1.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
2.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Regent Street
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Regent Street is a major shopping street in the West End of London. It is named after George, the Prince Regent and was built under the direction of the architect John Nash, the street runs from Waterloo Place in St Jamess at the southern end, through Piccadilly Circus and Oxford Circus, to All Souls Church. From there Langham Place and Portland Place continue the route to Regents Park, the street was completed in 1825 and was an early example of town planning in England, replacing a number of earlier roads including Swallow Street. Nashs street layout has survived, although all the buildings except All Souls Church have been replaced following reconstruction in the late 19th century. The street is known for its retail stores, including Liberty, Hamleys, Jaeger. The Royal Polytechnic Institution, now the University of Westminster, has based on Regent Street since 1838. Regent Street is approximately 0.8 miles long and begins at a junction with Charles II Street as a continuation of Waterloo Place. It runs north to Piccadilly Circus, where it left before curving round the Quadrant to head north again. It ends at a junction with Cavendish Place and Mortimer Street near the BBC Broadcasting House, with the road ahead being Langham Place, the southern section of the road is one-way northbound and part of the A4, a major road through West London. From Piccadilly Circus northwards, it is numbered A4201, though in common with roads inside the London congestion charging zone, the number does not appear on signs. Nearby tube stations are Charing Cross, Piccadilly Circus and Oxford Circus, the lattermost being one of the busiest underground stations in London, numerous bus routes, such as 6,12, and 13, run along Regent Street. Regent Street was one of the first planned developments of London and it was hoped the road could link Pall Mall and the Haymarket, of which has since declined in quality. A further problem was increased congestion around Charing Cross, which would benefit from road improvements, the street was designed by John Nash, who had been appointed to the Office of Woods and Forests in 1806 and previously served as an adviser to the Prince Regent. He put forward his own plans for the street in 1810 following the death of Fordyce, envisioning broad, architecturally distinguished thoroughfares and public spaces. Nash originally wanted to construct a straight boulevard in the style seen in French cities. The northern section involved demolishing most of the existing Swallow Street, the road was designed to curve east between Oxford Street and Piccadilly so that it did not meet St Jamess Square, and the circuses allowed visual continuity down the street. The central section, known as the Quadrant, was designed for shops appropriated to articles of fashion and taste and it was built with a colonnade made out of cast-iron columns, allowing commuters to walk along the street without having to face bad weather. The road was planned to end outside Carlton House in Pall Mall, Nash insisted that businesses on the new street would be of high-quality, rivalling that of the nearby Bond Street, common trades such as butchers or greengrocers were not allowed
5.
Shaftesbury Avenue
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From Piccadilly Circus to Cambridge Circus it is in the City of Westminster, and from Cambridge Circus to New Oxford Street it is in the London Borough of Camden. Charles Booths Poverty Map shows the neighbourhood makeup shortly after Shaftesbury Avenue opened, at the intersection of Shaftesbury Avenue and Charing Cross Road there is also the large Palace Theatre. Finally, the end of the road has another large theatre. The former Saville Theatre is on Shaftesbury Avenue, this became a cinema in 1970, first known as ABC1 and ABC2, another cinema, the Soho Curzon, is located about halfway along the street. Shaftesbury Avenue is also a boundary of Londons Chinatown, the number of Chinese businesses on the street has been on the increase. Cat Stevens was born in Shaftesbury Avenue, Shaftesbury Avenue was a film location for, and is mentioned in, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1. The street is mentioned in the Dire Straits song Wild West End, the Momus song Shaftesbury Avenue, a Shaftesbury Avenue road sign is seen on the wall in Edd Chinas workshop in early episodes of Wheeler Dealers. In the film 28 Days Later the protagonist Jim, a courier, was riding a package from Farringdon to Shaftesbury Avenue. The consequent accident was the cause of his coma, from which he awoke 28 days later. The 2015 graphic novel trilogy Suffrajitsu, Mrs. Pankhursts Amazons includes several scenes set in Shaftesbury Avenue, in particular at the Bartitsu Club, which was historically based at no.67
6.
Haymarket, London
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Haymarket is a street in the St. Jamess area of the City of Westminster, London. It runs from Piccadilly Circus in the north to Pall Mall at the southern end and it is the location of a variety of restaurants, the Theatre Royal and Her Majestys Theatre, a cinema complex, and New Zealand House. The broad street connecting Pall Mall with Piccadilly is recorded in the Elizabethan era and, at that time, it was a rural spot, with the village of Charing, the closest settlement. This practice continued to the reign of William III, by time, carts carrying hay and straw were allowed in the street to trade. In 1692, when the street was paved, a tax was levied on the loads, 3d for a load of hay, in 1830 the market was moved by Act of Parliament to Cumberland Market near Regents Park. In earlier centuries, Haymarket was also one of the most prominent centres of prostitution in London and it is part of Londons theatre district, the West End, and has been a theatrical location at least since the 17th century. The Queens Theatre in the Haymarket, designed by John Vanbrugh, after Vanbrughs building had been destroyed by fire in 1790, another Kings Theatre on the same site followed. After another fire, His Majestys Theatre was opened there in 1897, This building, todays Theatre Royal at another site in the Haymarket is a building originally by John Nash, replacing a previous theatre of the 1720s. Haymarket runs parallel to Regent Street St James and together the two form a one-way system, Regent Street St James taking northbound traffic and Haymarket taking southbound traffic. The two roads are classified as part of the A4 route from London to Avonmouth, near Bristol, on 29 June 2007, the Metropolitan Police Service made safe a car bomb that had been parked in Haymarket as part of the 2007 London attempted attacks
7.
Coventry Street
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Coventry Street is a short street in the West End of London, connecting Piccadilly Circus to Leicester Square. Part of the street is a section of the A4, a road through London. It is named after the politician Henry Coventry, secretary of state to Charles II, the street was constructed in 1681 for entertainment and retail purposes, and acquired a shady character with numerous gambling houses and a reputation for prostitution. This changed during the late 19th century, with the establishment of music hall outlets including the London Pavilion, the Prince of Wales Theatre. In the 20th century, it known for its high-traffic restaurants, including the first J. Lyons and Co. restaurant. It was also popular for its nightclubs, and was the location of The Flamingo Club. Coventry Street is one-way for motor traffic, running eastbound and it is around 0.2 miles long and runs east from Piccadilly Circus to Leicester Square via Haymarket and Wardour Street. The nearest tube stations are Piccadilly Circus and Leicester Square, the western section of the road is part of the A4 one-way system between Piccadilly Circus and Trafalgar Square. No buses run along the length of Coventry Street but there is access to numerous routes from Piccadilly Circus or nearby Charing Cross Road. There is historical evidence of a road linking Haymarket with Wardour Street in 1585 and this pre-dated Leicester Square, and ran as far as St. Martins Field, stopping short of St. Martins Lane. Coventry Street was constructed in 1681 as a thoroughfare between the two places and was named after the secretary of state to Charles II, Henry Coventry, Coventry had previously built a house in this location, and renamed it Coventry House in 1670. The house was described as a messuage with divers outhouses, Gardens. Coventry died in 1686 and the house was demolished four years later, the land to the north of the street was partly owned by Colonel Thomas Panton, and partly by the Earl of St Albans. John Ogilbys 1681 map of London shows Coventry Street built up on both sides, the street had been designed for commercial and entertainment purposes, rather than a place of residence. For much of the 18th and early 19th century, there were a number of gambling houses along the street, contributing to a shady, the Trocadero sits in the area between Coventry Street, Great Windmill Street and Shaftesbury Avenue, with the main entrance on Coventry Street. The origins of the site can be traced back to 1744, Higginson retained ownership of the court until 1761, after which it had a number of owners through to the 19th century. From the 1820s onwards, it was used as a music, after the lease expired in 1842, ownership passed to John Musgrove, who sublet it to Robert Bignel. Bignel redesigned the premises as a number of rooms called the Argyll Rooms
8.
Junction (road)
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Roads began as a means of linking locations of interest, towns, forts and geographic features such as river fords. Where roads met outside of a settlement, these junctions often led to a new settlement. Scotch Corner is an example of such a location, in the United Kingdom and other countries, the practice of giving names to junctions emerged, to help travellers find their way. Junctions took the name of a prominent nearby business or a point of interest, as road networks increased in density and traffic flows followed suit, managing the flow of traffic across the junction became of increasing importance, to minimize delays and improve safety. The first innovation was to add traffic control devices, such as stop signs, next came lane controls that limited what each lane of traffic was allowed to do while crossing. Turns across oncoming traffic might be prohibited, or allowed only when oncoming and crossing traffic was stopped and this was followed by specialized junction designs that incorporated information about traffic volumes, speeds, driver intent and many other factors. The most basic distinction among junction types is whether or not the cross at the same or different elevations. More expensive, grade-separated interchanges generally offer higher throughput at higher cost, single-grade intersections are lower cost and lower throughput. Each main type comes in many variants, at interchanges, roads pass above or below each other, using grade separation and slip roads. The terms motorway junction and highway junction typically refer to this layout and they can be further subdivided into those with and without signal controls. Signalized interchanges include such diamond designs as the diamond, Michigan urban diamond, three-level diamond. Others include center-turn overpass, contraflow left, single loop, autobahnkreuz, short form kreuz, and abbreviated as AK, is a four-way interchange on the German autobahn network. Autobahndreieck, short form dreieck, and abbreviated as AD, is an interchange on the German autobahn network. They also can be subdivided into those with and without signal controls. Non-signalized designs include unsignalized variations on continuous-flow 3 and 4-leg, median u-turn and superstreet, along with Maryland T/J, roundabout, intersections generally must manage pedestrian as well as vehicle traffic. Pedestrian aids include crosswalks, pedestrian-directed traffic signals and over/underpasses, walk lights may be accompanied by audio signals to aid the visually impaired. Medians can offer pedestrian islands, allowing pedestrians to divide their crossings into a segment for each traffic direction. Bicycle traffic can be accommodated with bike lanes in the roadway or bikeways that are separated from the roadway
9.
West End of London
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Use of the term began in the early 19th century to describe fashionable areas to the west of Charing Cross. The West End covers much of the boroughs of Westminster and Camden, while the City of London, or the Square Mile, is the main business and financial district in London, the West End is the main commercial and entertainment centre of the city. It is one of the most expensive locations in the world in which to rent office space and it was also close to the royal seat of power at Westminster, and is largely contained within the City of Westminster. Developed in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, it was built as a series of palaces, expensive town houses, fashionable shops. The areas closest to the City around Holborn, Seven Dials, as the West End is a term used colloquially by Londoners and is not an official geographical or municipal definition, its exact constituent parts are up for debate. The Edgware Road to the north-west and the Victoria Embankment to the south-east were also covered by the document but were treated as adjacent areas to the West End. According to Ed Glinerts West End Chronicles the districts falling within the West End are Mayfair, Soho, Covent Garden, Fitzrovia, one of the local government wards within the City of Westminster is called West End. This covers a area that defined by Glinert, Mayfair, Soho. The population of this ward at the 2011 Census was 10,575, the New West End Company is a business improvement district and runs services including street cleaning and security on Oxford Street, Regent Street and Bond Street. NWEC also runs the Red Caps service, the West End is laid out with many notable public squares and circuses, the latter being the original name for roundabouts in London. London West End Things to do General overview of what to do in the West End
10.
City of Westminster
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The City of Westminster is an Inner London borough which also holds city status. It occupies much of the area of Greater London including most of the West End. It is to the west of and adjoining the ancient City of London, directly to the east of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and it was created with the 1965 establishment of Greater London. Upon creation, Westminster was awarded city status, which had previously held by the smaller Metropolitan Borough of Westminster. Aside from a number of parks and open spaces, the population density of the district is high. Many sites commonly associated with London are in the borough, including St. Jamess Palace, Buckingham Palace, the Houses of Parliament, much of the borough is residential, and in 2008 it was estimated to have a population of 236,000. The local authority is Westminster City Council, the current Westminster coat of arms were given to the city by an official grant on September 2,1964. Westminster had other arms before, which had an identical to the chief in the present arms. The symbols in the two thirds of the shield stand for former municipalities now merged with the city, Paddington. The original arms had a portcullis as the charge, which now forms the crest. The origins of the City of Westminster pre-date the Norman Conquest of England, in the mid-11th Century king Edward the Confessor began the construction of an abbey at Westminster, only the foundations of which survive today. For centuries Westminster and the City of London were geographically quite distinct, Westminster briefly became a city in 1540 when Henry VIII created the short-lived Diocese of Westminster. Following the dissolution of Westminster Abbey, a court of burgesses was formed in 1585 to govern the Westminster area, Jamess, Strand, Westminster, Pimlico, Belgravia, and Hyde Park. The Westminster Metropolitan Borough was itself the result of an amalgamation which took place in 1900. Sir John Hunt O. B. E was the First Town Clerk of the City of Westminster, the boundaries of the City of Westminster today, as well as those of the other London boroughs, have remained more or less unchanged since the Act of 1963. On 22 March 2017, a terrorist attack took place on Westminster Bridge, Bridge Street and Old Palace Yard, five people - three pedestrians, one police officer, and the attacker - died as a result of the incident. More than 50 people were injured, an investigation is ongoing by the Metropolitan Police. The city is divided into 20 wards, each electing three councillors, Westminster City Council is currently composed of 44 Conservative Party members and 16 Labour Party members
11.
Piccadilly
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Piccadilly is a road in the City of Westminster, London to the south of Mayfair, between Hyde Park Corner in the west and Piccadilly Circus in the east. It is part of the A4 road that connects central London to Hammersmith, Earls Court, Heathrow Airport, St Jamess is to the south of the eastern section, while the western section is built up only on the northern side. At just under 1 mile in length, Piccadilly is one of the widest and straightest streets in central London, Piccadilly has been a main road since at least medieval times, and in the middle ages was known as the road to Reading or the way from Colnbrook. Around 1611 or 1612, a Robert Baker acquired land in the area, shortly after purchasing the land, he enclosed it and erected several dwellings, including his home, Pikadilly Hall. Some of the most notable homes in London were built on the northern side of the street during this period, including Clarendon House. Berkeley House, constructed around the time as Clarendon House, was destroyed by a fire in 1733 and rebuilt as Devonshire House in 1737 by William Cavendish. It was later used as the headquarters for the Whig party. Burlington House has since been home to several noted societies, including the Royal Academy of Arts, the Geological Society of London, several members of the Rothschild family had mansions at the western end of the street. St Jamess Church was consecrated in 1684 and the area became St James Parish. The Old White Horse Cellar, at No,155, was one of the most famous coaching inns in England by the late-18th century, by which time the street had become a favourable location for booksellers. The Bath Hotel emerged around 1790, and Walsingham House was built in 1887, both the Bath and the Walsingham were purchased and demolished when the prestigious Ritz Hotel was built on the site in 1906. Piccadilly Circus station, at the east end of the street, was designed by Charles Holden and it was the first underground station to have no above-ground premises, the station is only accessible by subways from street level. The clothing store Simpsons was established at 203 -206 Piccadilly by Alec Simpson in 1936, during the 20th century, Piccadilly became known as a place to acquire heroin, and was notorious in the 1960s as the centre of Londons illegal drug trade. Today, Piccadilly is regarded as one of Londons principal shopping streets and its landmarks include the Ritz, Park Lane, Athenaeum and Intercontinental hotels, Fortnum & Mason, the Royal Academy, the RAF Club, Hatchards, the Embassy of Japan and the High Commission of Malta. Piccadilly has inspired works of fiction, including Oscar Wildes The Importance of Being Earnest. It is one of a group of squares on the London Monopoly board, the street has been part of a main road for centuries although there is no evidence that it was part of a Roman Road, unlike Oxford Street further north. In the Middle Ages it was known as the road to Reading or the way from Colnbrook, during the Tudor period, relatively settled conditions made expansion beyond Londons city walls a safer venture. Property speculation became an enterprise and developments grew so rapidly that the threat of disease
12.
Leicester Square
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Leicester Square is a pedestrianised square in the West End of London, England. It was laid out in 1670 and is named after the contemporary Leicester House, itself named after Robert Sidney, the square was originally a gentrified residential area, with tenants including Frederick, Prince of Wales and artists William Hogarth and Joshua Reynolds. It became more down-market in the late 18th century as Leicester House was demolished and retail developments took place, several major theatres were established in the 19th century, which were converted to cinemas towards the middle of the next. The square remains a popular tourist attraction, including hosting events for the Chinese New Year, the square has always had a park in its centre, which was originally Lammas land. The parks fortunes have varied over the centuries, reaching near dilapidation in the century after changing ownership several times. It was restored under the direction of Albert Grant, which included the construction of four new statues, the square was extensively refurbished and remodelled for the 2012 London Olympics, costing more than £15m and taking over 17 months to complete. The square lies within an area bound by Lisle Street, to the north, Charing Cross Road, to the east, Orange Street, to the south, and Whitcomb Street, to the west. It is within the City of Westminster, north of Trafalgar Square, east of Piccadilly Circus, west of Covent Garden, the nearest tube station is Leicester Square tube station, which opened in 1906. London bus routes 24,29 and 176 run on nearby Charing Cross Road, the land where Leicester Square now lies once belonged to the Abbot and Convent of Westminster Abbey and the Beaumont family. In 1536, Henry VIII took control of 3 acres of land around the square, the square is named after Robert Sidney, 2nd Earl of Leicester, who purchased this land in 1630. By 1635, he had himself a large house, Leicester House. The area in front of the house was enclosed, depriving inhabitants of St Martin in the Fields parish of their right to use the previously common land. The parishioners appealed to King Charles I, and he appointed three members of the council to arbitrate. Lord Leicester was ordered to keep part of his land open for the parishioners, the square was laid out to the south of Leicester House and developed in the 1670s. The area was originally residential, with properties laid out in a similar style to nearby Pall Mall. In 1687, the part of the square became part of the new parish of St Anne. The Jocelyn Sidney, 7th Earl of Leicester took ownership of the property in 1728 and it was briefly the residence of Frederick, Prince of Wales from 1742 until Leicesters death the following year. The poet Matthew Prior lived at what is now No.21 around 1700, the magistrate Thomas de Veil, later to found Bow Street Magistrates Court, lived at No 40 between 1729 and 1737, this location is now the Odeon West End
13.
Neon lighting
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Neon lighting consists of brightly glowing, electrified glass tubes or bulbs that contain rarefied neon or other gases. Neon lights are a type of cold cathode gas-discharge light, a neon tube light is a sealed glass tube with a metal electrode at each end, filled with one of a number of gases at low pressure. A high potential of several thousand volts applied to the electrodes ionizes the gas in the tube, the color of the light depends on the gas in the tube. Neon tubes can be fabricated in curving artistic shapes, to form letters or pictures and they are mainly used to make dramatic, multicolored glowing signage for advertising, called neon signs, which were popular from the 1920s to the 1950s. The term can refer to the miniature neon glow lamp, developed in 1917. While neon tube lights are typically long, the neon lamps can be less than one centimeter in length. They are still in use as indicator lights. Through the 1970s, neon lamps were widely used for numerical displays in electronics, for small decorative lamps. While these lamps are now antiques, the technology of the neon glow lamp developed into contemporary plasma displays, Neon was discovered in 1898 by the British scientists William Ramsay and Morris W. Travers. After obtaining pure neon from the atmosphere, they explored its properties using an electrical gas-discharge tube that was similar to the used for neon signs today. Georges Claude, a French engineer and inventor, presented neon tube lighting in essentially its modern form at the Paris Motor Show from December 3–18,1910. Claude, sometimes called the Edison of France, had a monopoly on the new technology. There were 2000 shops nationwide designing and fabricating neon signs, the popularity, intricacy, and scale of neon signage for advertising declined in the U. S. following the Second World War, but development continued vigorously in Japan, Iran, and some other countries. In recent decades architects and artists, in addition to sign designers, have again adopted neon tube lighting as a component in their works, Neon lighting is closely related to fluorescent lighting, which developed about 25 years after neon tube lighting. Fluorescent coatings and glasses are also an option for neon tube lighting, Neon is a noble gas chemical element and an inert gas that is a minor component of the Earths atmosphere. It was discovered in 1898 by the British scientists William Ramsay, Travers later wrote, the blaze of crimson light from the tube told its own story and was a sight to dwell upon and never forget. Immediately following neons discovery, neon tubes were used as scientific instruments, after 1902, Georges Claudes company in France, Air Liquide, began producing industrial quantities of neon as a byproduct of the air liquefaction business. From December 3–18,1910, Claude demonstrated two large, bright red neon tubes at the Paris Motor Show and these neon tubes were essentially in their contemporary form
14.
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury
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He was a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury and older brother of Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper. G. F. A Best in his biography Shaftesbury writes that and he saw little of his parents, and when duty or necessity compelled them to take notice of him they were formal and frightening. This difficult childhood was softened by the affection he received from his housekeeper Maria Millis and she told him bible stories, she taught him a prayer. Despite this powerful reprieve, school became another source of misery for the young Ashley, Shaftesbury himself shuddered to recall those years, The place was bad, wicked, filthy, and the treatment was starvation and cruelty. Ashley was elected as the Tory Member of Parliament for Woodstock in June 1826 and was a supporter of the Duke of Wellington. After George Canning replaced Lord Liverpool as Prime Minister, he offered Ashley a place in the new government, despite Ashley having been in the Commons for only five months. Ashley politely declined, writing in his diary that he believed that serving under Canning would be a betrayal of his allegiance to the Duke of Wellington, the Committee examined many witnesses concerning one of his madhouses in Bethnal Green, called the White House. Ashley visited this on the Committees behalf, the patients were chained up, slept naked on straw, and went to toilet in their beds. They were left chained from Saturday afternoon until Monday morning when they were cleared of the accumulated excrement and they were then washed down in freezing cold water and one towel was allotted to 160 people, with no soap. It was overcrowded and the meat provided was that nasty thick hard muscle a dog could not eat. When in February 1828 Robert Gordon, Liberal MP for Cricklade, introduced a bill to put these recommendations into law, Ashley seconded this and he wrote in his diary, So, by Gods blessing, my first effort has been for the advance of human happiness. Fright almost deprived me of recollection but again thank Heaven, I did not sit down quite a presumptuous idiot, Ashley was also involved in framing the County Lunatic Asylums Act 1828 and the Madhouses Act 1828. Through these Acts fifteen commissioners were appointed for the London area and given powers of licensing and inspection. In July 1845 Ashley sponsored two Lunacy Acts, ‘For the Regulation of lunatic Asylums’ and ‘For the better Care and Treatment of Lunatics in England and they originated in the Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy which he had commended to Parliament the year before. These Acts consolidated and amended previous lunacy laws, providing better record keeping and they also ordered, instead of merely permitting, the construction of country lunatic asylums with and establishing an ongoing Lunacy Commission with Ashley as its chairman. In support of measures, Ashley gave a speech in which he claimed that although since 1828 there had been an improvement. He cited the case of a Welsh lunatic girl, Mary Jones, the room was extremely filthy and was filled with an intolerable smell. She could only squat in a bent position in the room, in early 1858 a Select Committee was appointed over concerns that sane persons were detained in lunatic asylums
15.
Eros
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In Greek mythology, Eros was the Greek god of sexual attraction. Some myths make him a god, while in other myths. He was one of the winged love gods, Erotes, Eros appears in ancient Greek sources under several different guises. In the earliest sources, he is one of the gods involved in the coming into being of the cosmos. But in later sources, Eros is represented as the son of Aphrodite, whose mischievous interventions in the affairs of gods and mortals cause bonds of love to form, a cult of Eros existed in pre-classical Greece, but it was much less important than that of Aphrodite. However, in antiquity, Eros was worshiped by a fertility cult in Thespiae. In Athens, he shared a very popular cult with Aphrodite, according to Hesiod, one of the most ancient of all Greek sources, Eros was the fourth god to come into existence, coming after Chaos, Gaia, and Tartarus. However, Parmenides, one of the philosophers, makes Eros the first of all the gods to come into existence. The Orphic and Eleusinian Mysteries featured Eros as a very original god, aristophanes, influenced by Orphism, relates the birth of Eros, At the beginning there was only Chaos, Night, Darkness, and the Abyss. Earth, the Air and Heaven had no existence and he mated in the deep Abyss with dark Chaos, winged like himself, and thus hatched forth our race, which was the first to see the light. In later myths, he was the son of the deities Aphrodite and Ares, Eros was associated with athleticism, with statues erected in gymnasia, and was often regarded as the protector of homosexual love between men. Eros was depicted as carrying a lyre or bow and arrow. He was also depicted accompanied by dolphins, flutes, roosters, roses, “We must have a word with Aphrodite. Let us go together and ask her to persuade her boy, if that is possible, to loose an arrow at Aeetes’ daughter, Medea of the spells, and make her fall in love with Jason. ”He smites maids’ breasts with unknown heat. Once, when Venus’ son was kissing her, his quiver dangling down, in fact the wound was deeper than it seemed, though unperceived at first. Enraptured by the beauty of a man, Eros drove Dionysos mad for the girl with the delicious wound of his arrow, then curving his wings flew lightly to Olympus. And the god roamed over the hills scourged with a greater fire. ”The story of Eros and Psyche has a tradition as a folktale of the ancient Greco-Roman world long before it was committed to literature in Apuleius Latin novel. The novel itself is written in a picaresque Roman style, yet Psyche retains her Greek name, Eros and Aphrodite are called by their Latin names, and Cupid is depicted as a young adult, rather than a child
16.
London Pavilion
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The London Pavilion is a building on the corner of Shaftesbury Avenue and Coventry Street on the north-east side of Piccadilly Circus in London. It is currently an arcade and part of the Trocadero Centre. The first building bearing the name, a music hall formed from roofing the yard of the Black Horse Inn, was built in 1859 for Emil Loibl and Charles Sonnhammer. A gallery was constructed for the hall but it could not utilise the full width, in 1885 Shaftesbury Avenue was built through part of the site, and a new London Pavilion Theatre was constructed. This opened on 30 November 1885 with a popular revue, the new theatre was the first music hall deluxe, with marble-topped tables for dining in the auditorium. According to Charles Stuart and A. J, lupino Lane made his London début here in 1903, as Nipper Lane. Between 1912 and 1936 the theatre presented a programme of musicals. In 1923 electric billboards were erected for the first time on the side of the building. In 1934 the building underwent significant structural alteration, and was converted into a cinema at a cost of £70,000 by F. G. M. Chancellor, of Frank Matcham and Co. In October 1962 it premiered Dr. No, the first James Bond film, in 1986 the Pavilion closed its doors forever as a theatre. The interior of the building was gutted and converted into an arcade, preserving only the 1885 façade. A wax figure exhibition opened in the building that year, run by the Madame Tussauds Group. The exhibition consisted of waxworks of famous rock and pop musicians, the Rock Circus exhibition closed in September 2001. In 2000 the building part of the Trocadero Centre. The basement of the building connects with Piccadilly Circus tube station, the London Pavilion now houses Ripleys Believe It or Not. A visitor attraction dedicated to the weird, the unusual and the unbelievable, which opened in August 2008
17.
Criterion Theatre
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The Criterion Theatre is a West End theatre at Piccadilly Circus in the City of Westminster, and is a Grade II* listed building. It has a capacity of 588. In 1870, the caterers Spiers and Pond began development of the site of the White Bear, the inn was located on sloping ground stretching between Jermyn Street and Piccadilly Circus, known as Regent Circus. A competition was held for the design of a concert hall complex and he was commissioned to design a large restaurant, dining rooms, ballroom, and galleried concert hall in the basement. The frontage, which was the façade of the restaurant, showed a French Renaissance influence using Portland stone, after the building work began, it was decided to change the concert hall into a theatre. The composers names, which line the tiled staircases, were retained, the redesign placed the large Criterion Restaurant and dining rooms above the theatre, with a ballroom on the top floor. When Spiers and Pond applied for a licence to operate, the authorities were unhappy because the theatre was underground and lit by gas, creating the risk of toxic fumes. The Metropolitan Board of Works had to vote twice before the licence was issued. It was not until October 1881, at the Savoy, that the first theatre was lit electrically, the building was completed in 1873 with the interior decoration carried out by Simpson and Son. The first production opened on 21 March 1874 under the management of Henry J. Byron & EP Hingston, the programme consisted of An American Lady written and performed by Byron and a piece by W. S. Gilbert, with music by Alfred Cellier, entitled Topsyturveydom. The event apparently did not make much of an impression on Gilbert. In a 1903 letter to Thomas Edgar Pemberton, author of the book on The Criterion, Gilbert wrote, I am sorry to say that in my mind is an absolute blank to the opening of The Criterion. If you happen to have a copy of it and could lend it to me for a few hours it might suggest some reminiscences, haste to the Wedding was a flop, but it introduced the 18-year-old George Grossmith, Jr. the composers son, to the London stage. The younger Grossmith would go on to become a star in Edwardian musical comedies. Charles Wyndham became the manager and lessee in 1875, and under his management the Criterion became one of the light comedy houses in London. The first production under the manager was The Great Divorce Case, when Wyndham left in 1899 to open his own theatre, The Wyndhams Theatre he remained the lessee bringing in various managements and their companies. In March 1883 the theatre closed for alterations demanded by the Metropolitan Board of Works, the pumping of fresh air into the ten-year-old auditorium, some thirty feet below street level, was deemed unsatisfactory. The new direct access ventilation shaft meant cutting off a portion of the adjoining Criterion Restaurant
18.
Piccadilly Circus tube station
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Piccadilly Circus is a London Underground station located directly beneath Piccadilly Circus itself, with entrances at every corner. Located in Travelcard Zone 1, the station is on the Piccadilly line between Green Park and Leicester Square and on the Bakerloo line between Charing Cross and Oxford Circus. The station was opened on 10 March 1906 by the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway with the platforms of the Great Northern, Piccadilly, as originally built it had, like other stations, a surface booking hall. It was decided to construct a sub-surface booking hall and circulating area, work began in February 1925 and was completed in 1928. The architect was Charles Holden and the builder was John Mowlem & Co, eleven escalators were provided in two flights, leading to the two lines serving the station. Above these escalators was once a mural by artist Stephen Bone and this mural was later replaced by advertising. This station can act as a terminus for southbound Bakerloo line trains. Piccadilly Circus is one of the few London Underground stations which have no associated buildings above ground, Piccadilly Circus is a proposed stop on the Chelsea-Hackney Line, also known as the Crossrail 2. It would be between Victoria and Tottenham Court Road stations, effectively a new station would have to be built under the existing levels, possibly as part of a major overhaul of the existing buildings. However, there only be a stop at Piccadilly Circus if the Chelsea-Hackney Line is part of the London Underground network. This is the situation with many stations on the proposed route in Central London. London Buses routes 3,6,12,13,14,19,22,23,38,88,94,139,159 and 453 and night routes N3, N18, N19, N22, N29, N38, N97, N109 and N136 serves the station. Archived from the original on 18 March 2008, original station building shortly after opening Sub-surface ticket hall in 19291936 poster showing cut away of underground station arrangement Underground Journeys, The Heart of London. Illustrated history of Piccadilly Circus station, archived from the original on 4 May 2011
19.
London Underground
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The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
20.
Collar (clothing)
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In clothing, a collar is the part of a shirt, dress, coat or blouse that fastens around or frames the neck. A collar may be attached to the main body of the garment or detachable. The Oxford English Dictionary traces collar in its meaning to c. Todays shirt collars descend from the created by the drawstring at the neck of the medieval chemise, through the Elizabethan ruff and its successors. Separate collars exist alongside attached collars since the century, usually to allow starching. During the Edwardian period and sporadically thereafter, ornamental collars were worn as a form of jewelry, band - a strip of fabric that fastens around the neck, perpendicular to the body of the garment, to which a collar proper may be attached. Points - the corners of a collar, in a buttoned-down collar, spread - the distance between the points of a shirt collar. Stand - the band on a coat or shirt collar that supports the collar itself, Collars can be categorized as, Standing or stand-up, fitting up around the neck and not lying on the shoulders. Turnover, standing around the neck and then folded or rolled over, flat or falling, lying flat on the shoulders. Collars may also be stiffened, traditionally with starch, modern wash-and-wear shirt collars may be stiffened with interfacing or may include metal or plastic collar stays, shirt collars which are not starched are described as soft collars. The shape of collars is also controlled by the shape of the neckline to which they are attached, names for specific styles of collars vary with the vagaries of fashion. Some specific styles of collars include, Conventions on fastening the buttons on a collar differ globally. In the United States and the United Kingdom, the top button is always left unbuttoned, unless one is wearing a necktie. By contrast, in Slavic countries, including at least Poland, and Ukraine, examples are blue-collar, pink-collar and white-collar. Media related to Collars at Wikimedia Commons Collars on Boys Shirts and Blouses, From the Historical Boys Clothing website
21.
Catherine of Braganza
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Catherine of Braganza was Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1662 to 1685, by marriage to King Charles II. She also served as regent of Portugal during the absence of her brother in 1701 and 1704-05, owing to her devotion to the Roman Catholic beliefs in which she had been raised, Catherine was an unpopular consort for Charles II. She was an object of attack by the inventors of the Popish Plot. In 1678 the murder of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey was ascribed to her servants and these charges, the absurdity of which were soon shown by cross-examination, nevertheless placed the queen for some time in great danger. On 28 November Oates accused her of treason, and the Commons passed an order for her removal. A series of depositions were made against her, and in June 1679 it was decided that she must stand trial, but she was protected by the king. Catherine had three miscarriages and produced no heirs and her husband kept many mistresses, most notably Barbara Palmer, whom Catherine was forced to accept as one of her Ladies of the Bedchamber. Charles fathered numerous illegitimate offspring by his mistresses whom he acknowledged and she and Charles are credited with introducing the custom of drinking tea to the British court, which was common among the Portuguese nobility. Catherine was born at the Ducal Palace of Vila Viçosa, as the surviving daughter of John, 8th Duke of Braganza and his wife. Following the Portuguese Restoration War, her father was acclaimed King John IV of Portugal, despite her countrys ongoing struggle with Spain, Catherine enjoyed a happy, contented childhood in her beloved Lisbon. Commonly regarded as the power behind the throne, Queen Luisa was also a mother who took an active interest in her childrens upbringing. Catherine is believed to have spent most of her youth in a convent close by the palace where she remained under the watchful eye of her protective mother. It appears to have been a sheltered upbringing, with one contemporary remarking that Catherine, was bred hugely retired. Catherines older sister, Joana, Princess of Beira, died in 1653 and her husband was chosen by Luisa, who acted as regent of her country following her husbands death in 1656. She arrived at Portsmouth on the evening of 13–14 May 1662, the following day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies – a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service at the chapel of Domus Dei. On 30 September 1662 the married couple entered London as part of a large procession, there were also minstrels and musicians, among them ten playing shawms and twelve playing Portuguese bagpipes, those being the new Queen’s favourite instruments. This was followed by feasting and firework displays, Catherine possessed several good qualities, but had been brought up in a convent, secluded from the world, and was scarcely a wife Charles would have chosen for himself. Little is known of Catherines own thoughts on the match, even outside the convent her actions were governed by the strict etiquette of the royal court of Portugal
22.
Queen consort
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A queen consort is the wife of a reigning king. In Brunei, the wife of the Sultan is known as a Raja Isteri with prefix Pengiran Anak, equivalent with queen consort in English, a queen consort usually shares her husbands social rank and status. She holds the equivalent of the kings monarchical titles, but historically, she does not share the kings political. A queen regnant is a queen in her own right with all the powers of a monarch, where some title other than that of king is held by the sovereign, his wife is referred to by the feminine equivalent, such as princess consort or empress consort. In monarchies where polygamy has been practiced in the past, or is practiced today. In Morocco, King Mohammed VI has broken with tradition and given his wife, Lalla Salma, prior to the reign of King Mohammed VI, the Moroccan monarchy had no such title. In Thailand, the king and queen must both be of royal descent, the kings other consorts are accorded royal titles that confer status. Other cultures maintain different traditions on queenly status, a Zulu chieftain designates one of his wives Great Wife, which would be the equivalent to queen consort. Conversely, in Yorubaland, all of a chiefs princess consorts are essentially of equal rank, in general, the consorts of monarchs have no power per se, even when their position is constitutionally or statutorily recognized. In some cases, the queen consort has been the power behind her husbands throne, e. g. Maria Luisa of Parma. Past queens consort, Queen Jang, consort to Sukjong of Joseon
23.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
24.
John Nash (architect)
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John Nash was a British architect responsible for much of the layout of Regency London under the patronage of the Prince Regent, and during his reign as George IV. Nash was also a pioneer in the use of the Picturesque in architecture and his best-known buildings are the Royal Pavilion, Brighton, and Buckingham Palace. Many of his buildings were built by the property developer James Burton, in return, Nash promoted the career of Burtons son, Decimus Burton, who assisted him with several of his designs and later became a famous architect in his own right. Nash was born during 1752 in Lambeth, south London, the son of a Welsh millwright also called John, from 1766 or 67, John Nash trained with the architect Sir Robert Taylor, the apprenticeship was completed in 1775 or 1776. On 28 April 1775, at the now demolished church of St Mary Newington, Nash married his first wife Jane Elizabeth Kerr, initially he seems to have pursued a career as a surveyor, builder and carpenter. This gave him an income of around £300 a year, the couple set up home at Royal Row Lambeth. He established his own practice in 1777 as well as being in partnership with a timber merchant. The couple had two children, both were baptised at St Mary-at-Lambeth, John on 9 June 1776 and Hugh on 28 April 1778. The claim that Jane had faked her pregnancies and then passed babies she had acquired off as her own was brought before the Consistory court of the Bishop of London. His wife was sent to Aberavon to lodge with Nashs cousin Ann Morgan, in an attempt at reconciliation Jane returned to London in June 1779, but she continued to act extravagantly so he sent her to another cousin, Thomas Edwards of Neath. She gave birth just after Christmas, and acknowledged Charles Charles as the father, in 1781 Nash instigated action against Jane for separation on grounds of adultery. The case was tried at Hereford in 1782, Charles who was guilty was unable to pay the damages of £76. The divorce was finally read 26 January 1787 and his career was initially unsuccessful and short-lived. After inheriting £1000 in 1778 from his uncle Thomas, he invested the money in building his first known independent works, 15–17 Bloomsbury Square, but the property failed to let and he was declared bankrupt on 30 September 1783. His debts were £5000, including £2000 he had been lent by Robert Adam, a blue plaque commemorating Nash was placed on 66 Great Russell Street by English Heritage in 2013. Nash left London in 1784 to live in Carmarthen, to where his mother had retired, in 1785 he and a local man Samuel Simon Saxon re-roofed the towns church for 600 Guineas. Nash and Saxon seem to have worked as building contractors and suppliers of building materials, Nashs London buildings had been standard Georgian terrace houses, and it was in Wales that he matured as an architect. He went on to design the prisons at Cardigan and Hereford and it was at Hereford that Nash met Richard Payne Knight, whose theories on the picturesque as applies to architecture and landscape would influence Nash
25.
West End theatre
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West End theatre is a common term for mainstream professional theatre staged in the large theatres of Theatreland in and near the West End of London. Along with New York Citys Broadway theatre, West End theatre is considered to represent the highest level of commercial theatre in the English-speaking world. Seeing a West End show is a common tourist activity in London, in 2013, ticket sales reached a record 14.4 million, making West End the largest English speaking audience in the world. Famous screen actors frequently appear on the London stage, helen Mirren received an award for her performance as the Queen on the West End stage, and then stated, theatre is such an important part of British history and British culture. Theatre in London flourished after the English Reformation, the first permanent public playhouse, known simply as The Theatre, was constructed in 1576 in Shoreditch by James Burbage. It was soon joined by The Curtain, both are known to have been used by William Shakespeares company. In 1599, the timber from The Theatre was moved to Southwark and these theatres were closed in 1642 due to the Puritans who would later influence the interregnum of 1649. After the Restoration, two companies were licensed to perform, the Dukes Company and the Kings Company, performances were held in converted buildings, such as Lisles Tennis Court. The first West End theatre, known as Theatre Royal in Bridges Street, was designed by Thomas Killigrew and built on the site of the present Theatre Royal and it opened on 7 May 1663 and was destroyed by a fire nine years later. It was replaced by a new designed by Christopher Wren and renamed the Theatre Royal. Outside the West End, Sadlers Wells Theatre opened in Islington on 3 June 1683. Taking its name from founder Richard Sadler and monastic springs that were discovered on the property, it operated as a Musick House, with performances of opera, as it was not licensed for plays. In the West End, the Theatre Royal Haymarket opened on 29 December 1720 on a site north of its current location. The Patent theatre companies retained their duopoly on drama well into the 19th century, by the early 19th century, however, music hall entertainments became popular, and presenters found a loophole in the restrictions on non-patent theatres in the genre of melodrama. Melodrama did not break the Patent Acts, as it was accompanied by music, initially, these entertainments were presented in large halls, attached to public houses, but purpose-built theatres began to appear in the East End at Shoreditch and Whitechapel. The West End theatre district became established with the opening of small theatres and halls. South of the River Thames, the Old Vic, Waterloo Road, the next few decades saw the opening of many new theatres in the West End. It abbreviated its name three years later, the theatre building boom continued until about World War I
26.
Charles Dickens Jr.
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Charles Culliford Boz Dickens was the first child of the English novelist Charles Dickens and his wife Catherine. A failed businessman, he became the editor of his fathers magazine All the Year Round, and he is now most remembered for his two 1879 books Dickenss Dictionary of London and Dickenss Dictionary of the Thames. Charles Dickens was born at Furnivals Inn in Holborn, London and he was called Charley by family and friends. In 1847, aged 10, he entered the department of Kings College. He went to Eton College, and visited Leipzig in 1853 to study German, in 1855, aged 18, he entered Barings Bank. In 1858, after his parents separation, with his fathers agreement, as a young man, Dickens showed skills that could have led to a career in journalism but his father encouraged him to go into business. With ambitions to become a tea merchant, he visited China, Hong Kong, in 1861, he married Elisabeth Matilda Moule Evans, daughter of Frederick Mullett Evans, his fathers former publisher. In 1868, after the failure of his business, and bankruptcy. In 1870, after his fathers death, Dickens, Jr. inherited the magazine, at this time he also bought at auction Gads Hill Place, his fathers Kent home, but he was forced to give it up in 1879. In 1879 he published the first editions of his two dictionaries, Dickenss Dictionary of London and Dickenss Dictionary of the Thames. In 1882 his dictionaries were picked up by Macmillan & Co. who also released his third dictionary, Dickenss Dictionary of Paris, Charles Dickens died of heart disease, at his home in Fulham, London, on 20 July 1896, aged 59. He was buried at Mortlake Cemetery on 23 July 1896, Dickens estate was worth £17 5s. 3d at his death, and his widow was granted a government pension of £100 per year, after her death in 1909 yearly Civil list pensions of £25 were granted to Mary Angela, Dorothy Gertrude, Cecil Mary and Evelyn Bessie after consideration of their straitened circumstances. However, in 1910 their situation was so difficult that Ethel Dickens wrote to the Lord Chief Justice Richard Alverstone to seek assistance, as the centenary of their grandfathers birth approached, the reduced circumstances of Charles Jr. s daughters led to a public fundraising appeal. By the close of the fund in March 1912 it held £12,000, according to Dickens biographer Claire Tomalin, Charles Walter, only son of Dickens, had already been disowned by the family for marrying Ella Dare, a barmaid. Sydney Margaret went on to marry architect Thomas Bostock Whinney, while Ethel died, in 1936, of an overdose of phenobarbital after being unconscious in her flat in Chelsea. His publications include,1879 – The life of Charles James Mathews, chiefly autobiographical, with selections from his correspondence,1879 – Dickenss Dictionary of London, An Unconventional Handbook. 1879 – Dickenss Dictionary of the Thames, from its source to the Nore,1881 – Dickenss Dictionary of Days
27.
Hyde Park Corner
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Hyde Park Corner is an area of London, located around a major road junction at the southeastern corner of Hyde Park. Six streets converge at the junction, Park Lane, Piccadilly, Constitution Hill, Grosvenor Place, Grosvenor Crescent, Hyde Park Corner tube station, a London Underground station served by the Piccadilly line, is located at the junction, as are a number of notable monuments. Immediately to the north of the junction is Apsley House, the home of the first Duke of Wellington, several monuments to the Duke were erected in the vicinity, both in his lifetime and subsequently. In the mid-nineteenth century, the space that is now the Hyde Park Corner traffic island was not entirely surrounded by roadway, in its centre stands the Wellington Arch, designed by Decimus Burton and planned as a northern gate to the grounds of Buckingham Palace. In execution it was out as a gate into the Green Park, and was originally sited directly opposite Burtons Ionic Screen. Originally, the Arch was topped with a statue of the Duke by Matthew Cotes Wyatt. The Arch was moved south because of congestion, and realigned to the axis of Constitution Hill in 1883. The boundary of Buckingham Palaces garden was moved south, and a new road named Duke of Wellington Place was created, at this time, the large equestrian statue was removed to Aldershot. It was subsequently replaced with work, entitled The Angel of Peace descending on the Quadriga of Victory, dated 1912, by the sculptor Adrian Jones. Following the passage of the Park Lane Improvement Act 1958, Park Lane was widened in the early 1960s and this left Apsley House on an island site. The InterContinental London hotel was built on the cleared site between the new route of Park Lane and Hamilton Place. At part of the scheme, a tunnel was constructed beneath the junction to allow traffic to flow freely between Knightsbridge and Piccadilly. As a result, the area around the Arch became a traffic island, mostly laid to grass, and accessible only by pedestrian underpassess. Subsequent changes to the layout in the 1990s reinstated a route between Hyde Park and the Green Park for pedestrians, cyclists and horseriders using surface-level crossings. The term is often used for Speakers Corner, which is located at the north-eastern corner of Hyde Park. The 1935 film Hyde Park Corner takes its name from the area, Hyde Park Corner was used as a codeword to announce to the government the death of King George VI in 1952
28.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
29.
Piccadilly line
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The Piccadilly line /ˌpɪkəˈdɪli/ is a line of the London Underground, coloured dark blue on the Tube map. It is the fourth busiest line on the Underground network on the basis of the number of passengers transported per year with 210,000,000. It is mainly a deep-level line, running from the north to the west of London via Zone 1, with a number of surface sections and it is named after the road above it between Hyde Park Corner and Piccadilly Circus. Some of its stations are shared with the District line and some are shared with the Metropolitan line and it is the second longest line on the system, after the Central line, and has the second most stations, after the District line. The GN&SRs and B&PCRs separate routes were linked with a section between Piccadilly Circus and Holborn. A section of the District Railways scheme for a tube line between South Kensington and Earls Court was also added in order to complete the route. When the GNP&BR was formally opened on 15 December 1906, the line ran from the Great Northern Railways station at Finsbury Park to the District Railways station at Hammersmith. On 30 November 1907, the branch from Holborn to the Strand opened. In 1905, plans were made to extend it the distance south under the River Thames to Waterloo. Although built with twin tunnels, single track shuttle operation became the norm on the branch from 1918 on, on 1 July 1910 the GNP&BR and the other UERL-owned tube railways were merged by private Act of Parliament to become the London Electric Railway Company. On 10 December 1928, a rebuilt Piccadilly Circus station was opened, There had been deputations made to Parliament asking for an early extension of the line either towards Tottenham and Edmonton or towards Wood Green and Palmers Green. The early 1930s was a time of recession, and in order to relieve unemployment, government capital was made available, the chief features of the scheme were an extension northwards from Finsbury Park to Cockfosters. However, a Ventilation station, in architectural style to tube stations of the time was provided at the site. There was also opposition from the London and North Eastern Railway to the line. The extension began from Finsbury Park to a point a little south of Arnos Grove, a Parliamentary report of 1919 recommended through running to Richmond and Ealing. By the end of the 1920s the priority had shifted to serving the areas around Hounslow and north, construction of the linking sections started in 1930, and the services opened as follows. To Uxbridge, the District Railway had operated services to Uxbridge since 1910 and this influence can be seen in the bold vertical and horizontal forms, which were combined with the use of traditional materials like brick. Many of these Holden-designed station are listed buildings and this idea was eventually rejected due to the inconvenience to passengers that would have been caused during rebuilding, as well as the costs of the new tunnels
30.
Scotland Yard
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Scotland Yard is a metonym for the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police Service, the territorial police force responsible for policing most of London. The name derives from the location of the original Metropolitan Police headquarters at 4 Whitehall Place, the Scotland Yard entrance became the public entrance to the police station, and over time the street and the Metropolitan Police became synonymous. The New York Times wrote in 1964 that just as Wall Street gave its name to New Yorks financial district, Scotland Yard became the name for police activity in London. The force moved from Great Scotland Yard in 1890, to a completed building on the Victoria Embankment. An adjacent building was completed in 1906, a third building was added in 1940. In 1967, the MPS moved its headquarters from the complex to a tall. In November 2016, MPS moved to its new headquarters, which continues to bear the name of New Scotland Yard. the sign spins around non stop and it has a camera inside it. The Metropolitan Police Service is responsible for law enforcement within Greater London, excluding the square mile of the City of London, additionally, the London Underground and National Rail networks are the responsibility of the British Transport Police. The Metropolitan Police was formed by Robert Peel with the implementation of the Metropolitan Police Act, Peel, with the help of Eugène-François Vidocq, selected the original site on Whitehall Place for the new police headquarters. The first two commissioners, Charles Rowan and Richard Mayne, along with police officers and staff. Previously a private house,4 Whitehall Place backed onto a street called Great Scotland Yard, in 1888, during the construction of the new building, workers discovered the dismembered torso of a female, the case, known as the Whitehall Mystery, was never solved. In 1890, police moved to the new location, which was named New Scotland Yard. By this time, the Metropolitan Police had grown from its initial 1,000 officers to about 13,000 and needed more administrative staff, further increases in the size and responsibilities of the force required even more administrators and space. Therefore, new buildings were constructed and completed in 1906 and 1940, the first two buildings are now a Grade I listed structure known as the Norman Shaw Buildings. The original building at 4 Whitehall Place still has an entrance on Great Scotland Yard. Stables for some of the branch are still located at 7 Great Scotland Yard. By the 1960s the requirements of modern technology and further increases in the size of the force meant that it had outgrown its three-building complex on Victoria Embankment. In 1967 New Scotland Yard moved to a newly constructed building on Broadway, from 1967 to 2016, the third building of the first New Scotland Yard was partly used as the base for the Mets Territorial Support Group
31.
Foreign and Commonwealth Office
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The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, commonly called the Foreign Office, is a department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for protecting and promoting British interests worldwide and it was created in 1968 by merging the Foreign Office and the Commonwealth Office. The head of the FCO is the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and this position is regarded as one of the four most prestigious appointments in the Cabinet, alongside those of Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary. Together with the Prime Minister, these are the Great Offices of State, the FCO is managed from day-to-day by a civil servant, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, who also acts as the Head of the Her Majestys Diplomatic Service. This position is held by Sir Simon McDonald, who took office on 1 September 2015, safeguarding the UK’s national security by countering terrorism and weapons proliferation, and working to reduce conflict. Building the UK’s prosperity by increasing exports and investment, opening markets, ensuring access to resources, supporting British nationals around the world through modern and efficient consular services. The two departments foreign affairs responsibilities became the Foreign Office, whilst their domestic affairs responsibilities were assigned to the Home Office, the Home Office is technically the senior. One of the most influential Times journalists was Valentine Chirol, British Ambassadors across Europe communicated with him on a number of political and local issues. Twentieth century During World War I, the Arab Bureau was set up within the British Foreign Office as a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department, the FCO was formed in 1968, from the merger of the short-lived Commonwealth Office and the Foreign Office. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office held responsibility for development issues between 1970 and 1974, and again between 1979 and 1997. From 1997, this became the responsibility of the separate Department for International Development, the National Archives website contains a Government timeline to show the departments responsible for Foreign Affairs from 1945. When David Miliband took over as Foreign Secretary in June 2007, one of the key messages of these discussions was the conclusion that the existing framework of ten international strategic priorities, dating from 2003, was no longer appropriate. Although the framework had been useful in helping the FCO plan its work and allocate its resources, the new strategic framework consists of three core elements, A flexible global network of staff and offices, serving the whole of the UK Government. Three essential services that support the British economy, British nationals abroad and these services are delivered through UK Trade & Investment, consular teams in Britain and overseas, and UK Visas and Immigration. In August 2005 a report by management consultant group Collinson Grant was made public by Andrew Mackinlay, the report severely criticised the FCOs management structure, noting, The Foreign Office could be slow to act. Delegation is lacking within the management structure, the FCO could feasibly cut 1200 jobs. At least £48 million could be saved annually, the Foreign Office commissioned the report to highlight areas which would help it achieve its pledge to reduce spending by £87 million over three years. In response to the report being made public, the Foreign Office stated it had implemented the reports recommendations
32.
Keith Joseph
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Keith Sinjohn Joseph, Baron Joseph, CH, PC, QC, known as Sir Keith Joseph, 2nd Baronet, for most of his political life, was a British barrister and politician. A member of the Conservative Party, he served in the Cabinet under four prime ministers, Harold Macmillan, Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Edward Heath and Margaret Thatcher. He was a key influence in the creation of what came to be known as Thatcherism and the subsequent decline of one-nation conservatism, Keith Joseph was the first to introduce the concept of the social market economy into Britain, an economic and social system inspired by Christian democracy. He also co-founded the Centre for Policy Studies writing its first publication, Joseph was the son of a wealthy and influential Jewish family. His father, Samuel Joseph headed the vast family construction and project-management company, Bovis, at the end of his term he was created a baronet. On the death of his father on 4 October 1944, 26-year-old Keith inherited the baronetcy, Joseph was educated at Lockers Park School in Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire, followed by Harrow School and Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied Jurisprudence, obtaining first class honours. Shortly thereafter he was elected a Fellow of All Souls College, after the end of the war, he was called to the Bar. Following his father, he was elected as an Alderman of the City of London and he was a Director of Bovis, becoming chairman in 1958, and became an underwriter at Lloyds of London. He was married twice, firstly, in 1951 to Hellen Guggenheimer, after their divorce in 1985, he married Yolanda Sherriff in 1990. He failed to be elected to the seat of Barons Court in West London by 125 votes in the 1955 election. He was elected to parliament in a by-election for Leeds North East in February 1956 and he was swiftly appointed as a Parliamentary Private Secretary. After 1959, Sir Keith had several posts in the Macmillan government at the Ministry of Housing. In the Night of the Long Knives reshuffle of 13 July 1962 he was made Minister for Housing and Local Government and he introduced a massive programme to build council housing, which aimed at 400,000 new homes per year by 1965. He wished to increase the proportion of owner-occupied households, by offering help with mortgage deposits, Housing was an important issue at the 1964 election and Joseph was felt to have done well on television in the campaign. In opposition, Joseph was spokesman on Social Services, and then on Labour under Edward Heath and he was one of twelve founder members of the NCSWD, the National Council for Single Woman and Her Dependants on 15 December 1965. Despite Josephs reputation as a right-winger, Heath promoted him to Trade spokesman in 1967, in the run-up to the 1970 election Joseph made a series of speeches under the title civilised capitalism, in which he outlined his political philosophy and hinted of cuts in public spending. At the Selsdon Park Hotel meeting, the Conservative Party largely adopted this approach, despite his speeches against bureaucracy, Joseph found himself compelled to add to it as he increased and improved services in the National Health Service. However, he grew increasingly opposed to the Heath governments economic strategy, Joseph became interested in the economic theory of monetarism as formulated by Milton Friedman, and much earlier by Enoch Powell, and persuaded Mrs Thatcher to support it
33.
Ernest Marples
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Alfred Ernest Marples, Baron Marples, PC was a British Conservative politician who served as Postmaster General and Minister of Transport. As postmaster general he saw the introduction of the Premium Bond scheme and his period as Minister of Transport was controversial. He both oversaw significant construction and the closure of a portion of the national railway network with the Beeching cuts. His involvement in the construction business Marples Ridgway, of which he had been managing director, was one of repeated concern regarding possible conflict of interest. It was Marples who appointed Richard Beeching to head British Railways, Beeching went on to publish a report which closed more than 4,000 miles of railway lines in the UK with a resulting rise in the amount of road traffic. In later life he was elevated to the peerage before fleeing to Monaco at very short notice to avoid prosecution for tax fraud, Marples was born at 45 Dorset Road, Levenshulme, Manchester, Lancashire. His father had been a renowned engineering charge-hand and Manchester Labour campaigner, Marples attended Victoria Park Council School and won a scholarship to Stretford Grammar School. By the age of 14 he was active in the Labour Movement, as well as earning money by selling cigarettes. He also played football for a YMCA team, Marples worked as a miner, a postman, a chef and an accountant. He was commissioned into the Royal Artillery in 1941, rose to the rank of Captain and was discharged in 1944. Marples married Ruth Dobson, who on his elevation to the Peerage in 1974 became Lady Marples, Marples joined the Conservative Party and in 1945 was elected as Member of Parliament for Wallasey. In 1951, Winston Churchill appointed him a minister in the Conservative Government 1951–1955. Marples was a minister under Harold Macmillan and Alec Douglas-Home throughout the Conservative Government 1957–1964, in 1957, Harold Macmillan appointed Marples Postmaster General. At that time the network was controlled by the General Post Office, and Marples introduced subscriber trunk dialling. On 2 June 1957, Marples started the first draw for the new Premium Bond scheme and he also introduced the first postcodes to the UK. Marples was Minister of Transport from 14 October 1959 until the Conservatives lost the 1964 General Election on 16 October 1964, as Minister of Transport, Marples oversaw the introduction of parking meters and the provisional driving licence in 1958 and two Transport Acts. The Road Traffic Act of 1960 introduced the MOT test, roadside single yellow lines and double lines, traffic wardens. The Act was described as the most momentous piece of legislation in the field of law to have been enacted since the Railway
34.
Documentary film
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A documentary film is a nonfictional motion picture intended to document some aspect of reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction, education, or maintaining a historical record. Documentary has been described as a practice, a cinematic tradition. Polish writer and filmmaker Bolesław Matuszewski was among those who identified the mode of documentary film and he wrote two of the earliest texts on cinema Une nouvelle source de lhistoire and La photographie animée. Both were published in 1898 in French and among the written works to consider the historical. Matuszewski is also among the first filmmakers to propose the creation of a Film Archive to collect, the American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as a factual film which is dramatic. Others further state that a documentary stands out from the types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion. Documentary practice is the process of creating documentary projects. Documentary filmmaking can be used as a form of journalism, advocacy, early film was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. They were single-shot moments captured on film, a train entering a station and these short films were called actuality films, the term documentary was not coined until 1926. Many of the first films, such as made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length. Films showing many people were made for commercial reasons, the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the United States, in May 1896, Bolesław Matuszewski recorded on film few surigical operations in Warsaw and Saint Petersburg hospitals. In 1898, French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen invited Bolesław Matuszewski and Clément Maurice and they started in Paris a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations, Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. These and five other of Doyens films survive, all these short films have been preserved. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me, unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way. Travelogue films were popular in the early part of the 20th century
35.
Rank Organisation
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The Rank Organisation is or was a British entertainment conglomerate founded by industrialist J. Arthur Rank in April 1937. It quickly became the largest and most vertically integrated company in Britain. It also diversified into the manufacture of radios, TVs and photocopiers, the company logo, the Gongman, first used in 1935 by the groups distribution company General Film Distributors and seen in the opening titles of the films, became an iconic film emblem. From these modest origins, the British film company emerged in 1937 as Rank sought to consolidate his film-making interests, the company grew quickly, largely through acquisition. 1939 - UK sites of Paramount Cinemas purchased 1941 - Purchase of the Gaumont-British Picture Corporation, which also owned Gainsborough Pictures,251 cinemas and the Lime Grove Studios. In the mid-1940s Two Cities Films became part of the Rank Organisation producing key films such as Odd Man Out, Hamlet, Vice Versa and The Rocking Horse Winner. 1946 - Bought for £1 million+ a 50 per cent share in a chain of 133 cinemas from New Zealander Robert James Kerridge, many of the waning film company assets were hastily converted and pressed into Rank Xerox service. The Company of Youth, the Rank Organisation acting school often referred to as The Charm School, was founded in 1945 and it launched several careers including those of Donald Sinden, Dirk Bogarde, Diana Dors and Christopher Lee. Also under contract to Rank was the Canadian actor Philip Gilbert, despite backing some excellent films, Rank was in crisis by 1949, having built up a debt of £16 million. And reported a loss of £3.5 million, Managing Director John Davis cut staff, reduced budgets. Other studio facilities were closed, sold or leased, the Rank Organisation closed Independent Producers Ltd. In 1949, the company bought the Bush Radio manufacturing facility, in the early 1960s Rank took over Murphy Radio to form the Rank Bush Murphy Group. In 1956 Rank began a partnership with the Haloid Corporation to form Rank Xerox, Rank was also a significant shareholder in the consortium which became Southern Television, the first ITV television contract holder for the south of England. In the late 1950s, Rank set up Rank Records Ltd. in 1960, Top Rank was taken over by EMI, and in 1962 they replaced it with Stateside Records. Top Rank artists included Gary U. S. Bonds, the Shirelles, bumble and the Stingers, Wilbert Harrison, Skip & Flip, Andy Stewart, Craig Douglas and John Leyton. Rank Audio Visual was created in 1960, bringing together Ranks acquisitions in multimedia, including Bell and Howell, Andrew Smith Harkness Ltd, subsequent acquisitions included Strand Electric Holdings and H. J. Leak & Co. In the mid and late 1970s Rank Audio Visual made a 3-in-1 stereo music centre, the production of the classic Rank TV ran in the mid to late 70s, some interim models appeared and the modern Rank TV appeared in the early 80s. The NEC badge did not appear in the PAL/ 220/240 volt countries until the mid-1980s, J. Arthur Rank had stepped down as managing director of the Rank Organisation in 1952, but remained as chairman until 1962
36.
Irish republican
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Irish republicanism is an ideology based on the belief that all of Ireland should be an independent republic. This followed hundreds of years of British conquest and Irish resistance through rebellion and it launched the 1798 Rebellion with the help of French troops. The rebellion had some success, especially in County Wexford, before it was suppressed, a second rising in 1803, led by Robert Emmet, was quickly put down, and Emmet was hanged. The Young Ireland movement, formed in the 1830s, was initially a part of the Repeal Association of Daniel OConnell, primarily a political and cultural organisation, some members of Young Ireland staged an abortive rising, the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Its leaders were transported to Van Diemens Land, some of these escaped to the United States, where they linked up with other Irish exiles to form the Fenian Brotherhood. They staged another rising, the Fenian Rising, in 1867, in the early 20th century IRB members, in particular Tom Clarke and Seán MacDermott, began planning another rising. The execution of the Risings leaders, including Clarke, MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, the elected members did not take their seats but instead set up the First Dáil. Between 1919 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army, who were loyal to the Dáil, fought the British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary in the Irish War of Independence. Talks between the British and Irish in late 1921 led to a treaty by which the British conceded, not a 32-county Irish Republic and this led to the Irish Civil War, in which the republicans were defeated by their former comrades. That same year, the movement took the decision to focus on Northern Ireland thereafter. The Border Campaign, which lasted from 1956 to 1962, involved bombings, the failure of this campaign led the republican leadership to concentrate on political action, and to move to the left. Following the outbreak of The Troubles in 1968-9, the movement split between Officials and Provisionals at the beginning of 1970. The Provisional IRA, except during brief ceasefires in 1972 and 1975, kept up a campaign of violence for nearly thirty years, directed against security forces and civilian targets. This began to change with a speech by Danny Morrison in 1981, advocating what became known as the Armalite. Under the leadership of Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin began to focus on the search for a political settlement. When the party voted in 1986 to take seats in legislative bodies within Ireland, there was a walk-out of die-hard republicans, who set up Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. Following the Hume–Adams dialogue, Sinn Féin took part in the Northern Ireland peace process led to the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997. However, another split occurred, with anti-Agreement republicans setting up the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, today, Irish republicanism is divided between those who support the institutions set up under the Good Friday Agreement and the later St Andrews Agreement, and those who oppose them
37.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
38.
Shaftesbury
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Shaftesbury /ˈʃɑːftsbəri/ is a town and civil parish in Dorset, England. It is situated on the A30 road,20 miles west of Salisbury and it is the only significant hilltop settlement in Dorset, being built about 215 metres above sea level on a greensand hill on the edge of Cranborne Chase. The town looks over the Blackmore Vale, part of the River Stour basin, from different viewpoints, it is possible to see at least as far as Glastonbury Tor to the northwest. Adjacent to the site is Gold Hill, the steep cobbled street made famous in the 1970s as the setting for Ridley Scotts television advertisement for Hovis bread. In the 2011 census the civil parish had a population of 7,314. Writing of Shaftesbury in 1906 in his book Highways & Byways in Dorset, Sir Frederick Treves referred to different names for the town. It was, in the beginning, Caer Palladour, by the time of the Domesday Book it was Sceptesberie. It then, with all the affectation of a lady in an eighteenth-century lyric, lastly it became Shaston, and so the people call it to this day, while all the milestones around concern themselves only with recording the distances to Shaston. Some of these names may have used more than others. There is no evidence that Shaftesbury was the Caer Palladur of Celtic and Roman times. By the early 8th century there was an important minster church here, the burgh is recorded in the early-10th-century Burghal Hidage as one of only three that existed in the county. In 888 Alfred founded Shaftesbury Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery by the towns east gate, athelstan founded two royal mints, which struck pennies bearing the towns name, and the abbey became the wealthiest Benedictine nunnery in England. King Canute died here in 1035, though he was buried at Winchester, edward the Confessor licensed a third mint for the town. Around this time the ownership was equally shared between king and abbey. The site on Castle Hill, also known locally as Boltbury, is now under grass and is a scheduled monument. In 1240 Cardinal Otto, legate to the Apostolic See of Pope Gregory IX visited the abbey and confirmed a charter of 1191, in 1260 a charter to hold a market was granted. By 1340 the mayor had become a figure, sworn in by the steward of the abbess. In 1392 Richard II confirmed a grant of two markets on different days, edwardstow, Shaftesburys oldest surviving building, was built on Bimport at some time between 1400 and 1539
39.
Soho
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Soho is an area of the City of Westminster and is part of the West End of London, England. Since the 1980s, the area has undergone considerable gentrification and it is now predominantly a fashionable district of upmarket restaurants and media offices, with only a small remnant of sex industry venues. Soho is a small, multicultural area of central London, a home to industry, commerce, culture and entertainment, record shops cluster in the area around Berwick Street, with shops such as Phonica, Sister Ray and Reckless Records. On many weekends, Soho is busy enough to warrant closing off some of the streets to vehicles, Westminster City Council pedestrianised parts of Soho in the mid-1990s, but later removed much of the pedestrianisation, apparently after complaints of loss of trade from local businesses. The name Soho first appears in the 17th century, Most authorities believe that the name derives from a former hunting cry. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, used soho as a call for his men at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685. The Soho name has been imitated by other entertainment and restaurant districts such as Soho, Hong Kong, Soho, Málaga, SOHO, Beijing, SoHo, London, Ontario, Canada, and Palermo Soho, Buenos Aires. SoHo, Manhattan, gets its name from its location SOuth of HOuston Street, however, apart from Oxford Street, all of these roads are 19th-century metropolitan improvements, so they are not Sohos original boundaries. Soho has never been a unit, with formally defined boundaries. The area to the west is known as Mayfair, to the north Fitzrovia, to the east St Giles and Covent Garden, and to the south St Jamess. According to the Soho Society, Chinatown, the area between Leicester Square to the south and Shaftesbury Avenue to the north, is part of Soho, Soho is part of the West End electoral ward which elects three councillors to Westminster City Council. In 1536, the land was taken by Henry VIII as a park for the Palace of Whitehall. In the 1660s, ownership of Soho Fields passed to Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St Albans and he was granted permission to develop property and quickly passed the lease and development to bricklayer Richard Frith. Soho was part of the ancient parish of St Martin in the Fields, as the population started to grow a new church was provided and in 1687 a new parish of St Anne was established for it. The parish stretched from Oxford Street in the north, to Leicester Square in the south and it therefore included all of contemporary eastern Soho, including the Chinatown area. The western portion of modern Soho, around Carnaby Street was part of the parish of St James, building progressed rapidly in the late 17th century, with large properties including Monmouth House, Leicester House, Fauconberg House, Carlisle House and Newport House. Soho Square was first laid out in the 1680s on the former Soho Fields, firth built the first houses around the square, and by 1691,41 had been completed. It was originally called King Square in honour of Charles II, several upper-class families moved into the area
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Chinawhite (nightclub)
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Chinawhite is an exclusive nightclub in central London. The original club was located between Piccadilly Circus and Soho, but the closed in December 2008 due to the building being sold. It re-opened at a new location in London on 20 October 2009 at 4 Winsley Street, the original Chinawhite venue near Piccadilly Circus became a well known celebrity club, being attended by Premier League footballers, Page 3 girls, and young people in the entertainment industry. Kate Moss, Jemma Kidd, Leonardo DiCaprio, Mick Hucknall, the original club in Soho had a number of suites with soft, bed-like lounging areas. Including a VIP suite which gained notoriety in the British press over the years, the suites were noted for their lavish furnishings, and were known to be very expensive. Exclusive membership was often priced at £700 for a year, over the years, numerous music acts performed at the venue. In 2009 Chinawhite undertook an extensive 16 week refurbishment project which was completed by Phelan Construction Ltd the same year, the new club in Fitzrovia features a restaurant and Temple Bar. Blueprint stated in 2010 soon after the reopening that the new Chinawhite has immediately regained its status as Londons most elite nightclub, in March 2013, Chinawhite launched the new main room concept Libertine, which was a collaboration with nightclub entrepreneur Hootan Ahmadi. The redesigned Winsley Street site also features a clandestine, multisensory cocktail lounge called Reason & Mankind. In September 2014, it as reported in Business and Leadership and the Belfast Telegraph that Chinawhite is to open a club in Belfast, the club is to locate in the citys Linen Quarter. Official website Libertine by Chinawhite Review Guest list & Table bookings at Libertine
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Panorama
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A panorama is any wide-angle view or representation of a physical space, whether in painting, drawing, photography, film, seismic images or a three-dimensional model. The word was coined in the 18th century by the English painter Robert Barker to describe his panoramic paintings of Edinburgh. The motion-picture term panning is derived from panorama, a panoramic view is also purposed for multi-media, cross-scale applications to an outline overview along and across repositories. This so-called cognitive panorama is a view over, and a combination of. The device of the panorama existed in painting, particularly in murals, as early as 20 A. D. in those found in Pompeii, cartographic experiments during the Enlightenment era preceded European panorama painting and contributed to a formative impulse toward panoramic vision and depiction. In the mid-19th century, panoramic paintings and models became a popular way to represent landscapes, topographic views. Audiences of Europe in this period were thrilled by the aspect of illusion, immersed in a winding 360 degree panorama, the panorama was a 360-degree visual medium patented under the title Apparatus for Exhibiting Pictures by the artist Robert Barker in 1787. The earliest that the word appeared in print was on June 11,1791 in the British newspaper The Morning Chronicle. The inaugural exhibition, a View of Edinburgh, was first shown in that city in 1788, by 1793, Barker had built The Panorama rotunda at the center of Londons entertainment district in Leicester Square, where it remained until closed in 1863. Large scale installations enhance the illusion for an audience of being surrounded with a real landscape, the Bourbaki Panorama in Lucerne, Switzerland was created by Edouard Castres in 1881. The painting measures about 10 metres in height with a circumference of 112 meters, in the United States of America is the Atlanta Cyclorama, depicting the Civil War Battle of Atlanta. It was first displayed in 1887, and is 42 feet high by 358 feet circumference, also on a gigantic scale, and still extant, is the Racławice Panorama located in Wrocław, Poland, which measures 15 x 120 metres. In addition to historical examples, there have been panoramas painted and installed in modern times, prominent among these is the Velaslavasay Panorama in Los Angeles. Panoramic photography soon came to painting as the most common method for creating wide views. Not long after the introduction of the Daguerreotype in 1839, photographers began assembling multiple images of a view into a wide image. Pinhole cameras of a variety of constructions can be used to make panoramic images and this generates an egg-shaped image with more than 180° view. They could run autonomously with silent synchronization pulses to control projector advance and fades, precisely overlapping slides placed in slide mounts with soft-edge density masks would merge seamlessly on the screen to create the panorama. Cutting and dissolving between sequential images generated animation effects in the panorama format, digital photography of the late twentieth century greatly simplified this assembly process, which is now known as image stitching
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Lillywhites
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Lillywhites is a sports retailer based at Piccadilly Circus, London, United Kingdom. It is a division of Sports Direct International, in the 19th century, several members of the Lillywhite family were leading cricketers, another, Fred Lillywhite, organised the first overseas tour by an England team to North America in 1859. In 1866, the Lillywhite No.5 football was chosen for a London v, in 1886, the Ivy League chose the Lillywhite No. J as the standard for American college footballs, the shop has been based at its current location of 25 Regent St. on Piccadilly Circus since 1925, catering to the London market with specialist departments for croquet and real tennis. Lillywhites policy was to compete on quality products, for many years the company was owned by Forte Group. In the same year, Lillywhites was bought by the Portuguese company Jerónimo Martins, in the face of competition from other retailers offering more goods at lower prices, Lillywhites fell into financial difficulty. In 2002 Jerónimo Martins sold the company to Sports World International, the owner of the Sports World retail chain, the store in Leeds city centre was closed in 2004. The Lakeside branch was closed in 2010 and The Glades, Bromley store was closed in 2012
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Perrier
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Perrier /ˈpɛri. eɪ/ is a French brand of natural bottled mineral water captured at the source in Vergèze, located in the Gard département. Perrier is best known for its naturally occurring carbonation, distinctive green bottle, the spring from which Perrier water is sourced is naturally carbonated. The water is purified, and, during bottling, the carbon dioxide gas is re-added so that the level of carbonation in bottled Perrier matches that of the Vergèze spring. Perrier is available in 750 ml,330 ml, and 200 ml glass bottles in Europe, in other markets, the 250 ml can is also available. Perrier bottles all have a distinctive shape and are a signature green color. Perrier comes in flavors, Natural, Lemon, and Lime have been in market for many years. In 2015, a Green Apple flavor was launched in France as well as the US, in 2016, a Mint flavor was introduced in France. Since 2002, new varieties of Perrier have been introduced in France, for example, Eau de Perrier is less carbonated than the original, Perrier Fluo comes in flavors such as ginger-cherry, peppermint, orange-lychee, raspberry, and ginger-lemon. Perrier and Italian mineral water brand San Pellegrino are both owned by the Nestlé Corporation, the spring in Southern France from which Perrier is drawn was originally known as Les Bouillens. It had been used as a spa since Roman times, local doctor Louis Perrier bought the spring in 1898 and operated a commercial spa there, he also bottled the water for sale. He later sold the spring to St John Harmsworth, a wealthy British visitor, Harmsworth was the younger brother of the newspaper magnates Lord Northcliffe and Lord Rothermere. He had come to France to learn the language, dr. Perrier showed him the spring, and he decided to buy it. He sold his share of the newspapers to raise the money. Harmsworth closed the spa, as spas were becoming unfashionable and he renamed the spring Source Perrier and started bottling the water in distinctive green bottles. The shape was that of the Indian clubs, which Harmsworth used for exercise, Harmsworth marketed the product in Britain at a time when Frenchness was seen as chic and aspirational to the middle classes. It was advertised as the Champagne of mineral water, advertising in newspapers like the Daily Mail established the brand. Perrier stated that it was an incident of a worker having made a mistake in filtering. The incident ultimately led to the recall of the product
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Landsec
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Land Securities Group plc is the largest commercial property development and investment company in the UK. The firm switched to Real Estate Investment Trust status when REITs were introduced in the United Kingdom in January 2007 and it is headquartered in London and traded on the London Stock Exchange, and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. The Group traces its origins to 1944, when its founder Harold Samuel purchased Land Securities Investment Trust Limited, further acquisitions followed shortly afterwards and from 1947 the company concentrated on commercial property. In the early days some non-UK investments were acquired, but in 1971 these were sold off, the company name was changed to Land Securities plc in 1982. On 31 March 2012, Francis Salway was succeeded as chief executive by Robert Noel, Noel was managing director of the companys London properties, having joined Land Securities in January 2010 from Great Portland Estates plc, where he had been property director since 2002. Land Securities owns and manages more than 26,000,000 sq ft of commercial property, from London offices and high street shops to major shopping centres, at 31 March 2016 the companys property portfolio was valued at £14.3 billion. The Company owns the The Piccadilly Lights in Piccadilly Circus in London, in July 2012, the Company was looking for a volume housebuilder for its development opportunity of Eastern Quarry to be built opposite the Bluewater in Swanscombe, Kent. It will eventually consist of 6,250 homes, three schools, a secondary school, a health and social care centre, more than 20 acres of new parks, lakes. Phase one, will deliver 1,500 homes, the company has already invested more than £100m in the site, but the plans were put on hold in August 2012 when complications arose over the cost of transport infrastructure. The first homes are set to be completed by December 2013
