1.
Nepenthes distillatoria
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Nepenthes distillatoria is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sri Lanka. It was the second Nepenthes species to be described in print and it is therefore the type species of the genus. Nepenthes distillatoria was the second Nepenthes species to be described in print, in 1677, Danish physician Thomas Bartholin made brief mention of it under the name Miranda herba, Latin for marvellous herb. Three years later, Dutch merchant Jacob Breyne referred to species as Bandura zingalensium. Bandura subsequently became the most commonly used name for the pitcher plants. Nepenthes distillatoria was again described in 1683, this time by Swedish physician, Grim called it Planta mirabilis destillatoria, or the miraculous distilling plant, and was the first to clearly illustrate a tropical pitcher plant. Linnaeus used Grims original specific epithet when naming N. distillatoria in 1753, Nepenthes distillatoria was again illustrated in Johannes Burmanns Thesaurus Zeylanicus of 1737. The drawing depicts the end of a stem with pitchers. Burmann refers to the plant as Bandura zeylanica, in the horticultural trade of the late 19th century, N. distillatoria was often confused with N. khasiana of India. Nepenthes distillatoria is endemic to Sri Lanka and is the only Nepenthes species recorded from the island and it grows in waterlogged open scrub, along road embankments and other cleared areas, and in forest. N. distillatoria occurs from sea-level to 700 m altitude, due to its isolation, N. distillatoria has no known natural hybrids. Three infraspecific taxa of N. distillatoria have been described, although they are no longer considered valid
2.
Scanning electron microscope
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A scanning electron microscope is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the surface topography. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern. SEM can achieve better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in vacuum, in low vacuum, in wet conditions. The most common SEM mode is detection of electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam. The number of electrons that can be detected depends, among other things. By scanning the sample and collecting the electrons that are emitted using a special detector. An account of the history of SEM has been presented by McMullan. Ardenne applied the principle not only to achieve magnification but also to purposefully eliminate the chromatic aberration otherwise inherent in the electron microscope. He further discussed the various modes, possibilities and theory of SEM. The types of produced by an SEM include secondary electrons, reflected or back-scattered electrons, photons of characteristic X-rays and light, absorbed current. Secondary electron detectors are standard equipment in all SEMs, but it is rare that a machine would have detectors for all other possible signals. The signals result from interactions of the beam with atoms at various depths within the sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, ie secondary electron imaging or SEI, consequently, SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing details less than 1 nm in size. Back-scattered electrons are beam electrons that are reflected from the sample by elastic scattering and they emerge from deeper locations within the specimen and consequently the resolution of BSE images is generally poorer than SE images. BSE images can provide information about the distribution of different elements in the sample, characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron beam removes an inner shell electron from the sample, causing a higher-energy electron to fill the shell and release energy. These characteristic X-rays are used to identify the composition and measure the abundance of elements in the sample, due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample
3.
Carnivorous plant
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Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods. Carnivorous plants have adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs, charles Darwin wrote Insectivorous Plants, the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants, in 1875. True carnivory is thought to have evolved independently nine times in five different orders of flowering plants and this classification includes at least 583 species that attract, trap and kill prey, absorbing the resulting available nutrients. Additionally, over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some, five basic trapping mechanisms are found in carnivorous plants. Pitfall traps trap prey in a leaf that contains a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria. Flypaper traps use a sticky mucilage, snap traps utilize rapid leaf movements. Bladder traps suck in prey with a bladder that generates an internal vacuum, lobster-pots, also known as eel traps, force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward-pointing hairs. These traps may be active or passive, depending on whether movement aids the capture of prey, for example, Triphyophyllum is a passive flypaper that secretes mucilage, but whose leaves do not grow or move in response to prey capture. Meanwhile, sundews are active flypaper traps whose leaves undergo rapid acid growth, the rapid acid growth allows the sundew tentacles to bend, aiding in the retention and digestion of prey. The sundew species Drosera glanduligera employs a unique trapping mechanism with features of both flypaper and snap traps, this has been termed a catapult-flypaper trap, characterized by an internal chamber, pitfall traps are thought to have evolved independently at least six times. This particular adaptation is found within the families Sarraceniaceae, Nepenthaceae, Cephalotaceae, within the family Bromeliaceae, pitcher morphology and carnivory evolved twice. Because these families do not share an ancestor who also had pitfall trap morphology. A passive trap, pitfall traps attract prey with nectar bribes secreted by the peristome, the linings of most pitcher plants are covered in a loose coating of waxy flakes which are slippery for insects, causing them to fall into the pitcher. Once within the structure, digestive enzymes or mutualistic species break down the prey into an absorbable form for the plant. Water can become trapped within the pitcher, making a habitat for other flora and this type of water body is called a Phytotelma. The simplest pitcher plants are probably those of Heliamphora, the pitcher plant. In this genus, the traps are derived from a simple rolled leaf whose margins have sealed together. These plants live in areas of rainfall in South America such as Mount Roraima
4.
Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
5.
Nepenthes
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Nepenthes, also known as tropical pitcher plants or monkey cups, is a genus of carnivorous plants in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae. The genus comprises roughly 150 species, and numerous natural and many cultivated hybrids, the greatest diversity occurs on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, with many endemic species. Many are plants of hot, humid, lowland areas, but the majority are tropical plants, receiving warm days but cool to cold. A few are considered tropical alpine, with days and nights near freezing. The name monkey cups refers to the fact that monkeys have been observed drinking rainwater from these plants, from the stems arise alternate, sword-shaped leaves with entire leaf margins. An extension of the midrib, which in some species aids in climbing, protrudes from the tip of the leaf, the pitcher starts as a small bud and gradually expands to form a globe- or tube-shaped trap. The trap contains a fluid of the own production, which may be watery or syrupy. Research has shown this fluid contains viscoelastic biopolymers that may be crucial to the retention of insects within the traps of many species, the viscoelastic fluid in pitchers is especially effective in the retention of winged insects. The trapping efficiency of this fluid remains high, even when diluted by water. The lower part of the trap contains glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey, along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a called the peristome which is slippery and often quite colorful, attracting prey. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is further enhanced in moist environments, when wet, the slippery surface of the peristome causes insects to ‘aquaplane’, or slip and fall, into the pitcher. Above the peristome is a lid, in species, this keeps rain from diluting the fluid within the pitcher. Nepenthes species usually produce two types of pitchers, known as leaf dimorphism, appearing near the base of the plant are the large lower traps, which typically sit on the ground. The upper or aerial pitchers are smaller, coloured differently. These upper pitchers usually form as the plant reaches maturity and the plant grows taller, to keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support. In some species, different prey may be attracted by the two types of pitchers and this varied morphology also often makes identification of species difficult. Prey usually consists of insects, but the largest species may catch small vertebrates, such as rats
6.
Sarraceniaceae
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The Sarraceniaceae are a family of pitcher plants, belonging to order Ericales. The family comprises three extant genera, Sarracenia, Darlingtonia, and Heliamphora, the extinct Archaeamphora longicervia may also belong to this family. All three are carnivorous plants that lure insects with nectar and use their elongated, tube-shaped leaves filled with water and digestive enzymes to catch, digestive enzymes are not always produced by the plants themselves. Digestive mutualisms are common in Sarraceniaceae, both Sarracenia and Darlingtonia rely on bacteria to supplement or produce all of their enzymes. Many species also use downward-pointing hairs and waxy secretions to make it difficult for insects to escape, Sarracenia and Darlingtonia are native to North America, while Heliamphora is native to South America. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the family originated in South America about 47 million years ago and spread to North America soon after, the Sarracenia and Heliamphora clade diverged from Darlingtonia around this time, most likely due to a cooling event at the beginning of the Oligocene. Sarracenia diverged from Heliamphora later, around 23 million years ago and these plants grow in nutrient-poor, often acidic soil and use the insects as a nutritional supplement. As such, growth of carnivorous pitchers is plastic, as soil nitrogen increases, the pitchers originate from a rhizome and die back during the winter dormancy. Plants of the genus Sarracenia occur mostly in Sphagnum bogs, most Sarraceniaceae have tall, narrow pitchers that are vertical or nearly so. Sarracenia purpurea, however, has short, squat, bulbous pitchers close to the ground, the purple pitcher plant is the official flower of Newfoundland and Labrador. Sarraceniaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz, d’Amato, Peter, The Savage Garden, Cultivating Carnivorous Plants, Berkeley 1998, ISBN 0-89815-915-6
7.
Cephalotus
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Cephalotus is a genus which contains one species, Cephalotus follicularis the Australian pitcher plant, a small carnivorous pitcher plant. The pit-fall traps of the leaves have inspired the common names for this plant. Cephalotus follicularis is a small, low growing, herbaceous species, evergreen leaves appear from underground rhizomes, are simple with an entire leaf blade, and lie close to the ground. The insectivorous leaves are small and have the appearance of moccasins, the pitchers develop a dark red colour in high light levels but stay green in shadier conditions. The foliage is an arrangement that is closely arranged with outward facing adapted leaf blades. These leaves give the form of the species, the height is around 200 mm. The pitcher trap of the species is similar to pitcher plants. The peristome at the entrance of the trap has an arrangement that allows the prey to enter. The lid over the entrance, the operculum, prevents rainwater entering the pitcher, insects trapped in this digestive fluid are consumed by the plant. The operculum has translucent cells which confuse its insect prey as they appear to be patches of sky, the inflorescence is groupings of small, hermaphroditic, six-parted, regular flowers, which are creamy, or whitish. In the cooler months of winter, they have a dormancy period of about 3–4 months, triggered by the temperature drop. Botanical specimens were first collected during the visit of the HMS Investigator to King George Sound in December 1801, on 2 January 1802 the expeditions botanist, Robert Brown, wrote in his diary, Remaind on board. Mr Good went in search of the pitcher plant wch Messrs Bauer & Westall had found yesterday in flower and he returned with it in the evening. Brown initially gave this species the manuscript name Cantharifera paludosa KG III Sound, but this name was not published, the following year, further specimens were collected by Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour botanist to Nicolas Baudins expedition. In 1806, Jacques Labillardière used these specimens as the basis of his publication of the species in Novae Hollandiae plantarum specimen, leschenaults specimen was a fruiting plant, but the fruit was in poor condition, and as a result Labillardière erroneously placed it in the family Rosaceae. This error was not corrected until better fruiting specimens were collected by William Baxter in the 1820s and these were examined by Brown, who concluded that the plant merited its own family, and accordingly erected Cephalotaceae. It has remained in this family ever since. The Albany Pitcher Plant is an advanced rosid, and thus related to apples
8.
Bromeliaceae
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They are among the basal families within the Poales and are unique because they are the only family within the order that has septal nectaries and inferior ovaries. These inferior ovaries characterize the Bromelioideae, a subfamily of the Bromeliaceae, the family includes both epiphytes, such as Spanish moss, and terrestrial species, such as the pineapple. Many bromeliads are able to water in a structure formed by their tightly-overlapping leaf bases. The largest bromeliad is Puya raimondii, which reaches 3–4 m tall in vegetative growth with a flower spike 9–10 m tall, Bromeliads are plants that are adapted to various climates. Foliage takes different shapes, from needle-thin to broad and flat, symmetrical to irregular, the foliage, which usually grows in a rosette, is widely patterned and colored. Leaf colors range from maroon, through shades of green, to gold, varieties may have leaves with red, yellow, white and cream variations. Others may be spotted with purple, red, or cream, while others have different colors on the tops, the inflorescences produced by bromeliads are also regarded as considerably more diverse than any other plant family. Some flower spikes may reach 10 meters tall, while others only measure 2–3 mm across, upright stalks may be branched or simple with spikes retaining their color from two weeks up to 12 months, depending on species. In some species, the flower remains unseen, growing deep in the base of the plants, root systems vary according to plant type. Terrestrial bromeliad species have complex systems that gather water and nutrients, while epiphytic bromeliads only grow hard, wiry roots to attach themselves to trees. Some bromeliads are faintly scented, while others are heavily perfumed, blooms from the species Tillandsia cyanea have a fragrance resembling that of clove spice. One study found 175,000 bromeliads per hectare in one forest, a wide variety of organisms takes advantage of the pools of water trapped by bromeliads. A study of 209 plants from the Ecuadorian lowlands identified 11,219 animals, representing more than 300 distinct species, examples include some species of ostracods, small salamanders about 2.5 cm in length, and tree frogs. Some bromeliads even form homes for other species of bromeliads, plants in the Bromeliaceae are widely represented in their natural climates across the Americas. One species can be found in Africa and they can be found at altitudes from sea level to 4200 meters, from rainforests to deserts. 1814 species are epiphytes, some are lithophytes, and some are terrestrial, Bromeliads often serve as phytotelmata, accumulating water between their leaves. The aquatic habitat created as a result is host to an array of invertebrates. These bromeliad invertebrates benefit their hosts by increasing nitrogen uptake into the plant, Bromeliads are among the more recent plant groups to have emerged
9.
Genus
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A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
10.
Old World
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The Old World consists of Africa, Europe, and Asia, regarded collectively as the part of the world known to Europeans before contact with the Americas. It is used in the context of, and contrast with and these regions were connected via the Silk Road trade route, and they have a pronounced Iron Age period following the Bronze Age. The concept of the three continents in the Old World, viz. Asia, Africa, and Europe, goes back to classical antiquity and their boundaries as defined by Ptolemy and other geographers of antiquity were drawn along the Nile and Don rivers. This definition remained influential throughout the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, the Old world has areas of North Africa, Eurasia, parts of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. The mainland of Afro-Eurasia has been referred to as the World Island, the term may have been coined by Sir Halford John Mackinder in The Geographical Pivot of History. The equivalent of the Old World had names in some of its ancient cultures, including Midgard in Germanic cosmology, synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Afro-Eurasia
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pitcher Plants". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
