1.
Centaurea maculosa
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Centaurea maculosa is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. Centaurea maculosa, the spotted knapweed, is a species of Centaurea native to eastern Europe and this short-lived perennial usually has a stout taproot, pubescent stems with wooly or cobwebby hairs when young. The erect or ascending plant stems grow 20 to 150 cm tall and it grows on stream banks, pond shorelines, sand prairies, old fields and pastures, roadsides, and along railroads, and many open, disturbed areas. Apparently, is should be treated with two varieties as (Centaurea stoebe var. stoebe and var. micranthos Hayek and it has been introduced to North America, where it is considered an invasive plant species in much of the western United States and Canada. In 2000, C. maculosa occupied more than 7 million acres in the US, Knapweed is a pioneer species found in recently disturbed sites or openings. Once it has been established at a site, it continues to spread into the surrounding habitat. It is also suspected to be allelopathic, releasing a toxin from its roots that stunts the growth of plants of other species. Its seed is an achene about a quarter of an inch long, the leaves are a pale grayish-green. They are covered in short hairs. First year plants produce a basal rosette, alternate, up to 6 inches long and it produces a stem in its second year of growth. Stem leaves are progressively less lobed, getting smaller toward the top, the stem is erect or ascending, slender, hairy and branching, and can grow up to three feet tall. Because cattle prefer the native bunchgrass over knapweed, overgrazing occurs, increasing the density, human disturbance is also a major cause of infestations. But in general, biocontrol has not been shown to be effective against C. maculosa, in some instances, root-herbivory on C. maculosa stimulates additional release of catechin, the main allelopathic chemical which the species emits. In addition, moderate levels of herbivory by biocontrol agents can cause compensatory growth, prescribed grazing may be an effective means of controlling infestations. All growth forms are nutritious to sheep, high-density infestations can be controlled by fencing in the control area with sheep until the desired level of removal is achieved. The roots of C. maculosa exude -catechin and this acts as an herbicide to inhibit competition by a wide range of other plant species. This phytotoxic compound inhibits seed germination and growth in making more available in certain soils. It leads to death of competing plants by acidification of the cytoplasm
2.
Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
3.
Lichen
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A lichen is a composite organism that arises from algae or cyanobacteria living among filaments of multiple fungi in a symbiotic relationship. The combined lichen has properties different from those of its component organisms, Lichens come in many colours, sizes, and forms. The properties are sometimes plant-like, but lichens are not plants, Lichens may have tiny, leafless branches, flat leaf-like structures, flakes that lie on the surface like peeling paint, or other growth forms. A macrolichen is a lichen that is either bush-like or leafy, here, macro and micro do not refer to size, but to the growth form. Common names for lichens may contain the word moss, and lichens may superficially look like and grow with mosses, Lichens do not have roots that absorb water and nutrients as plants do, but like plants, they produce their own food by photosynthesis. When they grow on plants, they do not live as parasites, Lichens occur from sea level to high alpine elevations, in many environmental conditions, and can grow on almost any surface. Lichens are abundant growing on bark, leaves, mosses, on other lichens and they grow on rock, walls, gravestones, roofs, exposed soil surfaces, and in the soil as part of a biological soil crust. Different kinds of lichens have adapted to survive in some of the most extreme environments on Earth, arctic tundra, hot dry deserts, rocky coasts and they can even live inside solid rock, growing between the grains. It is estimated that 6% of Earths land surface is covered by lichen, there are about 20,000 known species of lichens. Some lichens have lost the ability to reproduce sexually, yet continue to speciate, Lichens may be long-lived, with some considered to be among the oldest living things. They are among the first living things to grow on fresh rock exposed after an event such as a landslide, the long life-span and slow and regular growth rate of some lichens can be used to date events. In American English, lichen is pronounced the same as the verb liken, in British English, both this pronunciation and one rhyming with kitchen /ˈlɪtʃən/) are used. Lichens grow in a range of shapes and forms. The shape of a lichen is determined by the organization of the fungal filaments. The nonreproductive tissues, or vegetative body parts, is called the thallus, Lichens are grouped by thallus type, since the thallus is usually the most visually prominent part of the lichen. Thallus growth forms typically correspond to a few basic internal structure types, Common names for lichens often come from a growth form or color that is typical of a lichen genus. When a crustose lichen gets old, the center may start to crack up like old-dried paint, old-broken asphalt paving and this is called being rimose or areolate, and the island pieces separated by the cracks are called areolas. The areolas appear separated, but are connected by an underlying prothallus or hypothallus, when a crustose lichen grows from a center and appears to radiate out, it is called crustose placodioid
4.
Transpiration
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Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only an amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth. The remaining 97–99. 5% is lost by transpiration and guttation, leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata, and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage. The stomata are bordered by guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells that open, transpiration also cools plants, changes osmotic pressure of cells, and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots. Two major factors influence the rate of flow from the soil to the roots, the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. Both of these factors influence the rate of flow of water moving from the roots to the stomatal pores in the leaves via the xylem. Mass flow of water from the roots to the leaves is driven in part by capillary action. This movement lowers the potential in the leaf airspace and causes evaporation of liquid water from the mesophyll cell walls. This evaporation increases the tension on the water menisci in the cell walls, water is absorbed at the roots by osmosis, and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel with it through the xylem. The Cohesion-tension theory explains how leaves pull water through the xylem, water molecules stick together, or exhibit cohesion. As a water molecule evaporates from the surface of the leaf, it pulls on the adjacent water molecule, plants regulate the rate of transpiration by controlling the size of the stomatal apertures. The rate of transpiration is also influenced by the demand of the atmosphere surrounding the leaf such as boundary layer conductance, humidity, temperature, wind. Soil water supply and soil temperature can influence stomatal opening, the amount of water lost by a plant also depends on its size and the amount of water absorbed at the roots. Transpiration accounts for most of the loss by a plant by the leaves. Transpiration serves to evaporatively cool plants, as the water carries away heat energy due to its large latent heat of vaporization of 2260 kJ per litre. During a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight, an acre of corn gives off about 3, 000–4,000 gallons of water each day, and a large oak tree can transpire 40,000 gallons per year. The transpiration ratio is the ratio of the mass of water transpired to the mass of dry matter produced, transpiration rates of plants can be measured by a number of techniques, including potometers, lysimeters, porometers, photosynthesis systems and thermometric sap flow sensors. Isotope measurements indicate transpiration is the component of evapotranspiration
5.
Photosynthesis
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Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms activities. In most cases, oxygen is released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis, such organisms are called photoautotrophs, in plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, in the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate. Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates. Cyanobacteria appeared later, the oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth. Today, the rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million tonnes of carbon into biomass per year. Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide, however, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen and this is called oxygenic photosynthesis and is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms. Although there are differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by certain types of bacteria. Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation, photosynthesis provides the energy in the form of free electrons that are used to split carbon from carbon dioxide that is then used to fix that carbon once again as carbohydrate. Carbon fixation is a redox reaction, so photosynthesis supplies the energy that drives both process. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP, during the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide. Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis. Some archea use a method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump and this produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy
6.
Anemophily
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Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind. Almost all gymnosperms are anemophilous, as are plants in the order Poales. Other common anemophilous plants are oaks, sweet chestnuts, alders and members of the family Juglandaceae, features of the wind-pollination syndrome include a lack of scent production, a lack of showy floral parts, reduced production of nectar, and the production of enormous numbers of pollen grains. This distinguishes them from entomophilous and zoophilous species, anemophilous pollen grains are light and non-sticky, so that they can be transported by air currents. They are typically 20–60 micrometres in diameter, although the pollen grains of Pinus species can be much larger, anemophilous plants possess well-exposed stamens so that the pollens are exposed to wind currents and also have large and feathery stigma to easily trap airborne pollen grains. Pollen from anemophilous plants tends to be smaller and lighter than pollen from entomophilous ones, however, insects sometimes gather pollen from staminate anemophilous flowers at times when higher-protein pollens from entomophilous flowers are scarce. Anemophilous pollens may also be captured by bees electrostatic field. This may explain why, though bees are not observed to visit ragweed flowers, anemophily is an adaptation that helps to separate the male and female reproductive systems of a single plant, reducing the effects of inbreeding. It often accompanies dioecy – the presence of male and female structures on separate plants. Almost all pollens that are allergens are from anemophilous species, grasses are the most important producers of aeroallergens in most temperate regions, with lowland or meadow species producing more pollen than upland or moorland species. Media related to Wind pollination at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Pollination
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Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred to the female reproductive organs of a plant, thereby enabling fertilization to take place. Like all living organisms, seed plants have a major goal. The reproductive unit is the seed, and pollination is a step in the production of seeds in all spermatophytes. The process is different in angiosperms from what it is in gymnosperms. In angiosperms, after the grain has landed on the stigma. Sperm cells from the pollen grain then move along the tube, enter the egg cell through the micropyle and fertilise it. A successful angiosperm pollen grain containing the gametes is transported to the stigma. Its two gametes travel down the tube to where the containing the female gametes are held within the carpel. One nucleus fuses with the bodies to produce the endosperm tissues. In gymnosperms, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, details of the process vary according to the division of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms, the study of pollination brings together many disciplines, such as botany, horticulture, entomology, and ecology. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and pollen vector was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel and it is important in horticulture and agriculture, because fruiting is dependent on fertilization, the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology, pollen germination has three stages, hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced enabling it to be easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take place in the anther, hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow. In conifers, the structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones or ovulate cones, but some species are monoecious, a pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on reproductive structures called sporophylls
8.
Asexual reproduction
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Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such as the Archaea and bacteria. Many plants and fungi reproduce asexually as well, a complete lack of sexual reproduction is relatively rare among multicellular organisms, particularly animals. It is not entirely understood why the ability to reproduce sexually is so common among them, developmental constraints may underlie why few animals have relinquished sexual reproduction completely in their life-cycles. An important form of fission is binary fission, in binary fission, the parent organism is replaced by two daughter organisms, because it literally divides in two. Only prokaryotes reproduce asexually through binary fission, eukaryotes may reproduce in a functionally similar manner by mitosis, most of these are also capable of sexual reproduction. Another type of fission is multiple fission, multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists, e. g. sporozoans and algae. The nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by mitosis, the cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells. In apicomplexans, multiple fission, or schizogony, is manifested either as merogony, sporogony or gametogony, merogony results in merozoites, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate within the same cell membrane, sporogony results in sporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes. Some cells split via budding, resulting in a mother and daughter cell, the offspring organism is smaller than the parent. Budding is also known on a level, an animal example is the hydra. The buds grow into fully matured individuals which break away from the parent organism. Internal budding is a process of reproduction, favoured by parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii. It involves a process in which two or more daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell, which is then consumed by the offspring prior to their separation. Also, budding is present in some worm like Taenia or Echinococci, vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores by meiosis or syngamy. Examples of vegetative reproduction include the formation of miniaturized plants called plantlets on specialized leaves, other plants reproduce by forming bulbs or tubers. Some plants produce adventitious shoots and omay form a colony, where all the individuals are clones. Many multicellular organisms form spores during their life cycle in a process called sporogenesis. Exceptions are animals and some protists, who undergo meiosis immediately followed by fertilization, plants and many algae on the other hand undergo sporic meiosis where meiosis leads to the formation of haploid spores rather than gametes
9.
Reproductive success
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Reproductive success is defined as the passing of genes onto the next generation in a way that they too can pass on those genes. Factors like nutrition contribute to factors that influence reproductive success and these include different amounts of consumption and more specific carbohydrate to protein ratios. In some cases, the amounts or ratios of intake are more influential during certain stages of the lifespan, for example, in the Mexican fruit fly, male protein intake is critical only at eclosion. Intake at this time provides longer lasting reproductive ability, after this developmental stage, protein intake will have no effect and is not necessary for reproductive success. In addition, Ceratitis capitata males were experimented on to see how protein influence during the larval stage affects mating success, males were fed either a high protein diet, which consisted of 6. 5g/100mL, or a no protein diet during the larval stage. Males that were fed protein had more copulations than those that weren’t fed protein, protein-deprived black blow fly males have been seen to exhibit lower numbers of oriented mounts and inseminate fewer females than more lively fed males. In still other instances, prey deprivation or a diet has been shown to lead to a partial or complete halt in male mating activity. Copulation time lasted longer for sugar-fed males than protein-fed flies, showing that carbohydrates were more necessary for a longer copulation duration, in mammals, amounts of protein, carbohydrates, and fats are seen to influence reproductive success. This was evaluated among 28 female black bears evaluated by measuring the number of cubs born. Using different foods during the fall including corn, herbaceous, red oak, beech, and cherry, nutritional facts of protein, carbohydrate, seventy-percent of the bears who had high fat and high carbohydrate diets produced cubs. Conversely, all 10 females who had low carbohydrate diets did not reproduce cubs, adequate nutrition at pre-mating time periods showed to have the most effect on various reproductive processes in mammals. Increased nutrition, in general, during time was most beneficial for oocyte. As a result, offspring number and viability was also improved, thus, proper nutrition timing during the pre-mating time is key for development and long-term benefit of the offspring. Two different diets were fed to Florida scrub-jays and breeding performance was noted to have different effects, one diet consisted of high protein and high fat, and the other consisting of just high fat. The significant result was that the birds with the high protein, there was a difference in the amount of water inside the eggs, which accounted for the different weights. It’s hypothesized that the water resulting from the adequate protein-rich and fat-rich diet may contribute to development and survival of the chick. Dietary intake also improves egg production, which can also be considered to create viable offspring. Post-mating changes are seen in organisms in response to conditions for development
10.
Plant litter
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Litterfall, plant litter, leaf litter, tree litter, soil litter, or duff, is dead plant material, such as leaves, bark, needles, and twigs, that have fallen to the ground. This detritus or dead organic material and its constituent nutrients are added to the top layer of soil, litterfall is characterized as fresh, undecomposed, and easily recognizable plant debris. This can be anything from leaves, cones, needles, twigs, bark, seeds/nuts, logs, items larger than 2 cm diameter are referred to as coarse litter, while anything smaller is referred to as fine litter or litter. The type of litterfall is most directly affected by ecosystem type, for example, leaf tissues account for about 70 percent of litterfall in forests, but woody litter tends to increase with forest age. In grasslands, there is very little aboveground perennial tissue so the annual litterfall is very low, in soil science, soil litter is classified in three layers, which form on the surface of the O Horizon. In tropical environments, the largest amount of falls in the latter part of dry seasons. As a result of variability due to seasons, the decomposition rate for any given area will also be variable. Latitude also has an effect on litterfall rates and thickness. Specifically, litterfall declines with increasing latitude, net primary production works inversely to this trend, suggesting that the accumulation of organic matter is mainly a result of decomposition rate. Surface detritus facilitates the capture and infiltration of rainwater into lower soil layers, Soil litter protects soil aggregates from raindrop impact, preventing the release of clay and silt particles from plugging soil pores. Releasing clay and silt particles reduces the capacity for soil to water and increases cross surface flow. In addition soil litter reduces wind erosion by preventing soil from losing moisture, organic matter accumulation also helps protect soils from wildfire damage. Soil litter can be completely removed depending on intensity and severity of wildfires, regions with high frequency wildfires have reduced vegetation density and reduced soil litter accumulation. Climate also influences the depth of plant litter, typically humid tropical and sub-tropical climates have reduced organic matter layers and horizons due to year round decomposition and high vegetation density and growth. In temperate and cold climates, litter tends to accuculate and decompose slower due to a growing season. Net primary production and litterfall are intimately connected, in every terrestrial ecosystem, the largest fraction of all net primary production is lost to herbivores and litterfall. Due to their interconnectedness, global patterns of litterfall are similar to patterns of net primary productivity. Litter provides habitat for a variety of organisms, certain plants are specially adapted for germinating and thriving in the litter layers
11.
Secondary succession
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Secondary succession is one of the two types of ecological succession of plant life. Simply put, secondary succession is the succession that occurs after the initial succession has been disrupted and some plants. Many mechanisms can trigger succession of the second including facilitation such as interaction, initial composition. Imperata grasslands are caused by activities such as logging, forest clearing for shifting cultivation, agriculture and grazing. The latter is a frequent result of human interference, however, when not maintained by frequent fires and human disturbances, they regenerate naturally and speedily to secondary young forest. The time of succession in Imperata grassland, Imperata cylindrica has the highest coverage, while Imperata decreases, the percentage of shrubs and young trees clearly increases with time. In the burned plots, Melastoma malabathricum, Eupatorium inulaefolium, Ficus sp. strongly increase with the age of regeneration, but these species are commonly found in the secondary forest. Soil properties change during secondary succession in Imperata grassland area, the effects of secondary succession on soil are strongest in the A-horizon, where an increase in carbon stock, N, and C/N ratio, and a decrease in bulk density and pH are observed. Soil carbon stocks also increase upon secondary succession from Imperata grassland to secondary forest, soil composition prior to fire disturbance also influences secondary succession, both in rate and type of dominant species growth. For example, high concentration was found to increase the chances of primary Pteridium over Imperata growth in Imperata grassland. The byproducts of combustion have been shown to affect secondary succession by soil microorganisms, vegetation structure is affected by fire. In some types of ecosystems this creates a process of renewal, following a fire, early successional species disperse and establish first. This is then followed by late successional species, species that are fire intolerant are those that are more flammable and are desolated by fire. More tolerant species are able to survive or disperse in the event of fire, the occurrence of fire leads to the establishment of deadwood and snags in forests. This creates habitat and resources for a variety of species, fire can act as a seed dispersing stimulant. Many species require fire events to reproduce, disperse, and establish, for example, the knobcone pine has closed cones that open for dispersal when exposed to heat caused by forest fires. This particular conifer grows in clusters because of this method of seed dispersal. A tough fire resistant outer bark and lack of low branches help the knobcone pine survive fire with minimal damage
12.
Aquatic plant
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Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments. They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes and these plants require special adaptations for living submerged in water, or at the waters surface. The most common adaptation is aerenchyma, but floating leaves and finely dissected leaves are also common, aquatic plants can only grow in water or in soil that is permanently saturated with water. They are therefore a component of wetlands. The principal factor controlling the distribution of plants is the depth. However, other factors may also control their distribution, abundance, and growth form, including nutrients, disturbance from waves, grazing, aquatic vascular plants have originated on multiple occasions in different plant families, they can be ferns or angiosperms. Seaweeds are not vascular plants, rather they are marine algae. A few aquatic plants are able to survive in brackish, saline, examples are found in genera such as Thalassia and Zostera. Although most aquatic plants can reproduce by flowering and setting seed, many also have extensive asexual reproduction by means of rhizomes, turions, one of the largest aquatic plants in the world is the Amazon water lily, one of the smallest is the minute duckweed. Many small aquatic animals use plants like duckweed for a home, or for protection from predators, some other familiar examples of aquatic plants might include floating heart, water lily, lotus, and water hyacinth. Some aquatic plants are used by humans as a food source, examples include wild rice, water caltrop, Chinese water chestnut, Indian lotus, water spinach, and watercress. The many possible classifications of plants are based upon morphology. org http
13.
Hawaii (island)
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Hawaiʻi is the largest island located in the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is the largest and the southeastern-most of the Hawaiian Islands, with an area of 4,028 square miles, it is larger than all of the other islands in the archipelago combined and is the largest island in the United States. However, it only has 13% of Hawaiis people, the island of Hawaii is the third largest island in Polynesia, behind the two main islands of New Zealand. The island is referred to as the Island of Hawaiʻi. Administratively, the island is encompassed by Hawaiʻi County. As of the 2010 Census the population was 185,079, the county seat and largest city is Hilo. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaiʻi County, Hawaiʻi is said to have been named after Hawaiʻiloa, the legendary Polynesian navigator who first discovered it. The name is cognate with Savaii, the name of the largest island of Samoa, cook was killed on the Big Island at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779, in a mêlée which followed the theft of a ships boat. Hawaiʻi was the island of Paiʻea Kamehameha, later known as Kamehameha the Great. Kamehameha united most of the Hawaiian islands under his rule in 1795, after years of war, and gave the kingdom. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 5,086 square miles. The countys land area comprises 62.7 percent of the land area. It is the highest percentage by any county in the United States, in greatest dimension, the island is 93 miles across and has a land area of 4,028 square miles comprising 62% of the Hawaiian Islands land area. Measured from its sea floor base to its highest peak, Mauna Kea is the worlds tallest mountain, taller than Mount Everest is, the Island of Hawaiʻi is built from five separate shield volcanoes that erupted somewhat sequentially, one overlapping the other. Geologists now consider these outcrops to be part of the building of Mauna Loa. Another volcano which has disappeared below the surface of the ocean is Māhukona. Because Mauna Loa and Kīlauea are active volcanoes, the island of Hawaii is still growing, between January 1983 and September 2002, lava flows added 543 acres to the island. Lava flowing from Kīlauea has destroyed several towns, including Kapoho in 1960, in 1987 lava filled in Queens Bath, a large, L-shaped, freshwater pool in the Kalapana area
14.
Leymus arenarius
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Leymus arenarius Hochst. is a psammophylic species of grass in the family Poaceae, native to the coasts of Atlantic and Northern Europe. Leymus arenarius is known as sand ryegrass, sea lyme grass. Leymus arenarius originated from the hybridization of L. racemosus and another species in central Eurasia or from a polyploidization event. DNA analysis shows that inland and coastal plants are not different from each other. L. arenarius is a recent cultivar, and has had time to accumulate genetic differences. Leymus arenarius is much younger than its North American relative L. mollis, Icelandic L. arenarius is molecularly uniform. Polish L. arenarius is also reported to be molecularly uniform, Leymus arenarius is native to the coasts of northern and western Europe. A closely related species Leymus mollis is native to the coasts of North America. Leymus arenarius can grow exponentially in terms of height and root growth in the presence of nitrogen, Leymus arenarius is known to take up nitrogen into its root system. Raising nitrogen concentrations can aid in growth as over time plant mass above to surface will not change, the roots themselves also retain nitrogen as they come in contact with it and in the surrounding un-vegetated areas. This assists in primary succession with surrounding flora and fauna, after volcanic events L. arenarius causes dunes and their soil depth to grow exponentially over time. Nitrogen increases seed production, raising the yield of seeds as much as 70% in Icelandic L. arenarius, the seed density also increased with the addition of nitrogen, in comparison to phosphorus and potassium which only produce marginal increases for both seed yield and density. Leaf size and density are also influenced by nutrient additions, removing nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium resulted in a reduction of leaf mass up to 20%. Nitrogen usage is a cost effective tool to use to increase abundance, Leymus arenarius benefits from the presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The presence of the fungi increases the ability of L. arenarius to have a root system. When adding fungi in its habitat, more seeds survived. Leymus arenarius can adapt easily to a highly salinized area, when comparing the salt tolerances of the Icelandic populations and the inland populations, the Icelandic populations expressed a higher salt tolerance than the inland populations. The trait for salt tolerance is heritable, the seeds of Icelandic populations germinated more in the presence of a high salt concentration than seeds of the inland population
15.
Ammophila breviligulata
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Ammophila breviligulata is a species of grass that is native to eastern North America, where it grows on sand dunes along the Atlantic Ocean and Great Lakes coasts. Beachgrass thrives under conditions of shifting sand, sand burial, and high winds, beachgrass is less vigorous in stabilized sand, and is only infrequently found further inland than the coastal foredunes. A. breviligulata was introduced to the Pacific coast of North America in the 1930s and it is proving to be invasive, and is increasingly important to coastal ecology and development in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The leaves of A. breviligulata have deeply furrowed upper surfaces and smooth undersides, the plants inflorescence is a spike-like panicle that can reach 10 inches long, the seed head appears in late July or August. The species name derives from the Latin brevis and ligula. Ammophila breviligulata is quite similar in appearance and ecology to a species of beachgrass. The plants spread rapidly through the sand by subsurface runners, and they can tolerate burial in as much as 3 feet of sand, sand burial stimulates the rhizomes to grow vertically, and is actually essential to plant vigor. The beachgrass species are very good examples of xerophytes, being able to thrive on arid to semi-arid beach dunes. The plant has several mechanisms for adapting to stress or wind. The long narrow leaves can roll or fold, and the upper leaf surface. Beachgrass is a dominant species on foredunes, and indeed is sometimes the plant found there. It is much less vigorous further in from the coastline, which is puzzling, why should a species that competes so well on foredunes be fairly unsuccessful just a few meters further in from the coast, where other plants usually dominate. One mechanism for this effect that has extensively studied by Wim van der Putten. The density of these pathogens is low in freshly deposited sand, starting in the 19th Century, A. A. arenaria built foredunes that are typically about 14 feet high, which is much higher than the dunes associated with the native dune grass species Leymus mollis. In the 1930s, A. breviligulata was introduced to about 3,000 acres on the Clatsop Peninsula in Oregon. Since then, A. breviligulata has gradually supplanted A. arenaria in Oregon and Washington, the diversity of other species that co-exist with mature stands of A. arenaria is comparable to the species diversity with A. breviligulata
16.
Green algae
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The green algae are a large, informal grouping of algae consisting of the Chlorophyte and Charophyte algae, which are now placed in separate divisions. The land plants, or Embryophytes, are thought to have emerged from the Charophytes, therefore, cladistically, Embryophytes belong to green algae as well. However, as the Embryophytes are traditionally classified as neither algae nor green algae, the clade that includes both green algae and embryophytes is monophyletic and is referred to as the clade Viridiplantae and as the kingdom Plantae. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, most with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid and filamentous forms, and macroscopic, in the Charales, the closest relatives of higher plants, full cellular differentiation of tissues occurs. There are about 8,000 species of green algae, many species live most of their lives as single cells, while other species form coenobia, long filaments, or highly differentiated macroscopic seaweeds. A few other organisms rely on green algae to conduct photosynthesis for them, the chloroplasts in euglenids and chlorarachniophytes were acquired from ingested green algae, and in the latter retain a nucleomorph. Green algae are also found symbiotically in the ciliate Paramecium, and in Hydra viridissima, some species of green algae, particularly of genera Trebouxia of the class Trebouxiophyceae and Trentepohlia, can be found in symbiotic associations with fungi to form lichens. In general the species that partner in lichens cannot live on their own. Trentepohlia is a green alga that can live independently on humid soil. Green algae have chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll a and b, giving them a green color, as well as the accessory pigments beta carotene and xanthophylls. The cell walls of green algae usually contain cellulose, and they store carbohydrate in the form of starch, all green algae have mitochondria with flat cristae. When present, paired flagella are used to move the cell and they are anchored by a cross-shaped system of microtubules and fibrous strands. Flagella are only present in the male gametes of charophytes and are absent from the gametes of Pinophyta. Members of the class Chlorophyceae undergo closed mitosis in the most common form of division among the green algae. By contrast, charophyte green algae and land plants undergo open mitosis without centrioles, instead, a raft of microtubules, the phragmoplast, is formed from the mitotic spindle and cell division involves the use of this phragmoplast in the production of a cell plate. This primary endosymbiosis event gave rise to three autotrophic clades with primary plastids, the plants, the red algae and the glaucophytes. Green algae are classified with their embryophyte descendants in the green plant clade Viridiplantae. Viridiplantae, together with red algae and glaucophyte algae, form the supergroup Primoplantae, the Viridiplantae diverged into two clades
17.
Zostera
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Zostera is a small genus of widely distributed seagrasses, commonly called marine eelgrass or simply eelgrass. The genus Zostera contains 15 species, Zostera marina is found on sandy substrates or in estuaries, usually submerged or partially floating. They have long, bright green, ribbon-like leaves, the width of which are about 1 centimetre, short stems grow up from extensive, white branching rhizomes. The flowers are enclosed in the sheaths of the leaf bases, Zostera often forms beds in bay mud in the estuarine setting. It is an important food for Brent geese and wigeons, the slime mold Labyrinthula zosterae can cause the wasting disease of Zostera, with Z. marina being particularly susceptible, causing a decrease in the populations of the fauna that depend on Zostera. Zostera is able to maintain its turgor at a constant pressure in response to fluctuations in environmental osmolarity and it achieves this by losing solutes as the tide goes out and gaining solutes as the tide comes in. The genus as a whole is widespread throughout seashores of much of the Northern Hemisphere as well as Australia, New Zealand, Southeast Asia, the discovery of Z. chilensis in 2005 adds an isolated population on the Pacific coast of South America to the distribution. One species occurs along the land-locked Caspian Sea, eelgrass once grew in abundance in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, where it was harvested, dried and used for insulation in houses, such as the governors summer mansion in Island Beach State Park. A blight decimated the eelgrass, which ended harvesting of the plant, the plant is making a gradual comeback. Eelgrass has been used for food by the Seri tribe of Native Americans on the coast of Sonora, the rhizomes and leaf-bases of eelgrass were eaten fresh or dried into cakes for winter food. It was also used for smoking deer meat, the Seri language has many words related to eelgrass and eelgrass-harvesting. The month of April is called xnoois ihaat iizax, literally the month when the seed is mature. Zostera has also used as packing material and as stuffing for mattresses. On the Danish island of Læsø it has used for thatching roofs. Roofs of eelgrass are said to be heavy, but also much longer-lasting and easier to thatch, Zostera can also be utilized to produce biomass energy using the Jean Pain method. LI
18.
Spartina
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Spartina, commonly known as cordgrass or cord-grass, is a genus of plants in the grass family, frequently found in coastal salt marshes. The genus name is derived from σπαρτίνη, the Greek word for a made from Spanish broom. The highest species diversity is on the east coasts of North and South America and they form large, often dense colonies, particularly on coastal salt marshes, and grow quickly. The species vary in size from 0. 3–2 m tall, many of the species will produce hybrids if they come into contact. – smooth cordgrass - Atlantic coasts of North + South America, – common cordgrass - Great Britain, introduced scattered other places Spartina arundinacea Carmich - Tristan da Cunha, Amsterdam Island in Indian Ocean Spartina bakeri Merr. – sand cordgrass - southeastern USA Spartina × caespitosa A. A. Eaton – short cordgrass - eastern USA + Canada Spartina ciliata Brongn, - Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay Spartina cynosuroides Roth – big cordgrass - eastern USA, Tamaulipas, Chihuahua, Bahamas Spartina densiflora Brongn. – denseflower cordgrass - Venezuela, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, – California cordgrass - California, Baja California, Baja California Sur Spartina gracilis Trin. – alkali cordgrass - western Canada, western + central USA, Chihuahua, Jalisco, – Gulf cordgrass - Atlantic coast of North America from Florida to Argentina, incl Caribbean + Gulf of Mexico Spartina × townsendii H. Groves & J. Various members of the genus have spread outside of their native boundaries, big cordgrass is used in the construction of bulls eye targets for sports archery. A properly constructed Spartina target can stop an arrow safely without damage to the arrowhead as it lodges in the target, Spartina species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Aarons skipper and engrailed. Three of the Spartina species have become invasive plants in some countries, sand Bay - an area in the UK where Spartina grass planted to support a river bank has spread
19.
Spartina anglica
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Spartina anglica is a species of cordgrass that originated in southern England in about 1870 and is endemic as a native to Britain. It is a perennial plant growing 0. 4-1.3 m tall, yellowish green in spring and summer. The leaves are 20-60 cm long, and 1.5 cm broad at the base and it produces flowers and seeds on only one side of the stalk. The flowers are a yellowish-green, turning brown by the winter, as a result, it was widely planted at coastal sites throughout the British Isles, and has colonised large areas of tidal mudflats, becoming an invasive species. New colonies may take time to become established, but once they do, vegetative spread by rhizomes is rapid, smothering natural ecosystems. In some areas however, a natural dieback of unknown cause has reversed the spread, UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Spartina anglica English Nature, Spartina summary Invasive grasses of North America
20.
Algae
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Algae is an informal term for a large, diverse group of photosynthetic organisms which are not necessarily closely related, and is thus polyphyletic. Included organisms range from unicellular genera, such as Chlorella and the diatoms, to forms, such as the giant kelp. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem, and phloem. No definition of algae is generally accepted, one definition is that algae have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells. Some authors exclude all prokaryotes thus do not consider cyanobacteria as algae, Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction. Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes. Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago, the singular alga is the Latin word for seaweed and retains that meaning in English. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algēre, be cold, a more likely source is alliga, binding, entwining. The Ancient Greek word for seaweed was φῦκος, which could mean either the seaweed or a red dye derived from it, the Latinization, fūcus, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. It could be any color, black, red, green, accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name Fucus appears in a number of taxa, most algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and presumably represent reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, however, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right, many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic
21.
Moss
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Mosses are small flowerless plants that typically grow in dense green clumps or mats, often in damp or shady locations. Although some species have conducting tissues, these are poorly developed. Mosses do not have seeds and after fertilisation develop sporophytes with unbranched stalks topped with single capsules containing spores and they are typically 0. 2–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. Dawsonia, the tallest moss in the world, can grow to 50 cm in height, mosses are commonly confused with lichens, hornworts, and liverworts. Lichens may superficially look like mosses, and have names that include the word moss. This contrasts with the pattern in all plants, where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses are now classified on their own as the division Bryophyta, the main commercial significance of mosses is as the main constituent of peat, although they are also used for decorative purposes, such as in gardens and in the florist trade. Traditional uses of mosses included as insulation and for the ability to absorb liquids up to 20 times their weight, botanically, mosses are non-vascular plants in the land plant division Bryophyta. They are small plants that absorb water and nutrients mainly through their leaves and harvest carbon dioxide. They differ from plants in lacking water-bearing xylem tracheids or vessels. As in liverworts and hornworts, the gametophyte generation is the dominant phase of the life cycle. This contrasts with the pattern in all plants, where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses reproduce using spores, not seeds, and have no flowers, Moss gametophytes have stems which may be simple or branched and upright or prostrate. Their leaves are simple, usually only a layer of cells with no internal air spaces. They do not have roots, but have threadlike rhizoids that anchor them to their substrate. Mosses do not absorb water or nutrients from their substrate through their rhizoids and they can be distinguished from liverworts by their multi-cellular rhizoids. Spore-bearing capsules or sporangia of mosses are borne singly on long, unbranched stems, thereby distinguishing them from the polysporangiophytes, the spore-bearing sporophytes are short-lived and dependent on the gametophyte for water supply and nutrition. Also, in most mosses, the capsule enlarges and matures after its stalk elongates
22.
Vallisneria americana
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Vallisneria americana, commonly called wild celery, water-celery, tape grass, or eelgrass, is a plant in the family Hydrocharitaceae, the tape-grasses. V. V. americana is a deep rooted plant with leaves, approximately one inch wide, contrary to the implications of one of its common names, wild celery bears little to no resemblance to the celery used as a vegetable. Vallisneria americana grows under water and is consumed by various animals, the plants themselves are long, limp, flat, and have a green mid-ridge. Despite its name, it is not restricted to the Americas and it is found primarily in eastern North America, occurring west from Nova Scotia to South Dakota and South to the Gulf of Mexico. It has also reported in the western states of Washington, Nebraska, New Mexico. V. americana is cultivated for the trade, where it is a sold as a background plant. Beds of V. americana, especially in Louisiana, have known to be homes to many crustacean, gastropods, invertebrates and fish. The beds of V. americana are great at stabilizing sediment and shorelines, facilitating detrital food webs, the salinity tolerance of V. americana has been up to debate, and has been topic of many scientific research and experiments. It has been suggested that the difference between the data sets is due to the varying duration of the experiments and the different methodology used in each experiment. The highest tolerance range is noted to be anywhere from ten parts per thousand to twenty parts per thousand. V. americana generally maintains its population by clonal reproduction through the use of runners, salinity seems to affect the germination process in the same way it does the growth of the plant
23.
Lava
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Lava is the molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. The resulting rock after solidification and cooling is called lava. The molten rock is formed in the interior of planets, including Earth. The source of the heat melts the rock within the earth is geothermal energy. When first erupted from a vent, lava is a liquid usually at temperatures from 700 to 1,200 °C. A lava flow is an outpouring of lava, which is created during a non-explosive effusive eruption. When it has stopped moving, lava solidifies to form igneous rock, the term lava flow is commonly shortened to lava. Although lava can be up to 100,000 times more viscous than water, lava can flow great distances before cooling and solidifying because of its thixotropic, explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra, rather than lava flows. The word lava comes from Italian, and is derived from the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide. The first use in connection with extruded magma was apparently in an account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and June 4,1737. Serao described a flow of lava as an analogy to the flow of water. The composition of almost all lava of the Earths crust is dominated by silicate minerals, mostly feldspars, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, igneous rocks, which form lava flows when erupted, can be classified into three chemical types, felsic, intermediate, and mafic. These classes are primarily chemical, however, the chemistry of lava also tends to correlate with the temperature, its viscosity. Felsic or silicic lavas such as rhyolite and dacite typically form lava spines, most silicic lava flows are extremely viscous, and typically fragment as they extrude, producing blocky autobreccias. Felsic magmas can erupt at temperatures as low as 650 to 750 °C, unusually hot rhyolite lavas, however, may flow for distances of many tens of kilometres, such as in the Snake River Plain of the northwestern United States. Intermediate or andesitic lavas are lower in aluminium and silica, and usually somewhat richer in magnesium, intermediate lavas form andesite domes and block lavas, and may occur on steep composite volcanoes, such as in the Andes. Poorer in aluminium and silica than felsic lavas, and also commonly hotter, greater temperatures tend to destroy polymerized bonds within the magma, promoting more fluid behaviour and also a greater tendency to form phenocrysts. Higher iron and magnesium tends to manifest as a darker groundmass, mafic or basaltic lavas are typified by their high ferromagnesian content, and generally erupt at temperatures in excess of 950 °C
24.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
25.
Polystichum munitum
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Polystichum munitum, the western swordfern, is an evergreen fern native to western North America, where it is one of the most abundant ferns. The dark green fronds of this fern grow 50 to 180 centimetres tall and they are single-pinnate, with the pinnae alternating on the stalk. Each pinna is 1 to 15 centimetres long, with a small upward-pointing lobe at the base, individual fronds live for 1.5 to 2.5 years and remain attached to the rhizome after withering. The round sori occupy two rows on either side of the midrib of each pinna and are covered by a centrally-attached, the favored habitat of this fern is the understory of moist coniferous forests at low elevations. It grows best in an acidic soil of rich humus. Sword ferns are very tough and can survive dry periods, but do well only with consistent moisture, light sunlight. In cultivation, they respond well to regular, light applications of fertilizer. While this fern is a horticultural subject in western North America. In spring, with no food available, Quileute, Makah, Klallam, Squamish, Sechelt, Haida. Western sword fern spores have many uses, including relieving the pain from the sting of a stinging nettle. It is also used by florists as an ornamental plant
26.
Metrosideros polymorpha
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Metrosideros polymorpha, the ʻōhiʻa lehua, is a species of flowering evergreen tree in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, that is endemic to the six largest islands of Hawaiʻi. It is a highly variable tree, being 20–25 m tall in favorable situations, and it produces a brilliant display of flowers, made up of a mass of stamens, which can range from fiery red to yellow. Many native Hawaiian traditions refer to the tree and the forests it forms as sacred to Pele, the goddess, and to Laka. ʻŌhiʻa trees grow easily on lava, and are usually the very first plants to grow on new lava flows and it is a common misconception that the word ʻōhiʻa is used to refer to the tree and that the word lehua refers only to its flowers. The Hawaiian Dictionary defines lehua with these words, The flower of the ʻōhiʻa tree, thus the Metrosideros polymorpha may be referred to correctly as a lehua tree, or as an ʻōhiʻa lehua, or simply an ʻōhiʻa. Metrosideros polymorpha is the most common tree in the Hawaiian Islands, tolerating a wide range of soil conditions, temperature. It grows from sea level right up to the line at elevations of 2,500 m and is commonly found in moist and dry forests, high shrublands. Dominant in cloud forests above 400 m, the tree is common in seasonally wet forests. Metrosideros polymorpha may occur as a tree or a prostrate shrub. Preferred soils are acidic to neutral and either a Histosol, Mollisol, Podsol, Oxisol, Ultisol, or Alfisol. Rainfall of 1, 000–3,000 mm per year is favored, on moist, deep soils, ʻōhiʻa grows to 20–25 m high. Specimens reaching 30 m high are on record, in some trees, it is straight and smooth, in others, it is twisted and prominently fluted. Trees growing in forests often have roots, having germinated on logs or the stems of fallen hāpuʻu. Some trees have fibrous aerial roots to gather moisture, at high elevations, and in areas with poor soils or little rainfall, shrub forms are the norm. Flowers are usually bright to medium red but orange-red, salmon, pink, yellow, the flowers appear in clusters on the terminal ends of the branches. Masses of stamens extend from the flower and give the blossoms their characteristic pom-pom shape, the reddish brown heartwood of M. polymorpha is very hard, fine textured, and has a specific gravity of 0.7. In native Hawaiian society, it was used in house and heiau construction, as well as to make papa kuʻi ʻai, weapons, tool handles, hohoa, and kiʻi. Although the trunk of ʻōhiʻa was not used to make the kaʻele of waʻa, it was used for their nohona waʻa, pale, wae were made from the curved stilt roots of ʻōhiʻa
27.
Vaccinium reticulatum
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Vaccinium reticulatum, known as ʻŌhelo ʻai in Hawaiian, is a species of flowering plant in the heather family, Ericaceae, that is endemic to Hawaii. It grows at altitudes of 640–3,700 m on lava flows and freshly disturbed volcanic ash on Maui and Hawaiʻi, and less commonly on Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, adaptations to volcanic activity include the ability to survive ash falls of over 25 cm depth. ʻŌhelo ʻai is a shrub usually 0. 1–1.3 m tall, the leaves are evergreen, spirally arranged, leathery, oval, 1–3 cm long, red when freshly emerging, then green or green with reddish patches. The flowers are bell-shaped, 8–12 mm long, variable in color, the fruit is an edible berry 8–14 mm diameter, ranging in color from blue to purple to red to orange to yellow. The color does not necessarily indicate the ripeness of the berries, the berries taste similar to the related cranberries, less ripe ones being tart, while ripe berries are quite sweet. They are an important food source for the nēnē, the seeds are dispersed in the birds droppings, oligomeric proanthocyanidins can be obtained by the means of V. pahalae in vitro cell culture. Plants of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Vaccinium reticulatum Invasion and Recovery of Vegetation after a Volcanic Eruption in Hawaii More pictures from www. HEAR. org, ohelo, ohelo kau laau, olelo ai
28.
Sadleria cyatheoides
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Sadleria cyatheoides, commonly known as amaumau fern or ʻamaʻu, is a fern species in the family Blechnaceae, in the eupolypods II clade of the order Polypodiales, in the class Polypodiopsida. It is endemic to Hawaii and inhabits lava flows, open areas, reaching a height of 0. 9–1.5 m and a trunk diameter of 7. 5–10 cm, ʻamaʻu resembles a small tree fern. Kīlaueas Halemaʻumaʻu Crater is named for this species, the young fronds are often tinged red to block harmful rays from the sun. Media related to Sadleria cyatheoides at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Sadleria cyatheoides at Wikispecies
29.
Surtsey
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Surtsey is a volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern coast of Iceland. At 63. 303°N20. 605°W /63.303, -20.605 and it was formed in a volcanic eruption which began 130 metres below sea level, and reached the surface on 14 November 1963. The eruption lasted until 5 June 1967, when the island reached its size of 2.7 km2. Since then, wave erosion has caused the island to diminish in size, as of 2012. The most recent survey shows the maximum elevation at 155 m above sea level. The new island was named after Surtr, a fire jötunn or giant from Norse mythology and it was intensively studied by volcanologists during its eruption, and afterwards by botanists and other biologists as life forms gradually colonised the originally barren island. The undersea vents that produced Surtsey are part of the Vestmannaeyjar submarine volcanic system, Vestmannaeyjar also produced the famous eruption of Eldfell on the island of Heimaey in 1973. The eruption that created Surtsey also created a few small islands along this volcanic chain, such as Jólnir. Most of these eroded away fairly quickly, the eruption was unexpected, and almost certainly began some days before it became apparent at the surface. The sea floor at the site is 130 metres below sea level. Gradually, as repeated flows built up a mound of material that approached sea level, the explosions could no longer be contained, another station in Reykjavík recorded even weaker tremors for ten hours on 12 November at an undetermined location, when seismic activity ceased until 21 November. That same day, people in the town of Vík 80 km away noticed a smell of hydrogen sulphide. On 13 November, a vessel in search of herring, equipped with sensitive thermometers. At 07,15 UTC on 14 November 1963, the cook of Ísleifur II, the captain thought it might have been a boat on fire, and ordered the vessel to investigate. Instead, they encountered explosive eruptions giving off black columns of ash, by 11,00 the same day, the eruption column had reached several kilometres in height. Over the next week, explosions were continuous, and after just a few days the new island, formed mainly of scoria, as the eruptions continued, they became concentrated at one vent along the fissure and began to build the island into a more circular shape. By 24 November, the island measured about 900 metres by 650 metres, however, eruptions more than kept pace with wave erosion, and by February 1964, the island had a maximum diameter of over 1300 metres. The new island was named after the fire jötunn Surtur from Norse mythology, three French journalists representing the magazine Paris Match notably landed there on 6 December 1963, staying for about 15 minutes before violent explosions encouraged them to leave
30.
Buddleja davidii
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It is widely used as an ornamental plant, and many named varieties are in cultivation. B. davidii is named for the Basque missionary and explorer in China, Father Armand David and it was found near Ichang by Dr Augustine Henry about 1887 and sent to St Petersburg. Another botanist-missionary in China, Jean-André Soulié, sent seed to the French nursery Vilmorin, B. davidii was accorded the RHS Award of Merit in 1898, and the Award of Garden Merit in 1941. B. davidii is a shrub with an arching habit. The pale brown bark becomes deeply fissured with age, the branches are quadrangular in section, the younger shoots covered in a dense indumentum. The opposite lanceolate leaves are 7–13 cm long, tomentose beneath when young, the honey-scented lilac to purple inflorescences are terminal panicles, <20 cm long. Flowers are perfect, hence are hermaphrodite rather than monoecious as is incorrectly stated. It was Leeuwenbergs taxonomy which was adopted in the Flora of China published in 1996, younger wood is more floriferous, so even if frosts do not kill the previous years growth, the shrub is usually hard-pruned in spring once frosts have finished, to encourage new growth. There are approximately 180 davidii cultivars as well as hybrids with B. globosa. Many of these cultivars are of a dwarf habit growing to no more than 1.5 metres and it is naturalized in Australia and in most cities of central and southern Europe, where it can spread on open lands and in gardens. Within the United States, it is established as an escape from cultivation. Buddleja hybrids and cultivars Butterfly food plants Van Laere K Interspecific hybridisation in woody ornamentals, thesis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University Christenhusz, M. J. M. Typification of ornamental plants, Buddleja davidii, franchet, M. A. Plantae Davidianae ex sinarum imperio, part 2 Plantes du Thibet Oriental. Li, P. T. & Leeuwenberg, A. J. M. Loganiaceae, in Wu, Z. & Raven, science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, USA. ISBN 978-0915279371 online at www. efloras. org Index, Buddleja — for Buddleja davidii cultivars, floridata, Buddleja davidii BBC Gardening, Buddleja davidii Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk, Buddleja davidii USDA PLANTS Profile, Buddleja davidii RHS Buddleja Trials Report
31.
Tagetes minuta
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Tagetes minuta has numerous local names that vary by region, most commonly found in the literature as, chinchilla, chiquilla, chilca, zuico, suico, or the Spanish term anisillo. Since Spanish colonization, it has introduced around the world, and has become naturalized in Europe, Asia, Australasia, North America. It is used as a herb in Peru, Ecuador. It is called by the Quechua terms wakatay in Peru or wakataya in Bolivia and it is commonly sold in Latin grocery stores in a bottled, paste format as black mint paste. This species of marigold may grow to become from 0. 6–2 meters tall, the New World peoples have been using Tagetes minuta as a flavorful beverage, a medicinal tea, and a condiment since pre-contact times. The leaves when dried may be used as a seasoning, wakatay paste is used to make the popular Peruvian potato dish called ocopa. For some time people have used it as a herbal tea for medical benefits such as a remedy for the colds, respiratory inflammations. It can be used to produce a dye which was developed at Moi University in Kenya under the direction of R. K. Mibey. Plants are harvested and marigold oil extracted for use in the perfume, tobacco, the oils contained in the oil glands that are found throughout the above ground portions of the plant may cause irritation to the skin and in some cases are said to cause photodermatitis. Plants for a Future, Tagetes minuta Purdue University, NewCROP, Tagetes minuta
32.
Bidens pilosa
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Bidens pilosa is a species of flowering plant in the aster family. It is native to the Americas but it is known widely as a species of other regions, including Eurasia, Africa, Australia. It is a tall branched weed with yellow flowers that develop into a cluster of barbed seeds. Its many common names include black-jack, beggar-ticks, cobblers pegs, the seeds are like short, stiff hairs. They get stuck in feathers, fur, or socks, etc and this bur is widespread throughout the warmer regions of the world. Its little black seeds hook onto clothes or horses and thereby the bur spreads itself around and it is susceptible to hand weeding if small enough, even then must be bagged, and thick mulches may prevent it from growing. Each seed has two to four barbed spines, a weed of gardens, woodlands, and waste areas, a person who brushes against it will end up covered in the burs and need to pick them off one by one. Although this plant is considered a weed in parts of the world. For example, it is widely eaten in Africa, and in Vietnam, during the Vietnam War soldiers adopted the herb as a vegetable. Bidens pilosa is a forb of gracile habit, growing up to 1.8 meters tall. It grows aggressively on disturbed land and often becomes weedy, the leaves are oppositely arranged and pinnate in form with three to five dentate, ovate-to-lanceolate leaflets. The plant may flower at any time of the year, but in temperate regions it blooms mainly in summer, flowers are borne in small heads on relatively long peduncles. The heads bear about four or five white ray florets. The fruits are slightly curved, stiff, rough black rods, tetragonal in cross section, about 1 cm long, the infructescences form stellate spherical burrs about one to two centimeters in diameter. The barbed awns catch onto fur or clothing, and can injure flesh and it is an effective means of seed dispersal by zoochory, as the seeds are transported by animals. This mechanism has helped the plant become a weed in temperate. In traditional Bafumbira medicine, this plant is applied on a wound and is known to be a medicinal herb. Almost two hundred compounds have been isolated from B. pilosa, especially polyacetylenes and flavonoids, the plant contains the chalcone okanin and ethyl caffeate, a hydroxycinnamic acid
33.
Argemone mexicana
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Argemone mexicana is a species of poppy found in Mexico and now widely naturalized in many parts of the world. An extremely hardy plant, it is tolerant of drought and poor soil. A. mexicana seeds contain 22–36% of a pale yellow oil, called argemone oil or katkar oil. Four quaternary isoquinoline alkaloids, dehydrocorydalmine, jatrorrhizine, columbamine, the seed pods secrete a pale yellow latex when cut open. This argemone resin contains berberine and protopine, the seeds resemble the seeds of Brassica nigra. As a result, mustard can be adulterated by argemone seeds, several significant instances of katkar poisoning have been reported in India, Fiji, South Africa and other countries. The last major outbreak in India occurred in 1998, 1% adulteration of mustard oil by argemone oil has been shown to cause clinical disease. Katkar oil poisoning causes epidemic dropsy, with symptoms including extreme swelling, the Seri of Sonora, Mexico use the entire plant both fresh and dried. An infusion is made to relieve pain, to help expel a torn placenta. When the Spanish arrived in Sonora they added this plant to their pharmacopia and called it cardosanto, the seeds are taken as a laxative. An Argemone mexicana tea is used by traditional healers in Mali to treat malaria, the whole plant is used to make a tea and as much tea as possible is drunk until symptoms disappear. This use has been studied clinically for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria, in one study, 73% of patients treated had an adequate clinical response, but very few patients had complete parasite clearance. Another study found that use of Argemone mexicana may be a suitable first-aid treatment in areas when access to other better antimalarials is delayed. Biodiesel production from A. mexicana seed oil using crystalline manganese carbonate has been demonstrated, dressler, S. Schmidt, M. & Zizka, G. Argemone mexicana. African plants – a Photo Guide
34.
Fauna
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Fauna is all of the animal life of any particular region or time. The corresponding term for plants is flora, flora, fauna and other forms of life such as fungi are collectively referred to as biota. Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a collection of animals found in a specific time or place. Paleontologists sometimes refer to a sequence of stages, which is a series of rocks all containing similar fossils. Fauna comes from the Greek names Fauna, a Roman goddess of earth and fertility, the Roman god Faunus, all three words are cognates of the name of the Greek god Pan, and panis is the Greek equivalent of fauna. Fauna is also the word for a book that catalogues the animals in such a manner, the term was first used by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden in the title of his 1745 work Fauna Suecica. Cryofauna are animals that live in, or very close to, cryptofauna are the fauna that exist in protected or concealed microhabitats. Infauna are benthic organisms that live within the substratum of a body of water, especially within the bottom-most oceanic sediments. Bacteria and microalgae may also live in the interstices of bottom sediments, epifauna, also called epibenthos, are aquatic animals that live on the bottom substratum as opposed to within it, that is, the benthic fauna that live on top of the sediment surface at the seafloor. Macrofauna are benthic or soil organisms which are retained on a 0.5 mm sieve, studies in the deep sea define macrofauna as animals retained on a 0.3 mm sieve to account for the small size of many of the taxa. Megafauna are large animals of any region or time. Meiofauna are small invertebrates that live in both marine and fresh water environments. The term Meiofauna loosely defines a group of organisms by their size, larger than microfauna but smaller than macrofauna, one environment for meiofauna is between grains of damp sand. In practice these are metazoan animals that can pass unharmed through a 0.5 –1 mm mesh but will be retained by a 30–45 μm mesh, but the exact dimensions will vary from researcher to researcher. Whether an organism passes through a 1 mm mesh also depends upon whether it is alive or dead at the time of sorting, mesofauna are macroscopic soil invertebrates such as arthropods or nematodes. Mesofauna are extremely diverse, considering just the springtails, as of 1998, microfauna are microscopic or very small animals. Other terms include avifauna, which means bird fauna and piscifauna, which means fish fauna
35.
Flora
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Flora is the plant life occurring in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring or indigenous—native plant life. The corresponding term for animal life is fauna, Flora, fauna and other forms of life such as fungi are collectively referred to as biota. Sometimes bacteria and fungi are also referred to as flora, as in the gut flora or skin flora. The word flora comes from the Latin name of Flora, the goddess of plants, flowers, the distinction between vegetation and flora was first made by Jules Thurmann. Prior to this, the two terms were used indiscriminately, plants are grouped into floras based on region, period, special environment, or climate. Regions can be geographically distinct habitats like mountain vs. flatland, floras can mean plant life of a historic era as in fossil flora. Lastly, floras may be subdivided by special environments, Native flora, the native and indigenous flora of an area. The plants that are grown by humans. Traditionally this classification was applied to plants regarded as undesirable, many native plants previously considered weeds have been shown to be beneficial or even necessary to various ecosystems. The flora of an area or time period can be documented in a publication also known as a flora. Floras may require specialist botanical knowledge to use with any effectiveness, traditionally they are books, but some are now published on CD-ROM or websites. It is said that the Flora Sinensis by the Polish Jesuit Michał Boym was the first book that used the name Flora in this meaning, however, despite its title it covered not only plants, but also some animals of the region. A published flora often contains diagnostic keys, often these are dichotomous keys, which require the user to repeatedly examine a plant, and decide which one of two alternatives given best applies to the plant
36.
Fungus
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A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants, a characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria and some protists, is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs, they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, growth is their means of mobility, except for spores, which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems and this fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes and oomycetes. The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology, in the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the size of their structures. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and they may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform a role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, the fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans, losses of crops due to fungal diseases or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses a diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies. However, little is known of the biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus, used in the writings of Horace, a group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota, e. g. the mycobiota of Ireland. Like plants, fungi grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies. The fungi are now considered a kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes and they have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
37.
Protist
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Protist is an informal term for any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or fungus. The protists do not form a group, or clade. Besides their relatively simple levels of organization, protists do not necessarily have much in common, others use the term protist more broadly, to encompass both microbial eukaryotes and macroscopic organisms that do not fit into the other traditional kingdoms. In cladistic systems, there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, in cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are distributed among various supergroups and Protista, Protoctista and Protozoa are considered obsolete. However, the term protist continues to be used informally as a term for eukaryotic microorganisms. For example, the phrase protist pathogen may be used to denote any disease-causing microbe which is not bacteria, virus, the term protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi, and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN. Conflicts, such as these – for example the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons and these traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics. Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this group into diverse, however, the older terms are still used as informal names to describe the morphology and ecology of various protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to species of protists that do not form filaments. Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg, the first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria. In 1817, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to such as ciliates. After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden, this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae. He defined the Protoctista as a kingdom of nature, in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants. The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, in 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hoggs label, arguing that Haeckels term Protista included anucleated microbes such as bacteria, which the term Protoctista did not. In contrast, Copelands term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, green algae and this classification was the basis for Whittakers later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life. The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the kingdom of Monera. Many systematists today do not treat Protista as a formal taxon, some systematists judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and use Protista in this sense as a formal taxon
38.
Invertebrate
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Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column, derived from the notochord. This includes all animals apart from the subphylum Vertebrata, familiar examples of invertebrates include insects, crabs, lobsters and their kin, snails, clams, octopuses and their kin, starfish, sea-urchins and their kin, jellyfish, and worms. The majority of species are invertebrates, one estimate puts the figure at 97%. Many invertebrate taxa have a number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata. Some of the invertebrates, such as the Tunicata and Cephalochordata are more closely related to the vertebrates than to other invertebrates. This makes the term invertebrate paraphyletic and hence almost meaningless for taxonomic purposes, the word invertebrate comes from the form of the Latin word vertebra, which means a joint in general, and sometimes specifically a joint from the spinal column of a vertebrate. In turn the jointed aspect of vertebra derived from the concept of turning, coupled with the prefix in-, meaning not or without. The term invertebrates is not always precise among non-biologists since it does not accurately describe a taxon in the way that Arthropoda. Each of these describes an valid taxon, phylum, subphylum or family. Invertebrata is a term of convenience, not a taxon, it has very little circumscriptional significance except within the Chordata, the Vertebrata as a subphylum comprises such a small proportion of the Metazoa that to speak of the kingdom Animalia in terms of Vertebrata and Invertebrata has limited practicality. That would at least circumscribe the Chordata, however, even the notochord would be a less fundamental criterion than aspects of embryological development and symmetry or perhaps bauplan. The following text reflects earlier scientific understanding of the term and of animals which have constituted it. According to this understanding, invertebrates do not possess a skeleton of bone and they include hugely varied body plans. Many have fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeletons, like jellyfish or worms, others have hard exoskeletons, outer shells like those of insects and crustaceans. The most familiar invertebrates include the Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Echinodermata, Mollusca, Arthropoda include insects, crustaceans and arachnids. By far the largest number of described species are insects. The following table lists the number of described extant species for major invertebrate groups as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,2014.3. The IUCN estimates that 66,178 extant vertebrate species have been described, the trait that is common to all invertebrates is the absence of a vertebral column, this creates a distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates
