1.
Scanning electron microscope
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A scanning electron microscope is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the surface topography. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern. SEM can achieve better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in vacuum, in low vacuum, in wet conditions. The most common SEM mode is detection of electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam. The number of electrons that can be detected depends, among other things. By scanning the sample and collecting the electrons that are emitted using a special detector. An account of the history of SEM has been presented by McMullan. Ardenne applied the principle not only to achieve magnification but also to purposefully eliminate the chromatic aberration otherwise inherent in the electron microscope. He further discussed the various modes, possibilities and theory of SEM. The types of produced by an SEM include secondary electrons, reflected or back-scattered electrons, photons of characteristic X-rays and light, absorbed current. Secondary electron detectors are standard equipment in all SEMs, but it is rare that a machine would have detectors for all other possible signals. The signals result from interactions of the beam with atoms at various depths within the sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, ie secondary electron imaging or SEI, consequently, SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing details less than 1 nm in size. Back-scattered electrons are beam electrons that are reflected from the sample by elastic scattering and they emerge from deeper locations within the specimen and consequently the resolution of BSE images is generally poorer than SE images. BSE images can provide information about the distribution of different elements in the sample, characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron beam removes an inner shell electron from the sample, causing a higher-energy electron to fill the shell and release energy. These characteristic X-rays are used to identify the composition and measure the abundance of elements in the sample, due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample
2.
Carnivorous plant
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Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods. Carnivorous plants have adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs, charles Darwin wrote Insectivorous Plants, the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants, in 1875. True carnivory is thought to have evolved independently nine times in five different orders of flowering plants and this classification includes at least 583 species that attract, trap and kill prey, absorbing the resulting available nutrients. Additionally, over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some, five basic trapping mechanisms are found in carnivorous plants. Pitfall traps trap prey in a leaf that contains a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria. Flypaper traps use a sticky mucilage, snap traps utilize rapid leaf movements. Bladder traps suck in prey with a bladder that generates an internal vacuum, lobster-pots, also known as eel traps, force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward-pointing hairs. These traps may be active or passive, depending on whether movement aids the capture of prey, for example, Triphyophyllum is a passive flypaper that secretes mucilage, but whose leaves do not grow or move in response to prey capture. Meanwhile, sundews are active flypaper traps whose leaves undergo rapid acid growth, the rapid acid growth allows the sundew tentacles to bend, aiding in the retention and digestion of prey. The sundew species Drosera glanduligera employs a unique trapping mechanism with features of both flypaper and snap traps, this has been termed a catapult-flypaper trap, characterized by an internal chamber, pitfall traps are thought to have evolved independently at least six times. This particular adaptation is found within the families Sarraceniaceae, Nepenthaceae, Cephalotaceae, within the family Bromeliaceae, pitcher morphology and carnivory evolved twice. Because these families do not share an ancestor who also had pitfall trap morphology. A passive trap, pitfall traps attract prey with nectar bribes secreted by the peristome, the linings of most pitcher plants are covered in a loose coating of waxy flakes which are slippery for insects, causing them to fall into the pitcher. Once within the structure, digestive enzymes or mutualistic species break down the prey into an absorbable form for the plant. Water can become trapped within the pitcher, making a habitat for other flora and this type of water body is called a Phytotelma. The simplest pitcher plants are probably those of Heliamphora, the pitcher plant. In this genus, the traps are derived from a simple rolled leaf whose margins have sealed together. These plants live in areas of rainfall in South America such as Mount Roraima
3.
Nepenthes
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Nepenthes, also known as tropical pitcher plants or monkey cups, is a genus of carnivorous plants in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae. The genus comprises roughly 150 species, and numerous natural and many cultivated hybrids, the greatest diversity occurs on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, with many endemic species. Many are plants of hot, humid, lowland areas, but the majority are tropical plants, receiving warm days but cool to cold. A few are considered tropical alpine, with days and nights near freezing. The name monkey cups refers to the fact that monkeys have been observed drinking rainwater from these plants, from the stems arise alternate, sword-shaped leaves with entire leaf margins. An extension of the midrib, which in some species aids in climbing, protrudes from the tip of the leaf, the pitcher starts as a small bud and gradually expands to form a globe- or tube-shaped trap. The trap contains a fluid of the own production, which may be watery or syrupy. Research has shown this fluid contains viscoelastic biopolymers that may be crucial to the retention of insects within the traps of many species, the viscoelastic fluid in pitchers is especially effective in the retention of winged insects. The trapping efficiency of this fluid remains high, even when diluted by water. The lower part of the trap contains glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey, along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a called the peristome which is slippery and often quite colorful, attracting prey. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is further enhanced in moist environments, when wet, the slippery surface of the peristome causes insects to ‘aquaplane’, or slip and fall, into the pitcher. Above the peristome is a lid, in species, this keeps rain from diluting the fluid within the pitcher. Nepenthes species usually produce two types of pitchers, known as leaf dimorphism, appearing near the base of the plant are the large lower traps, which typically sit on the ground. The upper or aerial pitchers are smaller, coloured differently. These upper pitchers usually form as the plant reaches maturity and the plant grows taller, to keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support. In some species, different prey may be attracted by the two types of pitchers and this varied morphology also often makes identification of species difficult. Prey usually consists of insects, but the largest species may catch small vertebrates, such as rats
4.
Cephalotus
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Cephalotus is a genus which contains one species, Cephalotus follicularis the Australian pitcher plant, a small carnivorous pitcher plant. The pit-fall traps of the leaves have inspired the common names for this plant. Cephalotus follicularis is a small, low growing, herbaceous species, evergreen leaves appear from underground rhizomes, are simple with an entire leaf blade, and lie close to the ground. The insectivorous leaves are small and have the appearance of moccasins, the pitchers develop a dark red colour in high light levels but stay green in shadier conditions. The foliage is an arrangement that is closely arranged with outward facing adapted leaf blades. These leaves give the form of the species, the height is around 200 mm. The pitcher trap of the species is similar to pitcher plants. The peristome at the entrance of the trap has an arrangement that allows the prey to enter. The lid over the entrance, the operculum, prevents rainwater entering the pitcher, insects trapped in this digestive fluid are consumed by the plant. The operculum has translucent cells which confuse its insect prey as they appear to be patches of sky, the inflorescence is groupings of small, hermaphroditic, six-parted, regular flowers, which are creamy, or whitish. In the cooler months of winter, they have a dormancy period of about 3–4 months, triggered by the temperature drop. Botanical specimens were first collected during the visit of the HMS Investigator to King George Sound in December 1801, on 2 January 1802 the expeditions botanist, Robert Brown, wrote in his diary, Remaind on board. Mr Good went in search of the pitcher plant wch Messrs Bauer & Westall had found yesterday in flower and he returned with it in the evening. Brown initially gave this species the manuscript name Cantharifera paludosa KG III Sound, but this name was not published, the following year, further specimens were collected by Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour botanist to Nicolas Baudins expedition. In 1806, Jacques Labillardière used these specimens as the basis of his publication of the species in Novae Hollandiae plantarum specimen, leschenaults specimen was a fruiting plant, but the fruit was in poor condition, and as a result Labillardière erroneously placed it in the family Rosaceae. This error was not corrected until better fruiting specimens were collected by William Baxter in the 1820s and these were examined by Brown, who concluded that the plant merited its own family, and accordingly erected Cephalotaceae. It has remained in this family ever since. The Albany Pitcher Plant is an advanced rosid, and thus related to apples
5.
Bromeliaceae
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They are among the basal families within the Poales and are unique because they are the only family within the order that has septal nectaries and inferior ovaries. These inferior ovaries characterize the Bromelioideae, a subfamily of the Bromeliaceae, the family includes both epiphytes, such as Spanish moss, and terrestrial species, such as the pineapple. Many bromeliads are able to water in a structure formed by their tightly-overlapping leaf bases. The largest bromeliad is Puya raimondii, which reaches 3–4 m tall in vegetative growth with a flower spike 9–10 m tall, Bromeliads are plants that are adapted to various climates. Foliage takes different shapes, from needle-thin to broad and flat, symmetrical to irregular, the foliage, which usually grows in a rosette, is widely patterned and colored. Leaf colors range from maroon, through shades of green, to gold, varieties may have leaves with red, yellow, white and cream variations. Others may be spotted with purple, red, or cream, while others have different colors on the tops, the inflorescences produced by bromeliads are also regarded as considerably more diverse than any other plant family. Some flower spikes may reach 10 meters tall, while others only measure 2–3 mm across, upright stalks may be branched or simple with spikes retaining their color from two weeks up to 12 months, depending on species. In some species, the flower remains unseen, growing deep in the base of the plants, root systems vary according to plant type. Terrestrial bromeliad species have complex systems that gather water and nutrients, while epiphytic bromeliads only grow hard, wiry roots to attach themselves to trees. Some bromeliads are faintly scented, while others are heavily perfumed, blooms from the species Tillandsia cyanea have a fragrance resembling that of clove spice. One study found 175,000 bromeliads per hectare in one forest, a wide variety of organisms takes advantage of the pools of water trapped by bromeliads. A study of 209 plants from the Ecuadorian lowlands identified 11,219 animals, representing more than 300 distinct species, examples include some species of ostracods, small salamanders about 2.5 cm in length, and tree frogs. Some bromeliads even form homes for other species of bromeliads, plants in the Bromeliaceae are widely represented in their natural climates across the Americas. One species can be found in Africa and they can be found at altitudes from sea level to 4200 meters, from rainforests to deserts. 1814 species are epiphytes, some are lithophytes, and some are terrestrial, Bromeliads often serve as phytotelmata, accumulating water between their leaves. The aquatic habitat created as a result is host to an array of invertebrates. These bromeliad invertebrates benefit their hosts by increasing nitrogen uptake into the plant, Bromeliads are among the more recent plant groups to have emerged
6.
Tendril
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They do not have a lamina or blade, but they can photosynthesize. They can be formed from modified shoots, modified leaves, or auxiliary branches and are sensitive to chemicals, often determining the direction of growth. The earliest and most comprehensive study of tendrils was Charles Darwins monograph On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants and this work also coined the term circumnutation to describe the motion of growing stems and tendrils seeking supports. Darwin also observed the phenomenon now known as tendril perversion, in which tendrils adopt the shape of two sections of counter-twisted helices with a transition in the middle, in the garden pea, it is only the terminal leaflets that are modified to become tendrils. In other plants such as the yellow vetch, the leaf is modified to become tendrils while the stipules become enlarged. Still others use the rachis of a leaf as a tendril. The specialised pitcher traps of Nepenthes plants form on the end of tendrils, the tendrils of aerial pitchers are usually coiled in the middle. If the tendril comes into contact with an object for long enough it will curl around it. In this way, the help to support the growing stem of the plant. Tendrils of Cuscuta, a plant, are guided by airborne chemicals. ExcitingNature. com - Tendril in Thigmotropism Media related to Tendrils at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Glossary of botanical terms
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This glossary is incomplete, you can help by expanding it, you can also help by adding illustrations that assist an understanding of the terms. Ab- A prefix meaning from, away from, or outside of, abaxial The surface of an organ facing away from the axis, e. g. the lower surface of a lateral organ such as a leaf or petal. Abort To abandon development of a structure or organ, abscission shedding of an organ that is mature or aged, e. g. a ripe fruit or an old leaf. Abscission zone a specialised layer of tissue formed, for example, acaulescent An adjective descriptive of a plant that has no apparent stem, or at least none visible above ground. Examples include some species of Agave, Oxalis and Attalea, accrescent Increasing in size with age, such as a calyx that continues to grow after the corolla has fallen, for example in Physalis peruviana. -aceae The suffix added to the stem of a name to form the name of a family. Achene A dry 1-seeded indehiscent fruit, e. g. in the genus Ranunculus, acropetal Moving from roots to leaves, e. g. of molecular signals in plants. Acrophyll The regular leaves of a plant, produced above the base. Acrostichoid covering the entire surface of the frond, usually densely so. Actino- A prefix that indicates a radial form, actinodromous palmate or radially arranged venation with three or more primary veins arising from at or near the base of the leaf, the primary veins reaching the margin or not. Actinomorphic regular, radially symmetrical, may be bisected into similar halves in at least two planes. Applies e. g. to steles and flowers in which the segments within each whorl are alike in size and shape, compare regular, contrast with asymmetrical, irregular. Aculeate Armed with prickles, e. g. the stem of a rose, acuminate Tapering gradually to a point. Acute Sharply pointed, converging edges making an angle of less than 90°, ad- A prefix meaning near or towards. Adaxial The surface of an organ facing towards the axis, e. g. the upper surface of an organ such as a leaf or petal. Adnate grown or fused to an organ of a different kind, especially along a margin, e. g. a stamen fused to a petal, cf. connate. Adventitious A structure produced in a position, e. g. an adventitious bud produced from a stem rather than from the axil of a leaf. Aerial Of the air, growing or borne above the surface of the ground, aestivation The arrangement of sepals and petals or their lobes in an unexpanded flower bud, cf. vernation, the arrangement of leaves in a bud. aff
8.
Rhizome
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In botany and dendrology, a rhizome is a modified subterranean stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks and rootstocks, Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and are diageotropic or grow perpendicular to the force of gravity. The rhizome also retains the ability to new shoots to grow upwards. If a rhizome is separated into pieces, each piece may be able to rise to a new plant. The plant uses the rhizome to store starches, proteins, and these nutrients become useful for the plant when new shoots must be formed or when the plant dies back for the winter. This is a known as vegetative reproduction and is used by farmers and gardeners to propagate certain plants. This also allows for lateral spread of grasses like bamboo and bunch grasses, examples of plants that are propagated this way include hops, asparagus, ginger, irises, Lily of the Valley, cannas, and sympodial orchids. Some rhizomes which are used directly in cooking include ginger, turmeric, galangal, stored rhizomes are subject to bacterial and fungal infections, making them unsuitable for replanting and greatly diminishing stocks. However, rhizomes can also be produced artificially from tissue cultures, the ability to easily grow rhizomes from tissue cultures leads to better stocks for replanting and greater yields. The plant hormones ethylene and jasmonic acid have found to help induce and regulate the growth of rhizomes. Ethylene that was applied externally was found to affect internal ethylene levels, knowledge of how to use these hormones to induce rhizome growth could help farmers and biologists producing plants grown from rhizomes more easily cultivate and grow better plants. The poplars are an example of trees that propagate using a rhizome, the Pando colony in Utah is a famous example, which has been living for about 80,000 years. In general, rhizomes have short internodes, they send out roots from the bottom of the nodes, a stem tuber is a thickened part of a rhizome or stolon that has been enlarged for use as a storage organ. In general, a tuber is high in starch, for example, the common potato, the term tuber is often used imprecisely, and is sometimes applied to plants with rhizomes. Some plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at the surface, including some Iris species. Rhizomes generally form a layer, but in Giant Horsetails. Many rhizomes have culinary value, and some, such as zheergen, are consumed raw. Aspen Corm Mycorrhiza Media related to Rhizomes at Wikimedia Commons
9.
South America
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South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
10.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
11.
Sarracenia
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Sarracenia is a genus comprising 8 to 11 species of North American pitcher plants, commonly called trumpet pitchers. The genus belongs to the family Sarraceniaceae, which contain the closely allied genera Darlingtonia. The plants leaves have evolved into a funnel or pitcher shape in order to trap insects, the plant attracts its insect prey with secretions from extrafloral nectaries on the lip of the pitcher leaves, as well as a combination of the leaves color and scent. The trap is a tube with a hood extending over its entrance. The hood itself frequently produces nectar too, but in lesser quantities, each of these zones has a specific function, with corresponding morphophysiological characteristics. In most species the operculum covers at least part of the opening, preventing rain from excessively filling the pitcher. The operculum also serves to guide prey to the opening, using a combination of color, scent. Some species, specifically S. minor and S. psittacina, have opercula that hang low over the pitcher entrance. These are also studded with chlorophyll-free patches, translucent windows which confuse prey into attempting to fly through the operculum, Zone 2, Peristome and trap entrance. This zone is composed mainly of the peristome, which produces copious amounts of nectar and this zone also includes the waxy upper portion of the pitcher tube. Footing on this zone is especially treacherous, as the deposits on surface of this zone cause unwary insects to lose their footing. Zone 3, Located below Zone 2, this features a leaf surface with non-existent footing, as well as a coating of ultra-fine. Insects that have made it this far lose any chance of escape and it is also studded with digestive glands, which secrete digestive enzymes into the digestive fluid. Zone 4, This is the zone in most species. It is filled with fluids, and readily absorbs nutrients released from the insects by the work of the digestive enzymes. Along with more digestive glands, this features a thick coating of coarse downward pointing hairs. Zone 5, This zone, located below Zone 4 and found only in S. purpurea, is smooth, glabrous, lacks glands, all Sarracenia trap insects and other prey without the use of moving parts. Their traps are static and are based on a combination of lures, most species use a combination of scent, drugged nectar, waxy deposits and gravity to topple insect prey into their pitcher
12.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 663–665.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). 