look of the game appeared in the January 2008 edition of the Official Xbox Magazine. It was announced that Logan Keller, the character from the previous game, had been removed in favor of having the player create his or her own character to play through the campaign. The player assumes the role of Bishop, a member of the Rainbow squad with a deal more experience who has a deeper involvement in the story. The game, billed as part sequel, part prequel, has events that run both before and concurrently to the story of Logan Keller and continue after where the first game concluded. In addition to the ability to customize a character in multiplayer, in single-player, the developers claim to have vastly improved teammate AI, so that now teammates cover each other as they advance. There are also several new commands, for example, the ability of a teammate to throw a grenade at a specific point and it is also possible to give commands to ones AI teammates using the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 headset, or a PC microphone. Bishop is the main protagonist that the controls and guides throughout the events of Rainbow Six. The appearance and gender vary, depending on the look by the player. If co-op mode is enabled, Knight, whose appearance also varies depending on how the player desires them to look, knights role, however, is limited as merely a co-op player, and Knight is not critical to the single player campaigns story. Playing as Knight allows the player to unlock co-op achievements, Terrorist Hunt mode may be played in Lone Wolf or with a pair of computer controlled allies that may be issued environment-based contextual commands. Both the campaign and Terrorist Hunt game modes support cooperative multiplayer which you can have up to three friends playing, present in all game modes is a multi-dimensional advancement system. The game goes into third-person mode when the player takes cover behind a wall or piece of the environment. While in third-person mode, the player can shoot enemies blindly or aim using the reticule, without the ability to directly into their weapons aiming sights. Another feature for multiplayer is that using an Xbox Live Vision camera or a PlayStation Eye, a camera can be used in the PC version to create a playable character
30.
Helene (moon)
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Helene is a moon of Saturn. It was discovered by Pierre Laques and Jean Lecacheux in 1980 from ground-based observations at Pic du Midi Observatory, in 1988 it was officially named after Helen of Troy, who was the granddaughter of Cronus in Greek mythology. Helene is also designated Saturn XII, which it was given in 1982 and it is one of four known trojan moons. Helene was initially observed from Earth in 1980, and Voyager flybys of Saturn in the early 1980s allowed much closer views. Some of the closest images of Helene to date are from the Cassini spacecrafts 1800 km flyby on March 3,2010, there have been many other approaches over the course of the Cassini mission, and future flybys may yield additional data. Mostly raw greyscale images with near infrared or ultraviolet channels, a new satellite of Saturn, Dione B. Marsden, Brian G. Satellites of Saturn, marsden, Brian G. Satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. Marsden, Brian G. Satellites of Saturn and Uranus, sizes, shapes, and derived properties of the saturnian satellites after the Cassini nominal mission. Verbiscer, A. French, R. Showalter, M. Helfenstein, P. Enceladus, Helene Profile by NASAs Solar System Exploration, see instead Cassini Solstice Mission, Helene The Planetary Society, Helene Helene has two faces—The Planetary Society, Helene Mini Atlas—Mar. 11,2010 Cassini catches Helene—The Planetary Society, Video & Views—Jun
31.
Co-orbital configuration
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There are several classes of co-orbital objects, depending on their point of libration. The most common and best-known class is the trojan, which librates around one of the two stable Lagrangian points, L4 and L5, 60° ahead of and behind the larger body respectively. Another class is the orbit, in which objects librate around 180° from the larger body. Objects librating around 0° are called quasi-satellites, an exchange orbit occurs when two co-orbital objects are of similar masses and thus exert a non-negligible influence on each other. The objects can exchange semi-major axes or eccentricities when they approach each other, orbital parameters that are used to describe the relation of co-orbital objects are the longitude of the periapsis difference and the mean longitude difference. The longitude of the periapsis is the sum of the longitude and the mean anomaly and the mean longitude is the sum of the longitude of the ascending node. Trojan objects orbit 60° ahead of or behind a massive object. The best known example are the asteroids that orbit ahead of or behind Jupiter around the Sun, trojan objects do not orbit exactly at one of either Lagrangian points, but do remain relatively close to it, appearing to slowly orbit it. In technical terms, they librate around =, the point around which they librate is the same, irrespective of their mass or orbital eccentricity. There are several thousand known trojan minor planets orbiting the Sun, most of these orbit near Jupiters Lagrangian points, the traditional Jupiter trojans. As of 2015 there are also 13 Neptune trojans,7 Mars trojans,1 Uranus trojan and 1 Earth trojan known to exist, the Saturnian system contains two sets of trojan moons. Both Tethys and Dione have two moons, Telesto and Calypso in Tethyss L4 and L5 respectively, and Helene and Polydeuces in Diones L4. Polydeuces is noticeable for its wide libration, it wanders as far as ±30° from its Lagrangian point and ±2% from its orbital radius. A pair of co-orbital exoplanets was proposed to be orbiting the star Kepler-223, the possibility of a trojan planet to Kepler-91b was studied but the conclusion was that the transit-signal was a false-positive. One possibility for the zone is a trojan planet of a giant planet close to its star. Objects in a horseshoe orbit librate around 180° from the primary and their orbits encompass both equilateral Lagrangian points, i. e. L4 and L5. The Saturnian moons Janus and Epimetheus share their orbits, the difference in semi-major axes being less than eithers mean diameter and this means the moon with the smaller semi-major axis will slowly catch up with the other. As it does this, the moons gravitationally tug at each other, increasing the semi-major axis of the moon that has caught up and this reverses their relative positions proportionally to their masses and causes this process to begin anew with the moons roles reversed
32.
Dione (moon)
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Dione is a moon of Saturn. It was discovered by Italian astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1684 and it is named after the Titaness Dione of Greek mythology. It is also designated Saturn IV, Giovanni Domenico Cassini named the four moons he discovered Sidera Lodoicea to honor king Louis XIV. Cassini found Dione in 1684 using a large aerial telescope he set up on the grounds of the Paris Observatory, Dione orbits Saturn with a semimajor axis about 2% less than that of the Moon. However, reflecting Saturns greater mass, Diones orbital period is one tenth that of the Moon, Dione is currently in a 1,2 mean-motion orbital resonance with moon Enceladus, completing one orbit of Saturn for every two orbits completed by Enceladus. The resonance also maintains a smaller eccentricity in Diones orbit, tidally heating it as well, Dione has two co-orbital, or trojan, moons, Helene and Polydeuces. They are located within Diones Lagrangian points L4 and L5,60 degrees ahead of, at 1122 km in diameter, Dione is the 15th largest moon in the Solar System, and is more massive than all known moons smaller than itself combined. About two thirds of Diones mass is water ice, and the remaining is a dense core, data gathered by Cassini indicates that Dione has an internal liquid water ocean. Downward bending of the associated with the 1.5 km high ridge Janiculum Dorsa can most easily be explained by the presence of such an ocean. Gravity and shape data points to a 99 ±23 km thick ice shell crust on top of a 65 ±30 internal liquid water global ocean, neither moon has a shape close to hydrostatic equilibrium, the deviations are maintained by isostasy. Diones ice shell is thought to vary in thickness by less than 5%, with the thinnest areas at the poles, though somewhat smaller and denser, Dione is otherwise very similar to Rhea. They both have similar features and varied terrain, and both have dissimilar leading and trailing hemispheres. Diones leading hemisphere is heavily cratered and is uniformly bright and its trailing hemisphere, however, contains an unusual and distinctive surface feature, a network of bright ice cliffs. The origin of these features was mysterious, because all that was known was that the material has an albedo and is thin enough that it does not obscure the surface features underneath. Later, after the activity and resurfacing ceased, cratering continued primarily on the leading hemisphere. This hypothesis was proven wrong by the Cassini probe flyby of December 13,2004 and these revealed that the wisps were, in fact, not ice deposits at all, but rather bright ice cliffs created by tectonic fractures. Dione has been revealed as a world riven by enormous fractures on its trailing hemisphere. The Cassini orbiter performed a flyby of Dione at 500 km on October 11,2005
33.
Asteroid belt
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The asteroid belt is the circumstellar disc in the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter. It is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets, the asteroid belt is also termed the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System such as near-Earth asteroids and trojan asteroids. About half the mass of the belt is contained in the four largest asteroids, Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, the total mass of the asteroid belt is approximately 4% that of the Moon, or 22% that of Pluto, and roughly twice that of Plutos moon Charon. Ceres, the belts only dwarf planet, is about 950 km in diameter, whereas Vesta, Pallas. The remaining bodies range down to the size of a dust particle, the asteroid material is so thinly distributed that numerous unmanned spacecraft have traversed it without incident. Nonetheless, collisions between large asteroids do occur, and these can form a family whose members have similar orbital characteristics. Individual asteroids within the belt are categorized by their spectra. The asteroid belt formed from the solar nebula as a group of planetesimals. Planetesimals are the precursors of the protoplanets. Between Mars and Jupiter, however, gravitational perturbations from Jupiter imbued the protoplanets with too much energy for them to accrete into a planet. Collisions became too violent, and instead of fusing together, the planetesimals, as a result,99. 9% of the asteroid belts original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar Systems history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner Solar System, Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably perturbed whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an orbital resonance with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a Kirkwood gap occurs as they are swept into other orbits. Classes of small Solar System bodies in other regions are the objects, the centaurs, the Kuiper belt objects, the scattered disc objects, the sednoids. On 22 January 2014, ESA scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on Ceres, the detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding was unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are considered to sprout jets. According to one of the scientists, The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids. This pattern, now known as the Titius–Bode law, predicted the semi-major axes of the six planets of the provided one allowed for a gap between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
34.
International Dark-Sky Association
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The mission of the IDA is to preserve and protect the night time environment and our heritage of dark skies through quality outdoor lighting. Light pollution is the result of outdoor lighting that is not properly shielded, allowing light to be directed into the eyes, light that shines into the eyes is called glare and light shining into the night sky above the horizon causes skyglow. Lighting can also cause light trespass when it is directed into areas that it is not wanted, e. g. a neighbors yard, IDA was the first organization in the dark-sky movement, and is currently the largest. In 2011, the organization had about 5,000 members in 70 countries, among many concerns, IDA and related organizations are collating research on light at nights effects on human health and ecology as a result of artificial light at night. The hypothesis is that humans have evolved over millennia exposed to roughly equal periods of light, the disruption of this circadian rhythm can cause hormone imbalance in all living organisms. In the last century, artificial lighting has reduced the period of darkness. Light at night has been linked to increased incidence of hypertension, attention deficit disorder, obesity, diabetes and some forms of cancer
35.
Light pollution
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Light pollution, also known as photopollution, is excessive, misdirected or obtrusive artificial light. As a major side-effect of urbanization, it is blamed for compromising health, disrupting ecosystems, Light pollution is the adding-of/added light itself, in analogy to added sound, carbon dioxide, etc. Adverse consequences are multiple, some of them may not be known yet, scientific definitions thus include the following, The degradation of photic habitat by artificial light. The alteration of light levels in the outdoor environment owing to artificial light sources. The alteration of light levels in the environment due to man-made sources of light. Indoor light pollution is such alteration of light levels in the environment due to sources of light. The introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of light into the environment. The first three of the four scientific definitions describe the state of the environment. The fourth one describes the process of polluting by light, Light pollution is a side effect of industrial civilization. Its sources include building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, commercial properties, offices, factories, streetlights, since the early 1980s, a global dark-sky movement has emerged, with concerned people campaigning to reduce the amount of light pollution. The International Dark-Sky Association is one non-profit advocacy group involved in this movement, several industry groups also recognize light pollution as an important issue. For example, the Institution of Lighting Engineers in the United Kingdom provides its members with information about light pollution, the problems it causes, and how to reduce its impact. Since not everyone is irritated by the same lighting sources, it is common for one persons light pollution to be light that is desirable for another. One example of this is found in advertising, when an advertiser wishes for particular lights to be bright and visible, other types of light pollution are more certain. For instance, light that crosses a property boundary and annoys a neighbor is generally wasted. Where objective measurement is desired, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling, authorities have also taken a variety of measures for dealing with light pollution, depending on the interests, beliefs and understandings of the society involved. Measures range from doing nothing at all, to implementing strict laws, Light pollution is a broad term that refers to multiple problems, all of which are caused by inefficient, unappealing, or unnecessary use of artificial light. Specific categories of light pollution include light trespass, over-illumination, glare, light clutter, a single offending light source often falls into more than one of these categories
. Bibcode:1998ASPC..141...39D. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
