1.
Hamelin
–
Hamelin is a town on the river Weser in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the capital of the district of Hamelin-Pyrmont and has a population of roughly 56,000, Hamelin is best known for the tale of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. Hamelin started with a monastery, which was founded as early as 851 AD, a village grew in the neighbourhood and had become a town by the 12th century. The incident with the Pied Piper is said to have happened in 1284 and may be based on a true event, in the 15th and 16th centuries Hamelin was a minor member of the Hanseatic League. The era of the towns greatest prosperity began in 1664, when Hamelin became a border town of the Principality of Calenberg. Hamelin was surrounded by four fortresses, which gave it the nickname Gibraltar of the North and it was the most heavily fortified town in the Electorate of Hanover. The first fort was built between 1760 and 1763, the second in 1774, a third in 1784, and the last was built in 1806, in 1808, Hamelin surrendered without fighting to Napoleon, after his victory at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. Napoleons forces subsequently pulled down the historic walls and guard towers. In 1843, the people of Hamelin built a tower on the Klüt Hill. This tower is called the Klütturm and is a sight for tourists. In 1867 Hamelin became part of the Kingdom of Prussia, which annexed Hanover in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, during the Second World War, Hamelin prison was used for the detention of Social Democrats, Communists, and other political prisoners. Around 200 died here, more died in April 1945, when the Nazis sent the prisoners on long marches, just after the war, Hamelin prison was used by British Occupation Forces for the detention of Germans accused of war crimes. Following conviction, around 200 of them were hanged there, including Irma Grese, Josef Kramer, the prison has since been turned into a hotel. The coat of arms of Hamelin depicts the St. Boniface Minster, the version written by the Brothers Grimm made it popular throughout the world, it is also the subject of well-known poems by Goethe and Robert Browning. In the summer every Sunday, the tale is performed by actors in the town centre, Hamelin is twinned with, Quedlinburg, Germany Torbay, United Kingdom Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, Poland Hamelin was home to 28 Engineer Regiment until summer,2014.000 people. German Fairy Tale Route Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg Official website Local newspaper
Hamelin
–
Panorama of Hamelin
Hamelin
Hamelin
–
The
Pied Piper leads the children out of Hamelin. Illustration by
Kate Greenaway.
Hamelin
–
Jewish cemetery of Hamelin
2.
Lower Saxony
–
Lower Saxony is a German state situated in northwestern Germany and is second in area, with 47,624 square kilometres, and fourth in population among the sixteen Länder of Germany. In rural areas Northern Low Saxon, a dialect of Low German, and Saterland Frisian, a variety of Frisian, are still spoken, but the number of speakers is declining. Lower Saxony borders on the North Sea, the states of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia, and the Netherlands. Furthermore, the state of Bremen forms two enclaves within Lower Saxony, one being the city of Bremen, the other, its city of Bremerhaven. In fact, Lower Saxony borders more neighbours than any other single Bundesland, the states principal cities include the state capital Hanover, Braunschweig, Lüneburg, Osnabrück, Oldenburg, Hildesheim, Wolfenbüttel, Wolfsburg and Göttingen. The northwestern area of Lower Saxony, which lies on the coast of the North Sea, is called East Frisia, in the extreme west of Lower Saxony is the Emsland, a traditionally poor and sparsely populated area, once dominated by inaccessible swamps. The northern half of Lower Saxony, also known as the North German Plains, is almost invariably flat except for the hills around the Bremen geestland. Towards the south and southwest lie the northern parts of the German Central Uplands, the Weser Uplands, between these two lie the Lower Saxon Hills, a range of low ridges. Thus, Lower Saxony is the only Bundesland that encompasses both maritime and mountainous areas, Lower Saxonys major cities and economic centres are mainly situated in its central and southern parts, namely Hanover, Braunschweig, Osnabrück, Wolfsburg, Salzgitter, Hildesheim and Göttingen. Oldenburg, near the coastline, is another economic centre. To the north, the Elbe river separates Lower Saxony from Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, the banks just south of the Elbe are known as Altes Land. Due to its local climate and fertile soil, it is the states largest area of fruit farming. Most of the territory was part of the historic Kingdom of Hanover. It was created by the merger of the State of Hanover with several states in 1946. Lower Saxony has a boundary in the north in the North Sea. The state and city of Bremen is an enclave surrounded by Lower Saxony. The Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region is a body for the enclave area. To the southeast the state border runs through the Harz, low mountains that are part of the German Central Uplands, in northeast Lower Saxony is Lüneburg Heath
Lower Saxony
–
Hannover
Lower Saxony
–
Flag
Lower Saxony
–
Braunschweig
Lower Saxony
–
Lüneburg
3.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
4.
Arthur Rackham
–
Arthur Rackham was an English book illustrator. Rackham was born in Lewisham, then part of Kent as one of 12 children. In 1884, at the age of 17, he was sent on a voyage to Australia to improve his fragile health. At the age of 18, he worked as a clerk at the Westminster Fire Office, in 1892, he left his job and started working for the Westminster Budget as a reporter and illustrator. Book illustrating then became Rackhams career for the rest of his life and this was developed further through the austere years of the Boer War with regular contributions to childrens periodicals such as Little Folks and Cassells Magazine. In 1901 he moved to Wychcombe Studios near Haverstock Hill, edith suffered a miscarriage in 1904, but the couple had one daughter, Barbara, in 1908. M. Barries Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, published by Hodder & Stoughton. Income from the books was greatly augmented by annual exhibitions of the artwork at the Leicester Galleries, Rackham won a gold medal at the Milan International Exhibition in 1906 and another one at the Barcelona International Exposition in 1912. His works were included in exhibitions, including one at the Louvre in Paris in 1914. From 1906 the family lived in Chalcot Gardens, near Haverstock Hill, until moving from London to Houghton, in 1929 the family settled into a newly built property in Limpsfield, Surrey. Arthur Rackham died in 1939 of cancer at his home, during that period, there was a strong market for high quality illustrated books which typically were given as Christmas gifts. Many of Rackhams books were produced in a de luxe limited edition, often vellum bound and sometimes signed, as well as a larger and this was often followed by a more modestly presented octavo edition in subsequent years for particularly popular books. The onset of the war in 1914 curtailed the market for such quality books, arthur Rackhams works have become very popular since his death, both in North America and Britain. His images have been used by the greeting card industry. His original drawings and paintings are keenly sought at the international art auction houses. Rackhams illustrations were based on robust pen and India ink drawings. He would first lightly block in shapes and details of the drawing with a soft pencil, over this he would then carefully work in lines of pen and India ink, removing the pencil traces after the drawing had begun to take form. For colour pictures, he would begin painting by building up multiple thin washes of watercolour creating translucent tints. He would also go on to expand the use of cuts in illustration work, particularly in the period after the First World War, as exemplified by his Sleeping Beauty
Arthur Rackham
–
Arthur Rackham
Arthur Rackham
–
One of Rackham's illustrations to
Das Rheingold, depicting Fasolt and
Fafner seizing
Freia.
Arthur Rackham
Arthur Rackham
–
Cinderella silhouette illustration
5.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
6.
Pipe (instrument)
–
A pipe is a tubular wind instrument in general, or various specific wind instruments. The word is an onomatopoeia, and comes from the tone which can resemble that of a bird chirping, fipple flutes are found in many cultures around the world. Often with six holes, the pipe is a common pastoral image. Shepherds often piped both to soothe the sheep and to amuse themselves, modern manufactured six-hole folk pipes are referred to as pennywhistle or tin whistle. The three-holed pipe is a form of the pipe which is usually played with one hand, while the other hand plays a tabor or other drone instrument. In English this instrument is called simply a pipe, but is often referred to as a tabor pipe to distinguish it from other instruments. The tabor pipe has two holes and one thumb hole. In the English tradition, these three holes play the notes as the bottom three holes of a tin whistle, or tone, tone, semitone. Other tabor pipes, such as the French galoubet, the Picco pipe, the Basque txistu and xirula, a much larger, sophisticated 3-hole pipe played by a growing number of enthusiasts is the Slovakian fujara, made of two connected parallel pipes of different lengths. This is not to be mistaken with the Polish single pipe and it also exists in locally modified modern versions. Similar to both of these is the Czech fujara, the pipe and tabor was a common combination throughout Asia, during the mediæval period, and remains popular in some parts of Europe and the Americas today. The English pipe and tabor had waned in popularity, but had not died out before a revival by Morris dance musicians in the early 20th century, traditionally made of cane, bone, ivory, or wood, today pipes are also available made of metal and of plastic. The flageolet was developed from the pipe, in France. Its lower three holes were configured the same as a pipe, with two on front and one on back. A second set of three holes was added above this, the mouthpiece had a unique configuration with a sponge inside. Used as orchestral instruments into the 19th Century, the flageolet was given keys, a reed pipe is an instrument which is similar in construction to the fipple flutes but instead of a whistle mouthpiece, has a double reed, like the oboe. Hornpipes are instruments with one or more pipes that have single reeds that terminate in a made of horn. Simple instruments may consist of more than the reed, the pipe
Pipe (instrument)
–
A 19th Century flageolet.
Pipe (instrument)
–
Pipe
7.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Goethe in 1828
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Goethe's birthplace in
Frankfurt, Germany (Großer Hirschgraben)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Goethe, age 38, painted by
Angelica Kauffman 1787
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
A Goethe watercolor depicting a
liberty pole at the border to the short-lived
Republic of Mainz, created under influence of the French Revolution and destroyed in the
Siege of Mainz in which Goethe participated
8.
Brothers Grimm
–
Their first collection of folk tales, Childrens and Household Tales, was published in 1812. The brothers spent their formative years in the German town of Hanau and their fathers death in 1796 caused great poverty for the family and affected the brothers for many years after. They both attended the University of Marburg where they developed a curiosity about German folklore, which grew into a dedication to collecting German folk tales. The rise of romanticism during the 19th century revived interest in folk stories. With the goal of researching a scholarly treatise on folk tales, between 1812 and 1857, their first collection was revised and republished many times, growing from 86 stories to more than 200. The popularity of the Grimms best folk tales has endured well, Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm was born on 4 January 1785 and his brother Wilhelm Carl Grimm on 24 February 1786. They were the second- and third-eldest surviving siblings in a family of nine children, in 1791, the family moved to the countryside town of Steinau, when Philipp was employed there as district magistrate. The family became prominent members of the community, residing in a home surrounded by fields. Biographer Jack Zipes writes that the brothers were happy in Steinau, the children were educated at home by private tutors, receiving strict instruction as Lutherans that instilled in both a lifelong religious faith. In 1796, Philipp Grimm died of pneumonia, plunging his family into poverty, Dorothea depended on financial support from her father and sister, first lady-in-waiting at the court of William I, Elector of Hesse. Jacob was the eldest living son, and he was forced at age 11 to assume adult responsibilities for the two years. The two boys adhered to the advice of their grandfather, who continually exhorted them to be industrious, the brothers left Steinau and their family in 1798 to attend the Friedrichsgymnasium in Kassel, which had been arranged and paid for by their aunt. By then, they were without a provider, forcing them to rely entirely on each other. The two brothers differed in temperament, Jacob was introspective and Wilhelm was outgoing, sharing a strong work ethic, they excelled in their studies. In Kassel, they became aware of their inferior social status relative to high-born students who received more attention. Still, each brother graduated at the head of his class, Jacob in 1803, after graduation from the Friedrichsgymnasium, the brothers attended the University of Marburg. The university was small with about 200 students and there they became aware that students of lower social status were not treated equally. They were disqualified from admission because of their standing and had to request dispensation to study law
Brothers Grimm
–
Wilhelm Grimm (left) and Jacob Grimm in an 1855 painting by
Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann
Brothers Grimm
–
Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm lived in this house in
Steinau from 1791 to 1796.
Brothers Grimm
–
Jacob Grimm lecturing (illustration by
Ludwig Emil Grimm, c. 1830)
Brothers Grimm
–
The graves of the Brothers Grimm in
Schöneberg, Berlin (St. Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery)
9.
Robert Browning
–
Robert Browning was an English poet and playwright whose mastery of the dramatic monologue made him one of the foremost Victorian poets. His poems are known for their irony, characterization, dark humour, social commentary, historical settings, Brownings early career began promisingly, but was not a success. His reputation took more than a decade to recover, during which time he moved away from the Shelleyan forms of his early period, in 1846 Browning married the older poet Elizabeth Barrett, who at the time was considerably better known than himself. So started one of historys most famous literary marriages and they went to live in Italy, a country he called my university, and which features frequently in his work. By the time of her death in 1861, he had published the crucial collection Men and Women, the collection Dramatis Personae and the book-length epic poem The Ring and the Book followed, and made him a leading British poet. He continued to write prolifically, but his reputation rests largely on the poetry he wrote in this middle period. Unusually for a poet, societies for the study of his work were founded while he was still alive, such Browning Societies remained common in Britain and the United States until the early 20th century. Brownings admirers have tended to temper their praise with reservations about the length and difficulty of his most ambitious poems, particularly The Ring and the Book. Nevertheless, they have included such eminent writers as Henry James, Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, G. K. Chesterton, Ezra Pound, Jorge Luis Borges, among living writers, Stephen Kings The Dark Tower series and A. S. Byatts Possession refer directly to Brownings work, today Brownings critically most esteemed poems include the monologues Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came, Fra Lippo Lippi, Andrea Del Sarto, and My Last Duchess. Robert Browning was born in Walworth in the parish of Camberwell, Surrey and he was baptized on 14 June 1812, at Locks Fields Independent Chapel, York Street, Walworth, the only son of Sarah Anna and Robert Browning. His father was a clerk for the Bank of England. Brownings paternal grandfather was an owner in Saint Kitts, West Indies. Brownings father had sent to the West Indies to work on a sugar plantation. Brownings mother was the daughter of a German shipowner who had settled in Dundee in Scotland, the evidence, however, is inconclusive either way. Roberts father, a collector, amassed a library of around 6,000 books. As such, Robert was raised in a household of significant literary resources and his mother, to whom he was very close, was a devout nonconformist and a talented musician. His younger sister, Sarianna, also gifted, became her brothers companion in his later years and his father encouraged his childrens interest in literature and the arts
Robert Browning
–
Robert Browning circa 1888
Robert Browning
–
Portraits of Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Robert Browning.
Robert Browning
–
Browning after death.
Robert Browning
10.
Rat
–
Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. True rats are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, many members of other rodent genera and families are also referred to as rats, and share many characteristics with true rats. Rats are typically distinguished from mice by their size, generally, when someone discovers a large muroid rodent, its common name includes the term rat, while if it is smaller, the name includes the term mouse. The muroid family is broad and complex, and the common terms rat, scientifically, the terms are not confined to members of the Rattus and Mus genera, for example, the pack rat and cotton mouse. The best-known rat species are the black rat and the brown rat, the group is generally known as the Old World rats or true rats, and originated in Asia. Rats are bigger than most Old World mice, which are their relatives, the term rat is also used in the names of other small mammals which are not true rats. Examples include the North American pack rats, a number of species loosely called kangaroo rats, Rats such as the bandicoot rat are murine rodents related to true rats, but are not members of the genus Rattus. Male rats are called bucks, unmated females are called does, pregnant or parent females are called dams, a group of rats is referred to as a mischief. The common species are opportunistic survivors and often live with and near humans, therefore and they may cause substantial food losses, especially in developing countries. However, the distributed and problematic commensal species of rats are a minority in this diverse genus. Many species of rats are island endemics and some have become endangered due to loss or competition with the brown. Wild rodents, including rats, can carry many different zoonotic pathogens, such as Leptospira, Toxoplasma gondii, another zoonotic disease linked to the rat is the foot-and-mouth disease. The average lifespan of any given rat depends on species is being discussed. The black and brown rats diverged from other Old World rats during the beginning of the Pleistocene in the forests of Asia, specially bred rats have been kept as pets at least since the late 19th century. Pet rats are typically variants of the brown rat, but black rats. Pet rats behave differently from their wild counterparts depending on how many generations they have kept as pets. Pet rats do not pose any more of a risk than pets such as cats or dogs. Tamed rats are generally friendly and can be taught to perform selected behaviors, in 1895, Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts established a population of domestic albino brown rats to study the effects of diet and for other physiological studies
Rat
–
Rats Temporal range: Early
Pleistocene – Recent
Rat
–
A river rat
Rat
–
A rat in a city street
Rat
–
A rat in a
suburb of
Vancouver
11.
Weser
–
The Weser is a river in Northwestern Germany. On the opposite bank is the town of Nordenham at the foot of the Butjadingen Peninsula, thus, the Weser has an overall length of 452 kilometres. Together with its Werra tributary, which originates in Thuringia, its length is 744 kilometres, the Weser river is the longest river whose course reaches the sea and lies entirely within German national territory. The upper part of its course leads through a region called the Weserbergland. Between Minden and the North Sea, humans have largely canalised the river, eight hydroelectric dams stand along its length. It is linked to the Dortmund-Ems Canal via the Coastal Canal, a large reservoir on the Eder river, the main tributary of the Fulda, is used to regulate water levels on the Weser so as to ensure adequate depth for shipping throughout the year. The dam, built in 1914, was bombed and severely damaged by British aircraft in May 1943, causing destruction and approximately 70 deaths downstream. As of 2013 the Edersee reservoir, a summer resort area. The Weser enters the North Sea in the southernmost part of the German Bight, in the North Sea, it splits up into two arms representing the ancient riverbed at the end of the last ice age. These sea-arms are called Alte Weser and Neue Weser and they represent the major waterways for ships heading for the harbors of Bremerhaven, Nordenham and Bremen. The Alte Weser lighthouse marks the northernmost point of the Weser and this lighthouse replaced the historic and famous Roter Sand lighthouse in 1964. The largest tributary of the Weser is the Aller, which south of Bremen. Dieter Berger, Geographische Namen in Deutschland, karsten Meinke, Die Entwicklung der Weser im Nordwestdeutschen Flachland während des jüngeren Pleistozäns. Ludger Feldmann und Klaus-Dieter Meyer, Quartär in Niedersachsen, exkursionsführer zur Jubiläums-Hauptversammlung der Deutschen Quartärvereinigung in Hannover. Hans Heinrich Seedorf und Hans-Heinrich Meyer, Landeskunde Niedersachsen, band 1, Historische Grundlagen und naturräumliche Ausstattung. Ludger Feldmann, Das Quartär zwischen Harz und Allertal mit einem Beitrag zur Landschaftsgeschichte im Tertiär, papierflieger, Clausthal-Zellerfeld 2002, Seite 133ff und passim. Heinz Conradis, Der Kampf um die Weservertiefung in alter Zeit, J. W. A. Hunichs, Practische Anleitung zum Deich-, Siel- und Schlengenbau. Herausgegeben von der Mittelweser AG, Carl Schünemann Verlag, Bremen 1960, kuratorium für Forschung im Küsteningenieurswesen, Die Küste
Weser
–
The Weser near Bad Oeynhausen
Weser
–
Mittelland Canal / River Weser Lock in Minden taken in 1977
Weser
–
View north of the River Weser and the road bridge at Minden
Weser
–
Southern view of the River Weser from the road bridge at Minden in 1977
12.
John and Paul
–
John and Paul were saints in the fourth-century Roman Empire. They were martyred at Rome on 26 June and they should not be confused with the famous apostles of the same name. The year of their martyrdom is uncertain according to their Acts, in the second half of the fourth century, Byzantius, the Roman senator, and Saint Pammachius, his son, fashioned their house on the Cælian Hill into a Christian basilica. In the fifth century the presbyteri tituli Byzantii are mentioned in an inscription, the church was also called the titulus Pammachii after Byzantiuss son, the pious friend of St. Jerome. The titulus Byzantii or Pammachii was consequently known at an early date by the names of the two martyrs. The year and circumstances of their martyrdom are likewise unknown, according to their Acts, the martyrs were eunuchs of Constantina, daughter of Constantine the Great, and became acquainted with a certain Gallicanus, who built a church in Ostia. Three Christians who were ministering them were executed and buried nearby, Crispus, Crispinianus. The rooms on the ground-floor of the house of Pammachius were rediscovered under the Basilica of Santi Giovanni e Paolo in Rome. They are decorated with important and interesting frescoes, while the tomb of Sts. John and Paul is covered with paintings of which the martyrs are the subject, the rooms and the tomb form one of the most important early Christian memorials in Rome. Since the erection of the basilica, the two saints have been greatly venerated, and their names have been inserted in the Canon of the Mass and their feast is kept on 26 June. The Acts of Saints John and Paul are also connected with the legend of St Bibiana, the basilica of Santi Giovanni e Paolo in Rome is dedicated to them, as well as the Basilica di San Zanipolo in Venice. The Lüneberg manuscript mentions the day of John and Paul in an early German account of the Pied Piper of Hamelin, Giovanni e Paolo in honor of these martyrs. Many residents of this bear the family name San Giovanni. The Golden Legend, Saints John and Paul Saints of 26 June Santi Giovanni e Paolo
John and Paul
–
The martyrdom of John and Paul, by
Guercino, 1630-2.
John and Paul
–
The original Roman house below the present-day Basilica of Santi Giovanni e Paolo
John and Paul
–
The church of San Zanipolo.
13.
Kate Greenaway
–
Catherine Kate Greenaway was an English childrens book illustrator and writer. Her drawings gave rise to a fashion in young childrens clothing in the 1880s and 1890s, Greenaway spent much of her childhood at Rolleston, Nottinghamshire. She studied at what is now the Royal College of Art in London and her first book, Under the Window, a collection of simple, perfectly idyllic verses about children, was a bestseller. Greenaways paintings were reproduced by chromoxylography, by which the colours were printed from hand-engraved wood blocks by the firm of Edmund Evans, through the 1880s and 1890s, her only rivals in popularity in childrens book illustration were Walter Crane and Randolph Caldecott. As well as illustrating books Greenaway produced a number of bookplates, the influence of childrens clothes in portraits by British painter John Hoppner may have provided her some inspiration. Liberty of London adapted Kate Greenaways drawings as designs for actual childrens clothes, the style was often used by painter Maude Goodman in her depictions of children. Greenaway was elected to membership of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1889 and she lived in an Arts and Crafts style house she commissioned from Richard Norman Shaw in Frognal, London, although she spent summers in Rolleston. Greenaway died of breast cancer in 1901, at the age of 55 and she is buried in Hampstead Cemetery, London. The Kate Greenaway Medal, established in her honour in 1955, is awarded annually by the Chartered Institute of Library, robert W. Schuster and Rodney K
Kate Greenaway
–
Kate Greenaway
Kate Greenaway
–
The house in
Frognal built for Kate Greenaway by
Richard Norman Shaw.
Kate Greenaway
–
Marigold Garden
Kate Greenaway
–
Polly from The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by
Bret Harte
14.
Death (personification)
–
Death, also known as the Grim Reaper, is a common element in culture and history. As a personified force it has been imagined in many different ways, in some mythologies, the Grim Reaper causes the victims death by coming to collect him. In turn, people in some stories try to hold on to life by avoiding Deaths visit, in many mythologies, Death is personified in male form, while in others, Death is perceived as female. Mot was personified to Canaanites as a god of death and he was considered a son of the king of the gods, El. His contest with the storm god Baʿal forms part of the myth cycle discovered in the 1920s in the ruins of Ugarit, lacunae obscure some of the details, but Mot apparently consumes Baʿal before being split open and mutilated by that gods sister, the warrior Anat. After a time, both gods are restored and resume battle before the sun goddess Shapash prompts a truce by warning Mot that, if forced to, El would intervene on Baʿals behalf. The Phoenicians also worshipped death under the name Mot and a version of Mot later became Maweth, Ancient Greece found Death to be inevitable, and therefore, he is not represented as purely evil. He is often portrayed as a bearded and winged man, but has also portrayed as a young boy. Death, or Thanatos, is the counterpart of life, death being represented as male and he is the twin brother of Hypnos, the god of sleep. He is typically shown with his brother and is represented as being just and his job is to escort the dead to the underworld, Hades. He then hands the dead over to Charon, who mans the boat that carries them over the river Styx, which separates the land of the living from the land of the dead. It was believed if the ferryman did not receive some sort of payment. Thanatos sisters, the Keres, were the spirits of violent death and they were associated with deaths from battle, disease, accident, and murder. The sisters were portrayed as evil, often feeding on the blood of the body after the soul had been escorted to Hades and they had fangs and talons, and would be dressed in bloody garments. Breton folklore shows us a spectral figure portending death, the Ankou, the Ankou drives a deathly wagon or cart with a creaking axle. The cart or wagon is piled high with corpses and a stop at a cabin means instant death for those inside. In Ireland there was a known as a dullahan, whose head would be tucked under his or her arm, and the head was said to have large eyes. The dullahan would ride a horse or a carriage pulled by black horses, and stop at the house of someone about to die, and call their name
Death (personification)
–
A Western depiction of Death as a skeleton wielding a
scythe.
Death (personification)
–
Thanatos as a winged youth, c. 325–300 BC, at
Temple of Artemis,
Ephesos
Death (personification)
–
Yama, the Hindu lord of death, presiding over his court in hell
Death (personification)
–
Santa Muerte
15.
Danse macabre
–
Dance of Death, also called Danse Macabre, is an artistic genre of late-medieval allegory on the universality of death, no matter ones station in life, the Dance of Death unites all. The Danse Macabre consists of the dead or personified Death summoning representatives from all walks of life to dance along to the grave, typically with a pope, emperor, king, child, and labourer. They were produced as mementos mori, to people of the fragility of their lives. Its origins are postulated from illustrated sermon texts, the earliest recorded visual scheme was a now-lost mural in the Saints Innocents Cemetery in Paris dating from 1424 to 1425, the earliest recorded visual example is from the cemetery of the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris. Marija na Škrilinama in the Istrian town of Beram, painted by Vincent of Kastav, there was also a Dance of Death painted in the 1540s on the walls of the cloister of St Pauls Cathedral, London with texts by John Lydgate, which was destroyed in 1549. The deathly horrors of the 14th century—such as recurring famines, the Hundred Years War in France, and, most of all, the Black Death—were culturally assimilated throughout Europe. Short verse dialogues between Death and each of its victims, which could have performed as plays, can be found in the direct aftermath of the Black Death in Germany. The French term danse macabre may derive from the Latin Chorea Machabæorum, in 2 Maccabees, a deuterocanonical book of the Bible, the grim martyrdom of a mother and her seven sons is described, and was a well-known mediaeval subject. An alternative explanation is that the term entered France via Spain, both the dialogues and the evolving paintings were ostensive penitential lessons that even illiterate people could understand. Numerous mural versions of that legend from the 13th century onwards have survived, since they showed pictorial sequences of men and corpses covered with shrouds, those paintings are sometimes regarded as cultural precursors of the new genre. A danse macabre painting may show a round dance headed by Death or a chain of alternating dead, from the highest ranks of the mediaeval hierarchy descending to its lowest, each mortals hand is taken by a skeleton or an extremely decayed body. The apparent class distinction in almost all of these paintings is completely neutralized by Death as the ultimate equalizer, the Totentanz of Metnitz, for example, shows how a pope crowned with his mitre is being led into Hell by the dancing Death. Usually, a dialogue is attached to each victim, in which Death is summoning him to dance. Who the beggar or the Emperor, ob arm, ob reich, im Tode gleich. Whether rich or poor, equal in death, the famous designs by Hans Holbein the Younger for his Dance of Death series were drawn in 1526 while he was in Basel. They were cut in wood by the accomplished Formschneider Hans Lützelburger and these woodcuts soon appeared in proofs with titles in German. The first book edition, containing forty-one woodcuts, was published at Lyons by the Treschsel brothers in 1538, ten further designs were added in later editions. The Dance of Death refashions the late-medieval allegory of the danse macabre as a reformist satire, most importantly, it was The pictures and the Bible quotations above them were the main attractions
Danse macabre
–
Pieter Brueghel the Elder,
The Triumph of Death (c. 1562) in the
Museo del Prado,
Madrid. Brueghel was strongly influenced by the style of
Hieronymus Bosch.
Danse macabre
–
The Dance of Death (1493) by
Michael Wolgemut, from the
Liber chronicarum by
Hartmann Schedel.
Danse macabre
–
La Danse macabre (
Abbot and
Bailiff). Paris,
Guy Marchant, 1486.
Danse macabre
–
Danse macabre in St Maria in
Bienno.
16.
Landslide
–
A landslide, also known as a landslip, is a form of mass wasting that includes a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows. Landslides can occur underwater, called a submarine landslide, coastal, although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the prone to failure. Landslides occur when the changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, debris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely different processes. Muddy-debris flows in alpine areas cause severe damage to structures and infrastructure, muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, an effect may be created, with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass. The solid–liquid mixture can reach densities of up to 2,000 kg/m3, for a small basin in the Italian Alps affected by a debris flow, estimated a peak discharge of 750 m3/s for a section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same section, the maximum foreseeable water discharge, was 19 m3/s. Earthflows are downslope, viscous flows of saturated, fine-grained materials, typically, they can move at speeds from 0.17 to 20 km/h. Though these are a lot like mudflows, overall they are slow moving and are covered with solid material carried along by flow from within. They are different from fluid flows which are more rapid, clay, fine sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic material are all susceptible to earthflows. The velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how much content is in the flow itself, if there is more water content in the flow. This thereby creates a bulging lobe which advances with a slow, as these lobes spread out, drainage of the mass increases and the margins dry out, thereby lowering the overall velocity of the flow. This process causes the flow to thicken, the bulbous variety of earthflows are not that spectacular, but they are much more common than their rapid counterparts. They develop a sag at their heads and are derived from the slumping at the source. Earthflows occur much more during periods of precipitation, which saturates the ground
Landslide
–
The Mameyes Landslide, in the Mameyes
neighborhood of barrio
Portugués Urbano in Ponce,
Puerto Rico, which buried more than 100 homes, was caused by extensive accumulation of rains and, according to some sources, lightning.
Landslide
–
Computer simulation of a "slump" landslide in
San Mateo County, California (USA) in January 1997
Landslide
–
The landslide at
Surte in Sweden, 1950. It was a
quick clay slide killing one person.
Landslide
–
Amboori debris flow, occurred on 9 November 2001 in Kerala, India. The event killed 39 people.
17.
Paganism
–
Paganism is a term that derives from Latin word pagan, which means nonparticipant, one excluded from a more distinguished, professional group. The term was used in the 4th century, by early Christian community, the term competed with polytheism already in use in Judaism, by Philo in the 1st century. Pagans and paganism was a pejorative for the same polytheistic group, Paganism has broadly connoted religion of the peasantry, and for much of its history a derogatory term. Alternate terms in Christian texts for the group was hellene. In and after the Middle Ages, paganism was a pejorative that was applied to any non-Abrahamic or unfamiliar religion, there has been much scholarly debate as to the origin of the term paganism, especially since no one before the 20th century self-identified as a pagan. In the 19th century, paganism was re-adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. Forms of these religions, influenced by various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe, exist today and are known as contemporary or modern paganism, while most pagan religions express a worldview that is pantheistic, polytheistic, or animistic, there are some monotheistic pagans. It is crucial to stress right from the start that until the 20th century people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practised, the notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition, as such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense. The term pagan is from Late Latin paganus, revived during the Renaissance and it is related to pangere and ultimately comes from Proto-Indo-European *pag-. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church, elsewhere, Hellene or gentile remained the word for pagan, and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace. However, this idea has multiple problems, first, the words usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centered on cities, the concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during Early Christianity. Third, unlike words such as rusticitas, paganus had not yet acquired the meanings used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans. Paganus more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature via Roman military jargon, Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves as Milites Christi. As early as the 5th century, paganos was metaphorically used to persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. In response, Augustine of Hippo wrote De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos, in it, he contrasted the fallen city of Man to the city of God of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the invaders were not of the city or rural
Paganism
–
The
Venus of Arles, depicting the goddess
Venus holding the apple of
Hesperides.
Paganism
–
Reconstruction of the
Parthenon, on the
Acropolis of Athens,
Greece.
Paganism
–
Some
megaliths are believed to have religious significance.
Paganism
–
Children standing with The Lady of Cornwall in a neopagan ceremony in England.
18.
Heresy
–
Heresy /hār ə sē/ is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs. A heretic is a proponent of such claims or beliefs, the term is usually used to refer to violations of important religious teachings, but is used also of views strongly opposed to any generally accepted ideas. It is used in particular in reference to Christianity, Judaism, the word heresy is usually used within a Christian, Jewish, or Islamic context, and implies slightly different meanings in each. The founder or leader of a movement is called a heresiarch. Heresiology is the study of heresy, according to Titus 3,10 a divisive person should be warned two times before separating from him. The Greek for the phrase divisive person became a term in the early Church for a type of heretic who promoted dissension. In contrast correct teaching is called not only because it builds up the faith. The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and they saw deviations from orthodox Christianity as heresies that were essentially Jewish in spirit. The use of the word heresy was given currency by Irenaeus in his 2nd century tract Contra Haereses to describe. He described the beliefs and doctrines as orthodox and the Gnostics teachings as heretical. He also pointed out the concept of succession to support his arguments. By Roman law the Emperor was Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of the College of Pontiffs of all recognized religions in ancient Rome. To put an end to the doctrinal debate initiated by Arius, Constantine called the first of what would afterwards be called the ecumenical councils and then enforced orthodoxy by Imperial authority. The first known usage of the term in a context was in AD380 by the Edict of Thessalonica of Theodosius I. Prior to the issuance of this edict, the Church had no state-sponsored support for any particular legal mechanism to counter what it perceived as heresy, by this edict the states authority and that of the Church became somewhat overlapping. One of the outcomes of this blurring of Church and state was the sharing of state powers of legal enforcement with church authorities and this reinforcement of the Churchs authority gave church leaders the power to, in effect, pronounce the death sentence upon those whom the church considered heretical. The edict of Theodosius II provided severe punishments for those who had or spread writings of Nestorius and those who possessed writings of Arius were sentenced to death. For some years after the Reformation, Protestant churches were known to execute those they considered heretics
Heresy
–
The
Gospel (allegory) triumphs over Heresia and the
Serpent. Church of King
Gustaf Vasa,
Stockholm, Sweden, sculpture by
Burchard Precht.
Heresy
–
The burning of adherents of the
pantheistic Amalrician sect in 1210, in the presence of King
Philip II Augustus. In the background is the
Gibbet of Montfaucon and, anachronistically, the Grosse Tour of the
Temple. Illumination from the
Grandes Chroniques de France, c. 1255-1260.
Heresy
–
Former German
Catholic priest Martin Luther was famously excommunicated as a
heretic by
Pope Leo X in 1520.
Heresy
–
Massacre of the
Waldensians of
Mérindol in 1545.
19.
Sect
–
A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. A sect, in an Indian context, refers to an organized tradition, the present gamut of meanings of sect has been influenced by confusion with the homonymous Latin word secta, as though sects were scissionsWiktionary entry cast aside from the mainstream religion. There are several different sociological definitions and descriptions for the term, among the first to define them were Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch. In the church-sect typology they are described as newly formed groups that form to protest elements of their parent religion. The American sociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge assert that claim to be authentic purged, refurbished version of the faith from which they split. They further assert that sects have, in contrast to churches, other sociologists of religion such as Fred Kniss have asserted that sectarianism is best described with regard to what a sect is in tension with. Some religious groups exist in only with co-religious groups of different ethnicities. The English sociologist Roy Wallis argues that a sect is characterized by “epistemological authoritarianism”, in France, since the 1970s, secte has a specific meaning which is very different from the English word. The term remains valid for this purpose, according to Michaels, Indian sects do not focus on heresy, since the lack of a center or a compulsory center makes this impossible – instead, the focus is on adherents and followers. The ancient schools of fiqh or sharia in Islam are known as madhhabs, in the beginning Islam was classically divided into three major sects. These political divisions are known as Sunni Islam, Shia Islam. Each sect developed several distinct jurisprudence systems reflecting their own understanding of the Islamic law during the course of the history of Islam, for instance, Sunnis are separated into five sub-sects, namely, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, Hanbali and Ẓāhirī. The Shia, on the hand, first developed Kaysanism. The non-Zaydis are initially called as Rafida Groups and these Rafidis were later divided into two sub-groups known as Imamiyyah and Batiniyyah. The Imami-Shia later brought into existence Jafari jurisprudence, Batiniyya groups, on the other hand, were divided into two sub-groups known as Seveners and Ismāīlīs. Qarmatians who did not follow the Fatimid Caliphate were branched from the Seveners and those groups of Batiniyya who followed the Fatimids are the ancestors of todays Ismāīlīs. Druze was emerged as an offshoot of Ismāʿīlism at the beginning of the 11th Century, ismailism at the end of the 11th Century split into two major branches known as Nizārī Ismāīlī and Musta’li Ismaili. The Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii and Hanbali Sunnis, the Twelver groups, the Ismāīlī groups, the Zaydis, the Ibadis, in addition, new sects like Ahmadiyya movement, Black Muslim movements, Quranists, Salafis, Wahhabis, and Zikris have been emerged independently
Sect
–
Major denominations and religions of the world
Sect
–
A Catalogue of the Severall Sects and Opinions in England and other Nations: With a briefe Rehearsall of their false and dangerous Tenents. Broadsheet. 1647
20.
Sinkhole
–
A sinkhole, also known as a cenote, sink, sink-hole, shakehole, swallet, swallow hole, or doline, is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. Most are caused by karst processes—for example, the dissolution of carbonate rocks or suffosion processes. Sinkholes vary in size from 1 to 600 m both in diameter and depth, and vary in form from soil-lined bowls to bedrock-edged chasms, sinkholes may form gradually or suddenly, and are found worldwide. Sinkholes may capture surface drainage from running or standing water, but may form in high. Sinkholes that capture drainage can hold it in limestone caves. These caves may drain into tributaries of larger rivers, the formation of sinkholes involves natural processes of erosion or gradual removal of slightly soluble bedrock by percolating water, the collapse of a cave roof, or a lowering of the water table. Sinkholes often form through the process of suffosion, for example, groundwater may dissolve the carbonate cement holding the sandstone particles together and then carry away the lax particles, gradually forming a void. Occasionally a sinkhole may exhibit a visible opening into a cave below, sinkholes also occur in sandstone and quartzite terrains. As the rock dissolves, spaces and caverns develop underground and these sinkholes can be dramatic, because the surface land usually stays intact until there is not enough support. Then, a collapse of the land surface can occur. Sinkholes also form from human activity, such as the collapse of abandoned mines and salt cavern storage in salt domes in places like Louisiana, Mississippi, more commonly, sinkholes occur in urban areas due to water main breaks or sewer collapses when old pipes give way. They can also occur from the overpumping and extraction of groundwater, sinkholes can also form when natural water-drainage patterns are changed and new water-diversion systems are developed. Sinkholes tend to occur in karst landscapes, karst landscapes can have up to thousands of sinkholes within a small area, giving the landscape a pock-marked appearance. These sinkholes drain all the water, so there are only subterranean rivers in these areas, examples of karst landscapes with a plethora of massive sinkholes include Khammouan Mountains and Mamo Plateau. The largest known sinkholes formed in sandstone are Sima Humboldt and Sima Martel in Venezuela, some sinkholes form in thick layers of homogenous limestone. On the contact of limestone and insoluble rock below it, powerful underground rivers may form, in such conditions, the largest known sinkholes of the world have formed, like the 662-metre deep Xiaozhai Tiankeng, giant sótanos in Querétaro and San Luis Potosí states in Mexico and others. The state of Florida in the United States is known for having frequent sinkhole collapses, the Murge area in southern Italy also has numerous sinkholes. Sinkholes can be formed in retention ponds from large amounts of rain, an analysis of a case of sinkhole formation under a retention pond due to a large amount of rain can be seen in a sinkhole collapse study
Sinkhole
–
The
Red Lake sinkhole in
Croatia
Sinkhole
–
Sinkholes near the
Dead Sea, formed when underground salt is dissolved by freshwater intrusion, due to continuing sea-level drop.
Sinkhole
–
Sinkhole formed by rainwater leaking through pavement and carrying soil into a ruptured sewer pipe.
Sinkhole
–
The entire
surface water flow of the
Alapaha River near
Jennings, Florida goes into a sinkhole leading to the
Floridan Aquifer groundwater
21.
Dancing mania
–
Dancing mania was a social phenomenon that occurred primarily in mainland Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. It involved groups of people dancing erratically, sometimes thousands at a time, the mania affected men, women, and children who danced until they collapsed from exhaustion. Affecting thousands of people across several centuries, dancing mania was not an isolated event and it was nevertheless poorly understood, and remedies were based on guesswork. Generally, musicians accompanied dancers, to ward off the mania. There is no consensus among scholars as to the cause of dancing mania. The several theories proposed range from religious cults being behind the processions to people dancing to relieve themselves of stress, Dancing mania is derived from the term choreomania, from the Greek choros and mania, and is also known as dancing plague. St Vituss Dance was diagnosed, in the 17th century, as Sydenham chorea, Dancing mania has also been known as epidemic chorea and epidemic dancing. A disease of the system, chorea is characterized by symptoms resembling those of dancing mania. Scientists have described dancing mania as a mental disorder, collective hysterical disorder. The earliest known outbreak of dancing mania occurred in the 7th century, and it reappeared many times across Europe until about the 17th century, when it stopped abruptly. One of the earliest known incidents occurred sometime in the 1020s in Bernburg, another incident, in 1278, involved about 200 people dancing on a bridge over the River Meuse in Germany, resulting in its collapse. Many of the survivors were restored to health at a nearby chapel dedicated to St Vitus. The first major outbreak of the mania occurred between 1373 and 1374, with incidents reported in England, Germany and the Netherlands, further episodes occurred in 1375 and 1376, with incidents in France, Germany and Holland, and in 1381 there was an outbreak in Augsburg. Further incidents occurred in 1418 in Strasbourg, where people fasted for days, in another outbreak, in 1428 in Schaffhausen, a monk danced to death and, in the same year, a group of women in Zurich were reportedly in a dancing frenzy. Further incidents occurred during the 16th century, when the mania was at its peak, in 1536 in Basel, involving a group of children, and in 1551 in Anhalt, involving just one man. In the 17th century, incidents of recurrent dancing were recorded by professor of medicine Gregor Horst, Dance madly all day and all night until they collapse in ecstasy. In this way come to themselves again and feel little or nothing until the next May. Forced around St. Vitus Day to betake themselves to that place, ne of these women is said to have danced every year for the past twenty years, another for a full thirty-two
Dancing mania
–
Dancing mania on a pilgrimage to the church at
Sint-Jans-Molenbeek. An engraving by
Hendrick Hondius (1642) after a drawing by
Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1564).
Dancing mania
–
Music was typically played during outbreaks of dancing mania, as it was thought to remedy the problem. A painting by
Pieter Brueghel the Younger, after drawings by his father.
22.
Erfurt
–
Erfurt is the capital and largest city in the state of Thuringia, central Germany. It lies in the part of the Thuringian Basin, within the wide valley of the Gera river. It is located 100 km south-west of Leipzig,300 km south-west of Berlin,400 km north of Munich and 250 km north-east of Frankfurt, together with neighbouring cities Weimar and Jena it forms the central metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 400,000 inhabitants. Erfurts old town is one of the most intact medieval cities in Germany, tourist attractions include the Krämerbrücke, the ensemble of Erfurt Cathedral and Severikirche and Petersburg Citadel, one of the largest and best preserved town fortresses in Europe. The citys economy is based on agriculture, horticulture and microelectronics and its central location has led to it becoming a logistics hub for Germany and central Europe. Erfurt hosts the second-largest trade fair in eastern Germany as well as the public television children’s channel KiKa, the city is situated on the Via Regia, a medieval trade and pilgrims road network. Modern day Erfurt is also a hub for ICE high speed trains, Erfurt was first mentioned in 742, as Saint Boniface founded the diocese. Although the town did not belong to any of the Thuringian states politically and it was part of the Electorate of Mainz during the Holy Roman Empire, and later became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1802. From 1949 until 1990 Erfurt was part of the German Democratic Republic, notable institutions in Erfurt are the Federal Labour Court of Germany, the University of Erfurt and the Fachhochschule Erfurt. The university was founded in 1379, making it the first university to be established in area which constitutes modern day Germany. It closed in 1816 and was re-established in 1994, with the modern campus on what was a former teachers training college. Martin Luther was the most famous student of the institution, studying there from 1501, Erfurt is an old Germanic settlement. The earliest evidence of settlement dates from the prehistoric era, archaeological finds from the north of Erfurt revealed human traces from the paleolithic period. The Melchendorf dig in the city part showed a settlement from the neolithic period. The Thuringii inhabited the Erfurt area ca.480 and gave their name to Thuringia ca, all three dioceses were confirmed by Zachary the next year, though in 755 Erfurt was brought into the diocese of Mainz. That the place was already is borne out by archeological evidence. Throughout the Middle Ages, Erfurt was an important trading town because of its location, together with the other five Thuringian woad towns of Gotha, Tennstedt, Arnstadt and Langensalza it was the centre of the German woad trade, which made those cities very wealthy. During the 10th and 11th centuries both the Emperor and the Electorate of Mainz held some privileges in Erfurt, the German kings had an important monastery on Petersberg hill and the Archbishops of Mainz collected taxes from the people
Erfurt
Erfurt
Erfurt
Erfurt
23.
Arnstadt
–
Arnstadt is a town in Ilm-Kreis, Thuringia, Germany, on the river Feels about 20 kilometres south of Erfurt, the capital of Thuringia. Arnstadt is one of the oldest towns in Thuringia, and has a historic centre with a partially preserved town wall. The town is nicknamed Das Tor zum Thüringer Wald because of its location on the edge of that forest. Arnstadt has a population of some 25,000, the city centre is on the west side of Gera. The municipality comprises four villages, Angelhausen–Oberndorf, Dosdorf–Espenfeld, Rudisleben, the neighbouring municipalities are Wachsenburggemeinde, Kirchheim, Alkersleben, thorn Home, Wipfratal, Plaue and Gossel. In 726, Arnstadt passed to the Abbey of Echternach, according to historian August Beck, in 925 the territories of Henry I were extended as a bulwark against the invading Hungary. In the 12th century a part of Arnstadt fell under the rule of the Counts of Kevernburg, on 8 March 1198 the princes gathered in Arnstadt and elected Philip of Swabia as King of Germany. In 1220 Arnstadt was first described as a civitas, that is, on 21 April 1266, the abbot of the Abbey of Hersfeld granted a charter, thereafter, Arnstadt became a hub for trade in timber, grain, wine and wood. After the extinction of Kevernburger from 1302 to 1306, the counts of Schwarzburg took possession of Arnstadt, attempts by Erfurt 1342 and 1345 to seize what was now a wealthy town failed due to the strong attachment. Arnstadts prosperity was based on the industry, the cloth-making trade, tanneries, and trade in wine, woad, wood, grain, wool. On 30 January 1349, Count Günther XXI of Schwarzburg, an adversary of King Charles IV, was elected and crowned sovereign of Arnstadt in Frankfurt and he renounced this title on 26 May for 20,000 silver marks. A1404 reference was found in 2000 to Bratwurst originating in Arnstadt, in 1496, ownership of Arnstadt was divided into the supremacy Arnstadt and subrule Sondershausen. During the German Peasants War 95 participants in the uprising were beheaded as ringleaders in the Arnstadt marketplace, the city was forced to pay 3000 guilders for supporting the insurgents. In 1531 the Reformation was introduced into Arnstadt, at first, even the Franciscan mendicant was the Benedictine Novodevichy Convent,1538 secularized. From 1581 the Church of Barfüßerklosters was the church of the city. In 1553, work began on the residence, Neideck Castle. The water palace was completed in 1560, since 1306 Arnstadt was ruled by the counts of Schwarzburg, and from the 16th century until 1920 it was part of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. With the onset of industrialisation, a residential area emerged to the west and south of the old town, during the Second World War, it was the site of a prisoner-of-war camp, mainly for Poles and Russians
Arnstadt
–
Church of St. Boniface (the "Bach Church")
Arnstadt
–
The restored Wender organ in the Bachkirche
Arnstadt
–
Architectural model of the Liebfrauenkirche in Arnstadt
Arnstadt
–
The palace of Elisabeth Albertine von Anhalt-Bernburg (de)
24.
Pilgrimage
–
A pilgrimage is a journey or search of moral or spiritual significance. Typically, it is a journey to a shrine or other location of importance to a persons beliefs and faith, a person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim. As a common experience, pilgrimage has been proposed as a Jungian archetype by Wallace Clift. The Holy Land acts as a point for the pilgrimages of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity. Baháulláh decreed pilgrimage to two places in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the House of Baháulláh in Baghdad, Iraq, and the House of the Báb in Shiraz, later, Abdul-Bahá designated the Shrine of Baháulláh at Bahji, Israel as a site of pilgrimage. Other pilgrimage places in India and Nepal connected to the life of Gautama Buddha are, Savatthi, Pataliputta, Nalanda, Gaya, Vesali, Sankasia, Kapilavastu, Kosambi, Rajagaha, Varanasi, other famous places for Buddhist pilgrimage include, India, Sanchi, Ellora, Ajanta. Thailand, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Wat Phra Kaew, Wat Doi Suthep, tibet, Lhasa, Mount Kailash, Lake Nam-tso. Sri Lanka, Polonnaruwa, Temple of the Tooth, Anuradhapura, malaysia, Kek Lok Si, Cheng Hoon Teng, Maha Vihara Myanmar, Bagan, Sagaing Hill. The Four Sacred Mountains Japan, Shikoku Pilgrimage,88 Temple pilgrimage in the Shikoku island, Japan 100 Kannon, pilgrimage composed of the Saigoku, Bandō and Chichibu pilgrimages. Saigoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kansai region, Bandō33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kantō region. Chichibu 34 Kannon, pilgrimage in Saitama Prefecture, Chūgoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Chūgoku region. Christian pilgrimage was first made to sites connected with the birth, life, pilgrimages were, and are, also made to Rome and other sites associated with the apostles, saints and Christian martyrs, as well as to places where there have been apparitions of the Virgin Mary. A popular pilgrimage journey is along the Way of St. James to the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, in Galicia, Spain, chaucers The Canterbury Tales recounts tales told by Christian pilgrims on their way to Canterbury Cathedral and the shrine of Thomas Becket. According to Karel Werners Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, most Hindu places of pilgrimage are associated with events from the lives of various gods. Almost any place can become a focus for pilgrimage, but in most cases they are sacred cities, rivers, lakes, Hindus are encouraged to undertake pilgrimages during their lifetime, though this practice is not considered absolutely mandatory. Most Hindus visit sites within their region or locale, Kumbh Mela, Kumbh Mela is one of the largest gatherings of humans in the world. The location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, Char Dham, The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath compose the Char Dham pilgrimage circuit. Kanwar Pilgrimage, The Kanwar is Indias largest annual religious pilgrimage, as part of this phenomenon, millions of participants gather sacred water from the Ganga and carry it across hundreds of miles to dispense as offerings in Śiva shrines
Pilgrimage
–
David Teniers the younger: Female Pilgrim
Pilgrimage
–
Ancient excavated Buddha-image at the Mahaparinirvana Temple,
Kushinagar
Pilgrimage
–
Tibetans on a pilgrimage to
Lhasa, doing full-body
prostrations, often for the entire length of the journey
Pilgrimage
–
Pilgrims
25.
Child soldier
–
Throughout history and in many cultures, children have been extensively involved in military campaigns even when such practices were against cultural morals. In World War I, in Great Britain 250,000 boys under 18 managed to join the army, in World War II, child soldiers fought throughout Europe, in the Warsaw Uprising, in the Jewish resistance, and in the Soviet Army. According to one study, children have been used militarily across the globe, Children are easy targets to recruit for military purposes because of their vulnerability to influence. Many are seized and recruited by force whereas others join to escape their reality, research shows that child soldiering prolongs the duration of civil wars, as it increases the strength of rebel organizations vis-a-vis the government. This reduction in both the calibre of infantry rifles and the mass of many items of equipment makes it easier for children to carry. However, children who are over the age of 15 but under the age of 18 are still able to take part in combat as soldiers. The United Nations Security Council convenes regularly to debate, receive reports, the most recent meeting was on 17 July 2008. The first resolution on the issue, Resolution 1261, was passed in 1999, in 2014, more than 17 cases were covered about children in armed conflict. Many children in different countries are involved in such illegal conflicts and these children are detained with no real evidence, or in massive sweeps. Some of them are captured with their families, or by the activity of one of their family members, lawyers and relatives are banded to the court. They can be detained without sufficient food, medical care, or under other inhumane conditions, some of these children live with physical and sexual torture. Refraining from recruiting children under fifteen does not exclude children who volunteer for armed service, non-state actors and guerrilla forces are forbidden from recruiting anyone under the age of 18 for any purpose. Opinion is currently divided over whether children should be prosecuted for committing war crimes, many child soldiers fought in the Sierra Leone Civil War. In its wake, the UN sanctioned the Special Court for Sierra Leone to try the participants for war crimes, if found guilty under US law such a crime carries a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. This was agreed as part of a bargain, which would see Khadr deported to Canada after one year to serve the remaining seven years there. In a letter to the U. S. Omar Khadr remained in Guantanamo Bay, Khadr was transferred to the Canadian prison system in September 2012, and was freed on bail by a judge in the province of Alberta in May 2015. He is appealing his American conviction as a war criminal, in March 2012 Thomas Lubanga Dyilo was convicted by the International Criminal Court for military use of children. P. W. Singer of the Brookings Institution estimated in January 2003 that child soldiers participate in three quarters of all the ongoing conflicts in the world
Child soldier
–
A
Chinese Nationalist soldier, age 10, member of a Chinese division from the
X Force, boarding planes in
Burma bound for China, May 1944.
Child soldier
–
"Child Soldier in the
Ivory Coast ",
Gilbert G. Groud, 2007.
Child soldier
–
Children of the
Omo Valley in Ethiopia.
Child soldier
–
A group of demobilized child soldiers in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
26.
Transylvania
–
Transylvania is a historical region located in what is today the central part of Romania. Bound on the east and south by its borders, the Carpathian mountain range. The term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the regions of Crișana, Maramureș. The region of Transylvania is known for the beauty of its Carpathian landscape. It also contains major cities such as Cluj-Napoca, Brașov, Sibiu, in the English-speaking world it has been commonly associated with vampires, due to the influence of Bram Stokers famous novel Dracula and its many film adaptations. Transylvania was first referred to in a Medieval Latin document in 1075 as ultra silvam, Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means on the other side of the woods. Hungarian historians claim that the Medieval Latin form Ultrasylvania, later Transylvania, was a translation from the Hungarian form Erdő-elve. That also was used as an name in German überwald. The German name Siebenbürgen means seven fortresses, after the seven Transylvanian Saxons cities in the region and this is also the origin of the regions name in many other languages, such as the Bulgarian Седмиградско, Polish Siedmiogród and the Ukrainian Семигород. The Hungarian form Erdély was first mentioned in the 12th-century Gesta Hungarorum as Erdeuleu or Erdő-elve, the word Erdő means forest in Hungarian, and the word Elve denotes a region in connection with this, similarly to the Hungarian name for Muntenia. Erdel, Erdil, Erdehstan, the Turkish equivalents, or the Romanian Ardeal were borrowed from this form as well, the first known written occurrence of the Romanian name Ardeal appeared in a document in 1432 as Ardeliu. Transylvania has been dominated by different peoples and countries throughout its history. It was once the nucleus of the Kingdom of Dacia, in 106 AD the Roman Empire conquered the territory, systematically exploiting its resources. After the Roman legions withdrew in 271 AD, it was overrun by a succession of tribes, bringing it under the control of the Carpi, Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars. From 9th to 11th century Bulgarians ruled Transylvania, there is an ongoing scholarly debate over the ethnicity of Transylvanias population before the Hungarian conquest. The Magyars conquered much of Central Europe at the end of the 9th century, according to Gesta Hungarorum, Transylvania was ruled by the Vlach voivode Gelou before the Hungarians arrived. The Kingdom of Hungary established a control over Transylvania in 1003. Between 1003 and 1526, Transylvania was a voivodeship in the Kingdom of Hungary, after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of János Szapolyai
Transylvania
–
Apuseni Mountains near
Arieșeni,
Alba County
Transylvania
–
Romanian Orthodox wooden church in Geogel, Alba County
Transylvania
–
Sirnea in
Brașov County
Transylvania
–
Saxon fortified church of
Biertan, part of
a UNESCO World Heritage Site
27.
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
The Mongol invasion of Europe in the 13th century was the military effort by an Asian power, the Mongol Empire, to invade and conquer parts of Europe. It involved the severe and rampant destruction of East Slavic principalities and major cities, such as Kiev, Mongol invasions also affected Central Europe, leading to conflict with the Kingdom of Hungary and fragmented Poland. The operations were masterminded by General Subutai and commanded by Batu Khan and Kadan, as a result of the invasions, many of the conquered territories would become part of the Golden Horde empire. Historians regard the Mongol raids and invasions as among the deadliest conflicts in history up through that period. Ögedei Khan ordered Batu Khan to conquer Rus in 1235, the main force, headed by Jochis sons, and their cousins, Möngke Khan and Güyük Khan, arrived at Ryazan in December 1237. Ryazan refused to surrender, and the Mongols sacked it and then stormed Suzdalia, many Rus armies were defeated, Grand Prince Yuri was killed on the Sit River. Major cities such as Vladimir, Torzhok, and Kozelsk were captured, afterward, the Mongols turned their attention to the steppe, crushing the Kypchaks and the Alans and sacking Crimea. Batu appeared in Ukraine in 1239, sacking Pereiaslav and Chernihiv, most of the Rus princes fled when it became clear resistance was futile. The Mongols sacked Kiev on December 6,1240 and conquered Galich, Batu sent a small detachment to probe the Poles before passing on to Central Europe. One column was routed by the Poles while the defeated the Polish army. The Mongols had acquired Chinese gunpowder, which deployed in battle during the invasion of Europe to great success. The attack on Europe was planned and executed by Subutai, who achieved perhaps his most lasting fame with his victories there. Having devastated the various Rus principalities, he sent spies into Poland and Hungary, having a clear picture of the European kingdoms, he prepared an attack nominally commanded by Batu Khan and two other familial-related princes. He also commanded the column that moved against Hungary. While Kadans northern force won the Battle of Legnica and Güyüks army triumphed in Transylvania, the newly reunited army then withdrew to the Sajo River where they inflicted a decisive defeat on King Béla IV of Hungary at the Battle of Mohi. Again, Subutai masterminded the operation, and it would one of his greatest victories. The Mongols invaded Central Europe with three armies, one army defeated an alliance which included forces from fragmented Poland and members of various Christian military orders, led by Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia in the battle of Legnica. A second army crossed the Carpathian mountains and a third followed the Danube, the armies re-grouped and crushed Hungary in 1241, defeating the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohi on April 11,1241
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
Returning to
Vladimir by
Yaroslav II of Vladimir after Mongol destruction. From the medieval Russian annals
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
The route of the first Mongol expedition in Russia - 1223
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
The Mongol army captures a
Rus' city
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
Henry II the Pious who lost his life at the battle of Legnica, 19th-century painting by
Jan Matejko.
28.
Genghis Khan
–
Genghis Khan, born Temüjin, was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the tribes of Northeast Asia. After founding the Empire and being proclaimed Genghis Khan, he started the Mongol invasions that conquered most of Eurasia, campaigns initiated in his lifetime include those against the Qara Khitai, Caucasus, and Khwarazmian, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were accompanied by large-scale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in the Khwarazmian. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a portion of Central Asia. Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and he died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia, many of these invasions repeated the earlier large-scale slaughters of local populations. As a result, Genghis Khan and his empire have a reputation in local histories. Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways and he decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empires writing system. He also practiced meritocracy and encouraged religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia. This brought communication and trade from Northeast Asia into Muslim Southwest Asia and Christian Europe, Temüjin was related on his fathers side to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai, and Hotula Khan, who had headed the Khamag Mongol confederation and were descendants of Bodonchar Munkhag. When the Jurchen Jin dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, Temüjins father, Yesügei, emerged as the head of the ruling Mongol clan. This position was contested by the rival Tayichiud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai, when the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin switched their support from the Tatars to the Keraites. Little is known about Temüjins early life, due to the lack of written records. The few sources that give insight into this period often contradict, Temüjins name was derived from the Mongol word temür meaning of iron, while jin denotes agency thus temüjin means blacksmith. Temüjin was probably born in 1162 in Delüün Boldog, near the mountain Burkhan Khaldun, the Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born grasping a blood clot in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader. He was the son of his father Yesügei who was a Kiyad chief prominent in the Khamag Mongol confederation. Temüjin was the first son of his mother Hoelun, according to the Secret History, Temüjin was named after the Tatar chief Temüjin-üge whom his father had just captured
Genghis Khan
–
Genghis Khan as portrayed in a 14th-century
Yuan era album.
Genghis Khan
–
The
Onon River, Mongolia, in autumn, the region where Temüjin was born and grew up.
Genghis Khan
–
The locations of the Mongolian tribes during the
Khitan Empire (907-1125)
Genghis Khan
–
Jurchen inscription (1196) in Mongolia relating to Genghis Khan's alliance with the Jin against the Tatars.
29.
Lokator
–
The lokator was a medieval sub-contractor, who was responsible to a territorial lord or landlord for the clearing, survey and apportionment of land that was to be settled. Matthias Hardt, Formen und Wege der hochmittelalterlichen Siedlungsgründung, in, Enno Bünz, Die Kührener Urkunde von 1154 und ihr historisches Umfeld, Leipzig,2008, pp. 143-160. Herbert Helbig, Urkunden und erzählende Quellen zur deutschen Ostsiedlung im Mittelalter, franz Kössler, Die Nachfahren des Lokators - zur Siedlungsgeschichte einer deutschsprachigen Landschaft im böhmisch–mährischen Raum, Bad Schussenried,2010. Paul Richard Kötzschke, Das Unternehmertum in der ostdeutschen Kolonisation des Mittelalters, reichenau-Vorträge 1970-1972, Sigmaringen,1975, pp.131 -159
Lokator
–
A scene from the
Sachsenspiegel shows a lokator (in hat) during the German
Ostsiedlung around 1300
30.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
31.
Dean (religion)
–
A dean, in a church context, is a cleric holding certain positions of authority within a religious hierarchy. The title is used mainly in the Anglican Communion, the Roman Catholic Church, a deans assistant is called a subdean. In the church, the Dean of the College of Cardinals, except for presiding and delegating administrative tasks, they have no authority over the cardinals, acting as primus inter pares. In the academic community, the Dean is the leader of the Faculty who presides over the Faculty Board. He is deputized by a Vice-Dean and equally assisted by a Sub-Dean who can be delegated some of the task of the Dean. The most senior Professor or a Vice-Dean is the person who can act for a Dean in his or her absence from office. In the Church of England and elsewhere in the Anglican Communion, the dean is the chief resident cleric of a cathedral or other collegiate church, if the cathedral or collegiate church has its own parish, the dean is usually also rector of the parish. However, in the Church of Ireland the roles are often separated, in the Church in Wales, however, most cathedrals are parish churches, and their deans are now also vicars of their parishes. In some parts of the Communion, the senior resident cleric in a cathedral is a provost. Each diocese of the Scottish Episcopal Church has a dean of the diocese, in this way, a Scottish Episcopal dean is similar to an archdeacon in the other member churches of the Communion. In the Anglican Church of Canada, the roles of senior cleric of the cathedral are combined in one person who is referred to as Rector of Cathedral, thus, Peter Elliott is Rector of Christ Church Cathedral and Dean of New Westminster. The style The Very Reverend distinguishes a cleric as a dean, for example, the Very Reverend June Osborne is Dean of Salisbury Cathedral. In consideration of the status of a Dean, the Very Reverend title is normally a permanent title preferment. Some important deans include the deans of St Pauls, Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey is a royal peculiar, not the seat of any bishop or a cathedral, but is led by a dean. The deans of Washington National Cathedral and St. Patricks Cathedral, in many parts of the Anglican Communion, parishes are grouped together to form deaneries, each being a constituent administrative district of the diocese. Usually, a deanery is led by one of the incumbents of the parishes, who is called a rural dean. Such a dean chairs the meeting of the clergy. Rural Deans rank as primi inter pares of their chapters, the head of an Anglican theological college or seminary may also be called a dean
Dean (religion)
–
Saint Peter
32.
Latin language
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin language
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin language
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin language
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin language
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
33.
German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
–
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
–
The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
–
Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
–
German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
34.
High German
–
They are also spoken in diaspora in Romania, Russia, the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Chile, and Namibia. The High German languages are marked by the High German consonant shift, separating them from Low German and Low Franconian within the continental West Germanic dialect continuum. As a technical term, the high in High German is a reference to the group of dialects that forms High German, out of which developed Standard German. It refers to the Central Uplands and Alpine areas of central and southern Germany, it also includes Luxembourg, Austria, Liechtenstein and this is opposed to Low German, which is spoken in the lowlands and along the flat sea coasts of the North German Plain. High German in this sense can be subdivided into Upper German, Central German. High German is distinguished from other West Germanic varieties in that it took part in the High German consonant shift, to see this, compare English/Low German pan/Pann with Standard German Pfanne, English/Low German two/twee with Standard German zwei, English/Low German make/maken with Standard German machen. In the southernmost High Alemannic dialects, there is a further shift, the term High German as spoken in central and southern Germany and Austria was first documented in the 15th century. Divisions between subfamilies within Germanic are rarely defined, because most form continuous clines, with adjacent dialects being mutually intelligible. In particular, there has never been an original Proto-High German, for this and other reasons, the idea of representing the relationships between West Germanic language forms in a tree diagram at all is controversial among linguists. What follows should be used with care in the light of this caveat
High German
–
Central German dialects
35.
Kuppe
–
A Kuppe is the term used in German-speaking central Europe for a mountain or hill with a rounded summit that has no rock formation, such as a tor, on it. A range of hills is called a Kuppengebirge. In geology the term refers to corresponding stratigraphic forms. The term is similar to the English topographical and geological terms, knoll, in cartography in German-speaking countries, the term is used more widely to refer to all eminences i. e. including those with a more pointed appearance. Kuppen are a feature of many ranges within the German Central Uplands including the Rhön Mountains. Their formation usually arises as a combination of types of rock. Kuppen are typical of the Central Uplands and the Prealps of Europe, for example, the many domed summits of the Fichtel Mountains or the Pohorje are called kuppen, but they also occur in hilly areas. In this connexion, for example, a part of the Rhön Mountains is known as the Kuppen Rhön and Kuppe or Koppe is often part of the name of mountains and hills, e. g. the Wasserkuppe and the Schneekoppe. Places where sedimentary beds have bulged and where rising oil or natural gas has accumulated, are called kuppen
Kuppe
–
The
Dammersfeldkuppe, a kuppe or domed hill in the
Rhön
36.
Devil
–
The Devil is, according to Christianity, the primary opponent of God. Islam identifies the Devil with all those who oppose Allah, some non-Abrahamic religions contain figures similar to the Devil, such as the Buddhist demon Mara and the Zoroastrian spirit Angra Mainyu. The Modern English word devil descends from the Middle English devel, from Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from Ancient Greek Greek, διάβολος, slanderer, from Greek, διαβάλλειν to slander, διά- across, through + βάλλειν to hurl, probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate he lifts up. In the New Testament, Satan occurs more than 30 times in passages alongside diábolos, in mainstream Judaism there is no concept of a devil as in mainstream Christianity or Islam. Texts make no direct link between the serpent that tempts Eve in the Garden of Eden in Genesis and the references to Satan are in Zechariah. For the Hasidim of the century, ha-satan was Baal Davar. In the Book of Wisdom, the devil is represented as the one who brought death into the world, a similar story is found in 1 Enoch, however, in that book, the leader of the Grigori is called Semjâzâ. In the apocryphal literature, Satan rules over a host of angels, mastema, who induced God to test Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature. The Book of Enoch contains references to Sathariel, thought also to be Sataniel and Satanel, the similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren Michael, Raphael, Uriel and Gabriel, previous to his expulsion from Heaven. In mainstream Christianity the devil is usually referred to as Satan, some modern Christians consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described as hating all humanity, opposing God, spreading lies, other modern Christians consider the devil in the Bible to refer figuratively to human sin and temptation and to any immoral human system. Satan is often identified as the serpent who convinced Eve to eat the fruit, thus. He is also identified as the dragon in the Book of Revelation, beelzebub is originally the name of a Philistine god but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for Satan. A corrupted version, Belzeboub, appears in The Divine Comedy, in Islam the Devil is referred to as Iblis or sometimes the Shaytan. Etymologically, Iblis means the desperate in Arabic, thus, the name Iblis can be seen as a sobriquet given to Shaitan after falling from Grace. The primary characteristic of the Devil, besides hubris, is that he has no other than the power to cast evil suggestions into the hearts of men and women. He was of the jinn and departed from the command of his Lord, then will you take him and his descendants as allies other than Me while they are enemies to you
Devil
–
Depiction of the devil as seen in the
Codex Gigas.
Devil
–
The
Baphomet, adopted symbol of some
Left-Hand Path systems, including
Theistic Satanism.
Devil
–
Devils – a fresco detail from the
Rila Monastery.
Devil
–
The devil depicted in the
Temptation of Christ, by
Ary Scheffer, 1854.
37.
Froben Christoph von Zimmern
–
Count Froben Christoph of Zimmern was the author of the Zimmern Chronicle and a member of the von Zimmern family of Swabian nobility. This article is based primarily on Beat Rudolf Jennys biography of him, Froben Christoph was born at Mespelbrunn Castle in the Spessart as the son of Johann Werner and his wife Katharina of Erbach. He was raised there and in Aschaffenburg by his step-grandfather Philipp Echter and his grandmother and he did not visit Zimmern until 1531. During a short stay at Falkenstein Castle, he had a meeting with his father. After that meeting, he moved in with his uncle Gottfried Werner in Meßkirch, in 1533, Froben Christoph and his elder brother Johann began studying at the University of Tübingen. After a stay in Strasbourg, he studied from early 1534 to 1535 in Bourges, during the winter of 1536/37, he studied in Cologne, and from Easter 1537, without his brother, in Leuven, where he remained until July 1539. After a short stay at home, the travelled to Leuven in November 1539 and he then changed his plans and in December 1539, he travelled via Paris to Angers. On 23 February 1540 in Paris, he completed his first historical work, the liber rerum Cimbriacarum, shortly after Easter 1540 Froben traveled to Angers, together with his younger brother Gottfried, whom he had met in Paris. In the winter of 1540/41 but they continued their studies in Tours, Froben became very ill during that period. This may have been a case of smallpox, or the effect of one of his alchemical experiments, after his recovery, he made a hasty return to Meßkirch, because he, because he feared for his life, due to a feud against his family. He reached Meßkirch at the end of July 1541 and his fears proved unfounded, and he continued his studies in the fall in Speyer. In Speyer, he lived in the house of his uncle Wilhelm Werner, in July 1542, Wilhelm Werner temporarily suspended his work for the Reichskammergericht, and Froben Christoph finished his studies. It is remarkable that Froben had virtually no contact with his father during the first 23 years of his life and he didnt see his father at all during the first twelve years. He met his only four times in the next 11. It is therefore not surprising that Froben spent the years until hed inherit the county in Meßkirch with his uncle Gottfried Werner, rather than at Falkenstein Castle with his father. Gottfried may have seen Froben as the son he didnt have himself, in any case, he took care of Frobens education. The next twelve years were hard, as Werner Gottfried kept his protégé very short, nevertheless, the Zimmer Chronicles suggests a cordial relationship still existed between them. He fulfilled social obligations for his uncle, and after his fathers death in January 1548, in 1544, Froben married Kunigunde, a daughter of Wilhelm IV of Eberstein
Froben Christoph von Zimmern
–
Froben and his wife Kunigunde, with their heraldic
achievements
Froben Christoph von Zimmern
–
Bird's eye view of Meßkirchin 1575. At the top, the new suburb with Weisenburg Castle and the new hospital. The suburb was founded in 1550.
Froben Christoph von Zimmern
–
The castle in Meßkirch
38.
Zimmern Chronicle
–
The Zimmern Chronicle is a family chronicle describing the lineage and history of the noble family of Zimmern, based in Meßkirch, Germany. It was written in a Swabian variety of Early New High German by Count Froben Christoph of Zimmern, the chronicle is an eminent historical source of information about 16th century nobility in South-West Germany, its culture and its values. It is also an important literary and ethnological source for its many folkloristic texts, the text has survived in two manuscripts, both in possession of the Württembergische Landesbibliothek in Stuttgart. When the anonymous, unpublished chronicle was rediscovered in the 19th century, in 1959, Beat Rudolf Jenny proved in his thoroughly researched book that Froben Christopher is the sole author of the chronicle. However, Wilhelm Werners influence on his nephew is palpable in some passages, writing or ordering a genealogy was a rather common form of representation for Germanys noble families of the time. However, the Zimmern chronicle surpasses other contemporary texts in both volume and scope, the purpose of the work is probably twofold, Firstly, Froben Christopher wanted to prove the nobility of his family and to preserve that knowledge to posterity. Secondly, the chronicle was a means to educate future family members, the author does not only tell the stories of shining examples of nobility, but he also gives proof of bad examples. He clearly condemns some of his more spendthrift ancestors for selling goods and hence giving away economic. The Zimmern Chronicle begins with the history of the Cimbri, an ancient Germanic tribe, the work also includes a complete fictional genealogy starting in the 10th century. Historical evidence is entered with the first actually known family member, Konrad von Zimmern, starting with the early 14th century, the genealogical and historical parts of the Zimmern Chronicle are finally reduced to facts. Still, Froben inserts entertaining stories to enliven his characterizations and to prove his political points, in 1540, Froben Christopher had written the genealogical Liber rerum Cimbriacarum whose structure shows many resemblances to the later work. The beginnings of the chronicle as we know it today lie probably in the year 1559, two manuscripts were written by secretary Johannes Müller at Froben Christophers chancellery at Meßkirch Castle, Manuscript A,296 sheets, probably started by Müller as a fair copy. Many later corrections by Froben Christopher, some sheets and illustrations removed, probably eventually used as a draft copy for manuscript B. Manuscript B,1567 pages, illustrated with 43 images of coats of arms, the chronicle manuscripts eventually wound up in the possession of the counts of Fürstenberg, probably via Appolonia von Helfenstein, a daughter of Froben Christophers. Since 1993, the manuscripts are in possession of the Wurttemberg State Library in Stuttgart, laßbergs friend Josef Albrecht von Ittner used plots from the chronicle for his own novellas. Ludwig Uhland took some plots from the chronicle for his collection of folk tales, in 1869, Karl August Barack published the first printed edition of the chronicle and hence made it finally available to the public. A revised version of this edition was published in 1882, a reprint in 1932. Baracks revised edition is the complete edition and is still widely used
Zimmern Chronicle
–
The Zimmern Chronicle, manuscript B
Zimmern Chronicle
–
The
Renaissance castle of Meßkirch where the work was written
Zimmern Chronicle
–
Froben Christopher of Zimmern and his wife (portrait from a manuscript of Froben's uncle Wilhelm Werner, not containing the Zimmern chronicle)
Zimmern Chronicle
–
A page from manuscript A showing Froben Christopher's corrections
39.
Johann Weyer
–
Johann Weyer or Wier was a Dutch physician, occultist and demonologist, disciple and follower of Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. He was among the first to publish against the persecution of witches and his most influential work is De Praestigiis Daemonum et Incantationibus ac Venificiis. Weyer was born in Grave, a town in the Duchy of Brabant in the Habsburg Netherlands. He attended the Latin schools in s-Hertogenbosch and Leuven and when he was about 14 years of age, he became a student of Agrippa. Agrippa had to leave Antwerp in 1532 and he and Weyer settled in Bonn, from 1534, Weyer studied medicine in Paris and later in Orléans, but it appears unlikely that he obtained the title of Doctor through these studies. Eventually, he practiced as a physician in his native Grave, Weyer was appointed town physician of Arnhem in 1545. In this capacity, he was asked for advice on witchcraft in a 1548 court case involving a fortune teller, in spite of a subsidy from emperor Charles V, the town of Arnhem was no longer able to pay Weyers salary. Weyer moved to Cleves in 1550, where he became court doctor to duke William the Rich, Weyer published his major works on demons, magic, and witchcraft, in which he applied a skeptical medical view to reported wonders and supposed examples of magic or witchcraft. He retired from his post in 1578 and was succeeded by his son, after retirement he completed a medical work on a subject unrelated to witchcraft. He died on 24 February 1588 at the age of 73 in Tecklenburg and he was buried in the local churchyard, which no longer exists. Weyers works include medical and moral works as well as his more famous critiques of magic and witchcraft, Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, an appendix to De Praestigiis Daemonum,1577. Translated into German as, Vom Zorn, iracundiae antidotum,1885 translation printed aux Bureaux du Progres Medical, Paris France. About 40 people at Casale in Western Lombardy smeared the bolts of the gates with an ointment to spread the plague. Those who touched the gates where infected and many died, the heirs of the dead and diseased had actually paid people at Casale to smear the gates in order to obtain their inheritances more quickly. In a time when witch trials and executions were just beginning to be common, in addition, he wanted to abolish the prosecution of witches, and when speaking on those who invoke demons he carefully used the word exorcist. Weyer never denied the existence of the Devil and a number of other demons of high. His work was an inspiration for other occultists and demonologists, including an anonymous author who wrote the Lemegeton, there were many editions of his books, especially Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, and several adaptations in English, including Reginald Scots Discoverie of Witchcraft. The church of Tecklenburg displays a plaque in memory of Weyer and in 1884 the town erected a tower in his honor, the Dutch human rights organization for health workers is named the Johannes Wier Foundation after him
Johann Weyer
–
Engraving by
Pieter Holsteyn II, 1660
Johann Weyer
–
Johann Weyer
Johann Weyer
–
The Wier tower in Tecklenburg
40.
Richard Rowland Verstegan
–
Richard Verstegan, born Richard Rowlands, was an Anglo-Dutch antiquary, publisher, humorist and translator. Verstegan was born in East London the son of a cooper, his grandfather, under the patronym Rowlaunde, Richard went to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1564, where he may have studied early English history and the Anglo-Saxon language. Having become a Catholic, he left the university without a degree to avoid swearing the Oath of Supremacy, thereafter he was indentured to a goldsmith, and in 1574 became a freeman of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths. In 1576 he published a guidebook to Western Europe, translated from German, at the end of 1581 he secretly printed an account of the execution of Edmund Campion but was discovered and being apprehended, brake out of England. In exile he resumed the surname of Verstegen, while in Paris he was briefly imprisoned at the insistence of the English Ambassador, in Rome, he was the recipient of a short-lived pension from the pope. In both of these cities he published accounts of the suffering of priests in England, in 1585 or 1586 he moved to Antwerp, and set up in business as a publisher and engraver, an intelligencer, and a smuggler of books and people. From 1617 to about 1630 Verstegan was a writer in Dutch, producing epigrams, characters, jestbooks. He also penned journalistic commentaries, satires and editorials for the Nieuwe Tijdinghen printed in Antwerp by Abraham Verhoeven from 1620 to 1629 and this makes him one of the earliest identifiable newspaper journalists in Europe. He spent the rest of his life in Antwerp, dying there in 1640. Theatrum Crudelitatum haereticorum nostri temporis A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence in Antiquities concerning the most noble and this includes the first English version of the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. R. have mistakenly attributed to him. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography article by Paul Arblaster, ‘Verstegan, Richard ’,2004 accessed 5 Nov 2006 Arblaster, Richard Verstegan and the International Culture of Catholic Reformation. The Anglo-Saxon Pantheon According to Richard Verstegen, Anglo-Saxon Studies in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Clement, Richard W. Richard Verstegans reinvention of Anglo-Saxon England, in Gentrup, William F. Reinventing the Middle Ages & the Renaissance, Constructions of the Medieval and Early Modern Periods. London, Methuen & Co. Ltd. pp. 116–20, Richard Rowlands Verstegan, A Versatile Man in an Age of Turmoil. Works by or about Richard Rowlands in libraries
Richard Rowland Verstegan
–
Plate from Theatrum Crudelitatum haereticorum nostri temporis (1587), depicting reported Protestant atrocities.
41.
Antwerp
–
Antwerp is a city in Belgium, the capital of Antwerp province in the region of Flanders. With a population of 510,610, it is the most populous city proper in Belgium and its metropolitan area houses around 1,200,000 people, which is second behind Brussels. Antwerp is on the River Scheldt, linked to the North Sea by the Westerschelde estuary, the Port of Antwerp is one of the biggest in the world, ranking second in Europe and within the top 20 globally. Antwerp has long been an important city in the Low Countries, the inhabitants of Antwerp are nicknamed Sinjoren, after the Spanish honorific señor or French seigneur, lord, referring to the Spanish noblemen who ruled the city in the 17th century. The city hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics, according to folklore, notably celebrated by a statue in front of the town hall, the city got its name from a legend about a giant called Antigoon who lived near the Scheldt river. He exacted a toll from passing boatmen, and for those who refused, he severed one of their hands, eventually the giant was killed by a young hero named Silvius Brabo, who cut off the giants own hand and flung it into the river. Hence the name Antwerpen, from Dutch hand werpen, akin to Old English hand and wearpan, a longstanding theory is that the name originated in the Gallo-Roman period and comes from the Latin antverpia. Antverpia would come from Ante Verpia, indicating land that forms by deposition in the curve of a river. Note that the river Scheldt, before a period between 600 and 750, followed a different track. This must have coincided roughly with the current ringway south of the city, however, many historians think it unlikely that there was a large settlement which would be named Antverpia, but more something like an outpost with a river crossing. However, John Lothrop Motley argues, and so do a lot of Dutch etymologists and historians, aan t werp is also possible. This warp is a hill or a river deposit, high enough to remain dry at high tide. Another word for werp is pol hence polders, historical Antwerp allegedly had its origins in a Gallo-Roman vicus. Excavations carried out in the oldest section near the Scheldt, 1952–1961, produced pottery shards, the earliest mention of Antwerp dates from the 4th century. In the 4th century, Antwerp was first named, having been settled by the Germanic Franks, the name was reputed to have been derived from anda and werpum. The Merovingian Antwerp was evangelized by Saint Amand in the 7th century, at the end of the 10th century, the Scheldt became the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. Antwerp became a margraviate in 980, by the German emperor Otto I, in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years known as the marquis of Antwerp. In the 12th century, Norbert of Xanten established a community of his Premonstratensian canons at St. Michaels Abbey at Caloes
Antwerp
–
Antwerp Antwerpen
Antwerp
–
Coat of arms
Antwerp
–
The
Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekathedraal (Cathedral of our Lady) and the
Scheldt river.
Antwerp
–
Grote Markt
42.
Robert Burton (scholar)
–
Robert Burton was an English scholar at Oxford University, best known for the classic The Anatomy of Melancholy. He was also the incumbent of St Thomas the Martyr, Oxford and he was born at Lindley, Leicestershire, Robert Burton was the son of Ralph and Dorothy Burton and the brother of William Burton the antiquary. Burton spent most of his life at Oxford, first as a pupil at Brasenose College and he studied a large number of diverse subjects, many of which informed the study of melancholia, for which he is chiefly famous. He was appointed vicar of St Thomas Church in Oxford in 1616, Burton was a mathematician and dabbled in astrology. When not depressed he was a companion, very merry, facete, and juvenile, and a person of great honesty, plain dealing. Merry, indeed, Burton had favourite sources for laughter, there was a rumour that Burton hanged himself in his chambers at Christ Church, supposedly so that his death would match his prediction. Burton was buried at Christ Church Cathedral in Oxford, Burtons Melancholy focuses sharply on the self, unlike Bacon, Burton assumes that knowledge of psychology, not natural science, is humankinds greatest need. He wrote The Anatomy of Melancholy largely to himself out of being a lifelong sufferer from depression. As he described his condition in the preface Democritus Junior to the Reader, for I had gravidum cor, foetum caput, a kind of imposthume in my head, therefore, the treatise itself was intended as treatment. Again, from the preface, I write of melancholy, by being busy to avoid melancholy, there is no greater cause of melancholy than idleness, no better cure than business. However, this sentence may also be interpreted ironically, as Burton is citing a well-known adage of the time, the parenthetical aside is meant to be tongue-in-cheek. The work, published under the pseudonym Democritus Junior in 1621, was quite popular, in the words of Thomas Warton, the authors variety of learning, his quotations from rare and curious books, his pedantry sparkling with rude wit and shapeless elegance. Have rendered it a repertory of amusement and information, many later writers were deeply influenced by the books odd mix of pan-scholarship, humour, linguistic skill, and creative insights. This influence was so strong that later writers sometimes drew from the work without acknowledgment, samuel Johnson considered it one of his favourite books, being the only book that ever took him out of bed two hours sooner than he wished to rise. The book has continued as a favourite among many twentieth and twenty-first-century authors, such as Anthony Burgess, William H. Gass, apart from The Anatomy of Melancholy Burtons only other published work is Philosophaster, a satirical Latin comedy. Faulkner, Nicolas K. Kiessling, and Rhonda L. Blair and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Cousin, John William. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, london, J. M. Dent & Sons. The Gilded Pill, The Reader-Writer Relationship in Robert Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy, review and quotes at complete review Entry at the Columbia Encyclopedia The BBCs In Our Time discusses The Anatomy of Melancholy
Robert Burton (scholar)
–
Robert Burton
Robert Burton (scholar)
–
Frontispiece for the 1638 edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy
43.
The Anatomy of Melancholy
–
The Anatomy of Melancholy is a book by Robert Burton, first published in 1621, but republished four more times over the next seventeen years with massive alterations and expansions. On its surface, the book is presented as a textbook in which Burton applies his vast and varied learning, in the scholastic manner. It is encyclopedic in its range and reference, in his satirical preface to the reader, Burtons persona and psuedonym Democritus Junior explains, I write of melancholy by being busy to avoid melancholy. This is characteristic of the style, which often supersedes the books strengths as a medical text or historical document as its main source of appeal to admirers. Burton was an obsessive rewriter of his work and published five revised and expanded editions of The Anatomy of Melancholy during his lifetime and it has often been out of print, most notably between 1676 and 1800. Because no original manuscript of the Anatomy has survived, later reprints have drawn more or less faithfully from the editions published during Burtons life, early editions are now in the public domain, with several available in their entirety from a number of online sources such as Project Gutenberg. Burton defined his subject as follows, Melancholy, the subject of our present discourse, is either in disposition or in habit. In which equivocal and improper sense, we call him melancholy, Melancholy in this sense is the character of Mortality. Much of the consists of quotations from various ancient and medieval medical authorities, beginning with Hippocrates, Aristotle. Hence the Anatomy is filled more or less pertinent references to the works of others. A competent Latinist, Burton also included a deal of Latin poetry in the Anatomy. The Anatomy of Melancholy is a lengthy book, the first edition being a single quarto volume nearly 900 pages long. The text is divided into three major sections plus an introduction, the written in Burtons sprawling style. The Anatomy concludes with an extensive index, most modern editions include many explanatory notes, and translate most of the Latin. According to The Guardian literary critic Nick Lezard, the Anatomy survives among the cognoscenti, washington Irving uses a quote from the book on the title page of The Sketch Book. Burtons solemn tone and his endeavour to prove indisputable facts by weighty quotations were ridiculed by Laurence Sterne in Tristram Shandy, Sterne also mocked Burtons divisions in the titles of his chapters, and parodied his grave and sober account of Ciceros grief for the death of his daughter Tullia. Ferriar, John Illustrations of Sterne Petrie, Graham A Rhetorical Topic in Tristram Shandy, Modern Language Review, Vol.65,2, April 1970, pp. 261–66 Edward W. Adams. Robert Burton and the Anatomy of Melancholy, The Gentlemans Magazine, Vol. CCLXXXI, remedial Reading, The Anatomy of Melancholy by Robert Burton, introduction by William H. Gass
The Anatomy of Melancholy
–
Frontispiece for the 1638 edition
44.
Hugo Wolf
–
Hugo Philipp Jacob Wolf was an Austrian composer of Slovene origin, particularly noted for his art songs, or Lieder. Hugo Wolf was born in Windischgrätz in the Duchy of Styria, from his maternal side, he was related to Herbert von Karajan. He spent most of his life in Vienna, becoming a representative of New German trend in Lieder, a trend which followed from the expressive, chromatic and dramatic musical innovations of Richard Wagner. A child prodigy, Wolf was taught piano and violin by his father beginning at the age of four, from there, he went to the Vienna Conservatory much to the disappointment of his father, who had hoped his son would not try to make his living from music. Once again, however, he was dismissed for breach of discipline, after eight months with his family, he returned to Vienna to teach music. Though his fiery temperament was not ideally suited to teaching, Wolfs musical gifts, as well as his charm, earned him attention. During their relationship, hints of his style would become evident in his Lieder. Wolf was prone to depression and wide mood swings, which would affect him all through his life, when Franck left him just before his 21st birthday, he was despondent. He returned home, although his family relationships were also strained, Wagners death in February 1883 was another deeply moving event in the life of the young composer. The song Zur Ruh, zur Ruh was composed shortly afterward and is considered to be the best of his early works, it is speculated that it was intended as an elegy for Wagner. Wolf often despaired of his own future in the years, in a world from which his idol had departed, leaving tremendous footsteps to follow. This left him often extremely temperamental, alienating friends and patrons and his activities as a critic began to pick up. He was merciless in his criticism of the works he saw taking over the musical atmosphere of the time. But he was as fervent in his support of Liszt, Schubert and Chopin, known as Wild Wolf for the intensity and expressive strength of his convictions, his vitriol made him some enemies. Shortly thereafter, he completed the terse, witty one-movement Italian Serenade for string quartet which is regarded as one of the finest examples of his mature compositional style. Only a week later his father died, leaving him devastated,1888 and 1889 proved to be amazingly productive years for Wolf, and a turning point in his career. Here he composed the Mörike-Lieder at a frenzied pace, a short break, and a change of house, this time to the vacation home of more longtime friends, the Ecksteins, and the Eichendorff-Lieder followed, then the 51 Goethe-Lieder, spilling into 1889. Wolf himself saw the merit of these compositions immediately, raving to friends that they were the best things he had yet composed and it was now that the world outside Vienna would recognize Wolf as well
Hugo Wolf
–
Photograph of Hugo Wolf
Hugo Wolf
–
Hugo Wolf (1885)
45.
Faust
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Faust is the protagonist of a classic German legend. He is a scholar who is successful yet dissatisfied with his life. The Faust legend has been the basis for literary, artistic, cinematic. Faust and the adjective Faustian imply a situation in which an ambitious person surrenders moral integrity in order to achieve power, plays and comic puppet theatre loosely based on this legend were popular throughout Germany in the 16th century, often reducing Faust and Mephistopheles to figures of vulgar fun. The story was popularised in England by Christopher Marlowe, who gave it a classic treatment in his play, in Goethes reworking of the story two hundred years later, Faust becomes a dissatisfied intellectual who yearns for more than earthly meat and drink in his life. Faust is bored and depressed with his life as a scholar, after an attempt to take his own life, he calls on the Devil for further knowledge and magic powers with which to indulge all the pleasure and knowledge of the world. In response, the Devils representative, Mephistopheles, appears, the term usually stipulated in the early tales is 24 years, one year for each of the hours in a day. During the term of the bargain, Faust makes use of Mephistopheles in various ways, realizing this unholy act, she drowns the child, and is held for murder. However, Gretchens innocence saves her in the end, and she enters Heaven after execution, in Goethes rendition, Faust is saved by God via his constant striving—in combination with Gretchens pleadings with God in the form of the Eternal Feminine. However, in the tales, Faust is irrevocably corrupted and believes his sins cannot be forgiven, when the term ends. Many aspects of the life of Simon Magus are echoed in the Faust legend of Christopher Aubin, the tale of Faust bears many similarities to the Theophilus legend recorded in the 13th century, writer Gautier de Coincys Les Miracles de la Sainte Vierge. Here, a saintly figure makes a bargain with the keeper of the world but is rescued from paying his debt to society through the mercy of the Blessed Virgin. A depiction of the scene in which he himself to the Devil appears on the north tympanum of the Cathedrale de Notre Dame de Paris. Others believe he is based on the figure of Johann Georg Faust, a magician and alchemist probably from Knittlingen, Württemberg, scholars such as Frank Baron and Leo Ruickbie contest many of these previous assumptions. The character in Polish folklore named Pan Twardowski presents similarities with Faust, the Polish story seems to have originated at roughly the same time as its German counterpart, yet It is unclear whether the two tales have a common origin or influenced each other. The historical Johann Georg Faust had studied in Kraków for a time, the first known printed source of the legend of Faust is a small chapbook bearing the title Historia von D. Johann Fausten, published in 1587. The book was re-edited and borrowed from throughout the 16th century, related tales about a pact between man and the Devil include the plays Mariken van Nieumeghen, Cenodoxus and The Countess Cathleen. Staufen, a town in the extreme southwest of Germany, claims to be where Faust died, depictions appear on buildings, etc
Faust
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Dr. Fausto by
Jean-Paul Laurens
Faust
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Pan Twardowski and the devil. Drawing by
Michał Elwiro Andriolli.
Faust
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Marlowe Faustus manuscript in the Huntington Library, San Marino
Faust
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Feodor Chaliapin as Méphistophélès, 1915
46.
Jakob Grimm
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Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm was a German philologist, jurist, and mythologist. Jacob Grimm was born in Hanau, in Hesse-Kassel and his father, Philipp Grimm, was a lawyer, but he died while Jacob was a child, and his mother was left with very small means. His mothers sister was lady of the chamber to the Landgravine of Hesse, Jacob was sent to the public school at Kassel in 1798 with his younger brother Wilhelm. In 1802, he proceeded to the University of Marburg where he studied law and his brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just recovered from a long and severe illness, and likewise began the study of law. Up to this time, Jacob Grimm had been driven only by a general thirst for knowledge, savignys lectures also awakened in him a love for historical and antiquarian investigation, which forms the structure of all his work. In the beginning of 1805, he received an invitation from Savigny, Grimm passed a very happy time in Paris, strengthening his taste for the literatures of the Middle Ages by his studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the close of the year, he returned to Kassel, where his mother and Wilhelm had settled, the next year, he obtained a position in the war office with the very small salary of 100 thalers. One of his grievances was that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform, but he had full leisure for the pursuit of his studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was appointed superintendent of the library of Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia. Bonaparte appointed him an auditor to the council, while Grimm retained his superintendent post. His salary was increased in a period of time from 2000 to 4000 francs. After the expulsion of Bonaparte and the reinstatement of an elector, Grimm was appointed Secretary of Legation in 1813, accompanying the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. In 1814, he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of books carried off by the French, upon his return from Vienna, he was sent to Paris a second time to secure book restitutions. Meanwhile, Wilhelm had received an appointment to the Kassel library, consequently, they moved the following year to Göttingen, where Jacob received the appointment of professor and librarian, and Wilhelm that of under-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, during this period, he is described as small and lively in figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian dialect. Grimm joined other academics who signed a protest against the King of Hanovers abrogation of the constitution which had established some years before. As a result, he was dismissed from his professorship and banished from the Kingdom of Hanover in 1837 and he returned to Kassel with his brother, who had also signed the protest. Jacob was not under any obligation to lecture and he seldom did so, during their time in Kassel, Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy, where he read papers on widely varied subjects
Jakob Grimm
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Jacob Grimm
47.
Wilhelm Grimm
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Wilhelm Carl Grimm was a German author, the younger of the Brothers Grimm. Wilhelm was born in Hanau, in Hesse-Kassel, in 1803, he started studying law at the University of Marburg, one year after his brother Jacob started there. The two brothers spent their lives close together. In their school days, they had one bed and one table in common, as students and they always lived under one roof and had their books and property in common. In 1825, 39-year-old Wilhelm married pharmacists daughter Henriette Dorothea Wild, wilhelms marriage did not change the harmony of the brothers. Richard Cleasby visited the brothers and observed, “they both live in the house, and in such harmony and community that one might almost imagine the children were common property. ”Wilhelm and Henriette had four children together, Jacob, Herman Friedrich, Rudolf Georg. Wilhelms character was a complete contrast to that of his brother, as a boy, he was strong and healthy, but while growing up he suffered a long and severe illness which left him weak the rest of his life. He had a comprehensive and energetic mind than his brother. He utilized everything that bore directly on his own studies and ignored the rest and these studies were almost always of a literary nature. Wilhelm took great delight in music, for which his brother had but a moderate liking, Cleasby relates that “Wilhelm read a sort of farce written in the Frankfort dialect, depicting the ‘malheurs’ of a rich Frankfort tradesman on a holiday jaunt on Sunday. It was very droll, and he read it admirably. ”Cleasby describes him as “an uncommonly animated, jovial fellow. ”He was, accordingly, much sought in society, which he frequented much more than his brother. A collection of tales was first published in 1812 by the Grimm brothers. From 1837-1841, the Grimm brothers joined five of their professors at the University of Göttingen to form a group known as the Göttinger Sieben. They protested against Ernst August, King of Hanover, whom they accused of violating the constitution, all seven were fired by the king. Wilhelm Grimm died in Berlin of an infection at the age of 73
Wilhelm Grimm
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Grimm's tomb in Berlin
Wilhelm Grimm
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Wilhelm Grimm
48.
Viktor Dyk
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Viktor Dyk was a nationalist Czech poet, prose writer, playwright, politician and political writer. He was sent to jail during the First World War for opposing the Austro-Hungarian empire and he was one of the signatories of the Manifesto of Czech writers. Dyk co-founded a political party and entered politics and he died at age 53, leaving his many poems, plays and writings. Dyk was born in Pšovka u Mělníka in the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1877 and his family moved to Prague in 1888 where he began to write. His family settled in the Prague suburb of Vinohrady in 1904, Dyk had taken part in the Czech Chess Championship the year before and he was to remain interested in the game for at least the next twenty years. He was most active in 1913 and seven of his games between 1903 and 1927 are recorded, but of only one is a victory. Viktor Dyk studied at a gymnasium in Prague, Dyk completed his education at Charles University in Prague where he achieved a degree in law. However law and politics were to dominate his life, in 1911, he became involved in politics and joined the Státoprávně pokroková strana. He stood for office in the 1911 elections, but received just 205 votes in Vinohrady, Dyk wrote in the magazine Lumin, where he was known to state that Bohemia had to become Czech or they should die in the attempt. On April 13,1913 he composed a tirade in reply to an article published by Franz Werfel, Dyk stated that his group had not built the Great Wall as they were not opposed per se to German ideas, however they did see the dangers. Dyk saw no problem communicating with Germans but he warned against surrender to ensure that they did not become Czech speaking Germans. During the First World War, he continued to write and he involved in helping write a libretto for an opera by Leoš Janáček. In 1915 he started working with Vinohrady Theatre, later he was imprisoned in Vienna for his resistance activities against Austria-Hungary. He was in jail in 1916 and 1917 for suggesting that Moravia and Bohemia could secede from the empire, in May 1917 Dyk was one the signatories of the Manifesto of Czech writers. This was an important document created by Jaroslav Kvapil who was the director of Czech National Theatre, Kvapil managed to get 200 writers to sign the manifesto and it was designed to encourage the Czech deptuties to the Imperial Council in Vienna to support Czech self-determination. In 1918, he co-founded the Czechoslovak National Democratic Party and his writings were designed to inspire nationalism in the fight to reclaim the Kingdom of Bohemia from Austrian rule. In 1907 he became the editor of the magazine Lumir and he was to lead this magazine for the rest of his life. The magazines followers were known by the name as the magazine
Viktor Dyk
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Photograph of Dyk, circa 1917
Viktor Dyk
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Dyk's birthplace
Viktor Dyk
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Funeral procession, 1931
Viktor Dyk
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Memorial plaque,
Vinohrady
49.
Marina Tsvetaeva
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Marina Ivanovna Tsvetaeva was a Russian and Soviet poet. Her work is considered some of the greatest in twentieth century Russian literature. She lived through and wrote of the Russian Revolution of 1917, in an attempt to save her daughter Irina from starvation, she placed her in a state orphanage in 1919, where she died of hunger. Tsvetaeva left Russia in 1922 and lived with her family in increasing poverty in Paris, Berlin and her husband Sergei Efron and her daughter Ariadna Efron were arrested on espionage charges in 1941, and her husband was executed. As a lyrical poet, her passion and daring linguistic experimentation mark her as a chronicler of her times. Marina Tsvetaeva was born in Moscow, the daughter of Ivan Vladimirovich Tsvetaev, a professor of Fine Art at the University of Moscow, Tsvetaevas mother, Maria Alexandrovna Meyn, Ivans second wife, was a concert pianist, highly literate, with German and Polish ancestry. Growing up in considerable comfort, Tsvetaeva would later come to identify herself with the Polish aristocracy. Tsvetaevas two half-siblings, Valeria and Andrei, were the children of Ivans deceased first wife, Varvara Dmitrievna Ilovaiskaya, Tsvetaevas only full sister, Anastasia, was born in 1894. The children quarrelled frequently and occasionally violently, there was considerable tension between Tsvetaevas mother and Varvaras children, and Tsvetaevas father maintained close contact with Varvaras family. Tsvetaevas father was kind, but deeply wrapped up in his studies and he was also still deeply in love with his first wife, he would never get over her. Maria Tsvetaeva had had an affair before her marriage, from which she never recovered. Maria Tsvetaeva disapproved of Marinas poetic inclination, she wanted her daughter to become a pianist, in 1902 Tsvetaevas mother contracted tuberculosis. There, away from the constraints of a bourgeois Muscovite life, Tsvetaeva was able for the first time to run free, climb cliffs. There were many Russian émigré revolutionaries residing at that time in Nervi, in June 1904 Tsvetaeva was sent to school in Lausanne. Changes in the Tsvetaev residence led to changes in school, and during the course of her travels she acquired the Italian, French. She gave up the strict musical studies that her mother had imposed and turned to poetry and she wrote With a mother like her, I had only one choice, to become a poet. In 1908, aged 16, Tsvetaeva studied literary history at the Sorbonne, during this time, a major revolutionary change was occurring within Russian poetry, the flowering of the Russian Symbolist movement, and this movement was to colour most of her later work. It was not the theory which was to attract her, but the poetry and her own first collection of poems, Vecherny Albom, self-published in 1910, promoted her considerable reputation as a poet
Marina Tsvetaeva
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Tsvetaeva in 1925
Marina Tsvetaeva
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The house where Marina lived in Moscow
Marina Tsvetaeva
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Tsvetaeva's husband Sergei Efron
Marina Tsvetaeva
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Ariadne Efron, 1926.
50.
Walt Disney Animation Studios
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Founded on October 16,1923, it is a division of The Walt Disney Studios. The studio has produced 56 feature films, from Snow White and it was founded as the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio in 1923 and incorporated as Walt Disney Productions in 1929. The studio was dedicated to producing short films until it expanded into feature production in 1934. In 1983, Walt Disney Productions named its film studio Walt Disney Pictures. In 2006, Walt Disney Feature Animation took on its current name, the studio also pioneered the art of storyboarding, which is now a standard technique used in both animated and live-action filmmaking. Walt Disney Animation Studios continues to produce films using both traditional animation and computer-generated imagery, at the present, Andrew Millstein is the general manager of the studio for day-to-day business affairs, under the direction of Edwin Catmull and John Lasseter who also oversee Pixar. Kansas City, Missouri, natives Walt Disney and Roy O, in February 1924, the studio moved next door to office space of its own at 4649 Kingswell Avenue. Disney refused, and as Universal owned the rights to Oswald rather than Disney, most of Disneys staff was hired away by Mintz to move over, once Disneys Oswald contract was done in mid-1928. The first two Mickey Mouse cartoons, Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho, were previewed in limited engagements during the summer of 1928, the Mickey Mouse series of sound cartoons, distributed by Powers through Celebrity Productions, quickly became the most popular cartoon series in the United States. A second Disney series of cartoons, the Silly Symphonies. Powers in return signed away Ub Iwerks, who began producing cartoons at his own studio, columbia distributed Disneys shorts for two years before the Disney studio entered a new distribution deal with United Artists in 1932. The result was the Silly Symphony Flowers and Trees, the first film released in full Technicolor. Flowers and Trees was a success, and all Silly Symphonies were subsequently produced in Technicolor. In 1934, Walt Disney gathered several key members and announced his plans to make his first feature animated film. In the course of teaching the classes, Graham and the created or formalized many of the techniques and processes that became the key tenets. During the production of Snow White, work had continued on the Mickey Mouse, Mickey Mouse switched to Technicolor in 1935, by which time the series had added several major supporting characters, among them Mickeys dog Pluto and their friends Donald Duck and Goofy. Donald, Goofy, and Pluto would all be appearing in series of their own by 1940, the Silly Symphonies, which garnered seven Academy Awards, ended in 1939. The success of Snow White allowed Disney to build a new, larger studio on Buena Vista Street in Burbank, Walt Disney Productions had its initial public offering on April 2,1940, with Walt Disney as president and chairman and Roy Disney as CEO
Walt Disney Animation Studios
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The studio's headquarters at the
Roy E. Disney Animation Building in Burbank
Walt Disney Animation Studios
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Walt Disney Animation Studios
Walt Disney Animation Studios
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The building on Kingswell Avenue in Los Feliz which was home to the studio from 1923 to 1926
Walt Disney Animation Studios
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Walt Disney introduces each of the Seven Dwarfs in a scene from the original 1937
Snow White theatrical trailer.
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