1.
Nepenthes distillatoria
–
Nepenthes distillatoria is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sri Lanka. It was the second Nepenthes species to be described in print and it is therefore the type species of the genus. Nepenthes distillatoria was the second Nepenthes species to be described in print, in 1677, Danish physician Thomas Bartholin made brief mention of it under the name Miranda herba, Latin for marvellous herb. Three years later, Dutch merchant Jacob Breyne referred to species as Bandura zingalensium. Bandura subsequently became the most commonly used name for the pitcher plants. Nepenthes distillatoria was again described in 1683, this time by Swedish physician, Grim called it Planta mirabilis destillatoria, or the miraculous distilling plant, and was the first to clearly illustrate a tropical pitcher plant. Linnaeus used Grims original specific epithet when naming N. distillatoria in 1753, Nepenthes distillatoria was again illustrated in Johannes Burmanns Thesaurus Zeylanicus of 1737. The drawing depicts the end of a stem with pitchers. Burmann refers to the plant as Bandura zeylanica, in the horticultural trade of the late 19th century, N. distillatoria was often confused with N. khasiana of India. Nepenthes distillatoria is endemic to Sri Lanka and is the only Nepenthes species recorded from the island and it grows in waterlogged open scrub, along road embankments and other cleared areas, and in forest. N. distillatoria occurs from sea-level to 700 m altitude, due to its isolation, N. distillatoria has no known natural hybrids. Three infraspecific taxa of N. distillatoria have been described, although they are no longer considered valid
2.
Scanning electron microscope
–
A scanning electron microscope is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the surface topography. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern. SEM can achieve better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in vacuum, in low vacuum, in wet conditions. The most common SEM mode is detection of electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam. The number of electrons that can be detected depends, among other things. By scanning the sample and collecting the electrons that are emitted using a special detector. An account of the history of SEM has been presented by McMullan. Ardenne applied the principle not only to achieve magnification but also to purposefully eliminate the chromatic aberration otherwise inherent in the electron microscope. He further discussed the various modes, possibilities and theory of SEM. The types of produced by an SEM include secondary electrons, reflected or back-scattered electrons, photons of characteristic X-rays and light, absorbed current. Secondary electron detectors are standard equipment in all SEMs, but it is rare that a machine would have detectors for all other possible signals. The signals result from interactions of the beam with atoms at various depths within the sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, ie secondary electron imaging or SEI, consequently, SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing details less than 1 nm in size. Back-scattered electrons are beam electrons that are reflected from the sample by elastic scattering and they emerge from deeper locations within the specimen and consequently the resolution of BSE images is generally poorer than SE images. BSE images can provide information about the distribution of different elements in the sample, characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron beam removes an inner shell electron from the sample, causing a higher-energy electron to fill the shell and release energy. These characteristic X-rays are used to identify the composition and measure the abundance of elements in the sample, due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample
3.
Carnivorous plant
–
Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods. Carnivorous plants have adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs, charles Darwin wrote Insectivorous Plants, the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants, in 1875. True carnivory is thought to have evolved independently nine times in five different orders of flowering plants and this classification includes at least 583 species that attract, trap and kill prey, absorbing the resulting available nutrients. Additionally, over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some, five basic trapping mechanisms are found in carnivorous plants. Pitfall traps trap prey in a leaf that contains a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria. Flypaper traps use a sticky mucilage, snap traps utilize rapid leaf movements. Bladder traps suck in prey with a bladder that generates an internal vacuum, lobster-pots, also known as eel traps, force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward-pointing hairs. These traps may be active or passive, depending on whether movement aids the capture of prey, for example, Triphyophyllum is a passive flypaper that secretes mucilage, but whose leaves do not grow or move in response to prey capture. Meanwhile, sundews are active flypaper traps whose leaves undergo rapid acid growth, the rapid acid growth allows the sundew tentacles to bend, aiding in the retention and digestion of prey. The sundew species Drosera glanduligera employs a unique trapping mechanism with features of both flypaper and snap traps, this has been termed a catapult-flypaper trap, characterized by an internal chamber, pitfall traps are thought to have evolved independently at least six times. This particular adaptation is found within the families Sarraceniaceae, Nepenthaceae, Cephalotaceae, within the family Bromeliaceae, pitcher morphology and carnivory evolved twice. Because these families do not share an ancestor who also had pitfall trap morphology. A passive trap, pitfall traps attract prey with nectar bribes secreted by the peristome, the linings of most pitcher plants are covered in a loose coating of waxy flakes which are slippery for insects, causing them to fall into the pitcher. Once within the structure, digestive enzymes or mutualistic species break down the prey into an absorbable form for the plant. Water can become trapped within the pitcher, making a habitat for other flora and this type of water body is called a Phytotelma. The simplest pitcher plants are probably those of Heliamphora, the pitcher plant. In this genus, the traps are derived from a simple rolled leaf whose margins have sealed together. These plants live in areas of rainfall in South America such as Mount Roraima
4.
Liquid
–
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
5.
Nepenthes
–
Nepenthes, also known as tropical pitcher plants or monkey cups, is a genus of carnivorous plants in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae. The genus comprises roughly 150 species, and numerous natural and many cultivated hybrids, the greatest diversity occurs on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, with many endemic species. Many are plants of hot, humid, lowland areas, but the majority are tropical plants, receiving warm days but cool to cold. A few are considered tropical alpine, with days and nights near freezing. The name monkey cups refers to the fact that monkeys have been observed drinking rainwater from these plants, from the stems arise alternate, sword-shaped leaves with entire leaf margins. An extension of the midrib, which in some species aids in climbing, protrudes from the tip of the leaf, the pitcher starts as a small bud and gradually expands to form a globe- or tube-shaped trap. The trap contains a fluid of the own production, which may be watery or syrupy. Research has shown this fluid contains viscoelastic biopolymers that may be crucial to the retention of insects within the traps of many species, the viscoelastic fluid in pitchers is especially effective in the retention of winged insects. The trapping efficiency of this fluid remains high, even when diluted by water. The lower part of the trap contains glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey, along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a called the peristome which is slippery and often quite colorful, attracting prey. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is further enhanced in moist environments, when wet, the slippery surface of the peristome causes insects to ‘aquaplane’, or slip and fall, into the pitcher. Above the peristome is a lid, in species, this keeps rain from diluting the fluid within the pitcher. Nepenthes species usually produce two types of pitchers, known as leaf dimorphism, appearing near the base of the plant are the large lower traps, which typically sit on the ground. The upper or aerial pitchers are smaller, coloured differently. These upper pitchers usually form as the plant reaches maturity and the plant grows taller, to keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support. In some species, different prey may be attracted by the two types of pitchers and this varied morphology also often makes identification of species difficult. Prey usually consists of insects, but the largest species may catch small vertebrates, such as rats
6.
Sarraceniaceae
–
The Sarraceniaceae are a family of pitcher plants, belonging to order Ericales. The family comprises three extant genera, Sarracenia, Darlingtonia, and Heliamphora, the extinct Archaeamphora longicervia may also belong to this family. All three are carnivorous plants that lure insects with nectar and use their elongated, tube-shaped leaves filled with water and digestive enzymes to catch, digestive enzymes are not always produced by the plants themselves. Digestive mutualisms are common in Sarraceniaceae, both Sarracenia and Darlingtonia rely on bacteria to supplement or produce all of their enzymes. Many species also use downward-pointing hairs and waxy secretions to make it difficult for insects to escape, Sarracenia and Darlingtonia are native to North America, while Heliamphora is native to South America. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the family originated in South America about 47 million years ago and spread to North America soon after, the Sarracenia and Heliamphora clade diverged from Darlingtonia around this time, most likely due to a cooling event at the beginning of the Oligocene. Sarracenia diverged from Heliamphora later, around 23 million years ago and these plants grow in nutrient-poor, often acidic soil and use the insects as a nutritional supplement. As such, growth of carnivorous pitchers is plastic, as soil nitrogen increases, the pitchers originate from a rhizome and die back during the winter dormancy. Plants of the genus Sarracenia occur mostly in Sphagnum bogs, most Sarraceniaceae have tall, narrow pitchers that are vertical or nearly so. Sarracenia purpurea, however, has short, squat, bulbous pitchers close to the ground, the purple pitcher plant is the official flower of Newfoundland and Labrador. Sarraceniaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz, d’Amato, Peter, The Savage Garden, Cultivating Carnivorous Plants, Berkeley 1998, ISBN 0-89815-915-6
7.
Cephalotus
–
Cephalotus is a genus which contains one species, Cephalotus follicularis the Australian pitcher plant, a small carnivorous pitcher plant. The pit-fall traps of the leaves have inspired the common names for this plant. Cephalotus follicularis is a small, low growing, herbaceous species, evergreen leaves appear from underground rhizomes, are simple with an entire leaf blade, and lie close to the ground. The insectivorous leaves are small and have the appearance of moccasins, the pitchers develop a dark red colour in high light levels but stay green in shadier conditions. The foliage is an arrangement that is closely arranged with outward facing adapted leaf blades. These leaves give the form of the species, the height is around 200 mm. The pitcher trap of the species is similar to pitcher plants. The peristome at the entrance of the trap has an arrangement that allows the prey to enter. The lid over the entrance, the operculum, prevents rainwater entering the pitcher, insects trapped in this digestive fluid are consumed by the plant. The operculum has translucent cells which confuse its insect prey as they appear to be patches of sky, the inflorescence is groupings of small, hermaphroditic, six-parted, regular flowers, which are creamy, or whitish. In the cooler months of winter, they have a dormancy period of about 3–4 months, triggered by the temperature drop. Botanical specimens were first collected during the visit of the HMS Investigator to King George Sound in December 1801, on 2 January 1802 the expeditions botanist, Robert Brown, wrote in his diary, Remaind on board. Mr Good went in search of the pitcher plant wch Messrs Bauer & Westall had found yesterday in flower and he returned with it in the evening. Brown initially gave this species the manuscript name Cantharifera paludosa KG III Sound, but this name was not published, the following year, further specimens were collected by Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour botanist to Nicolas Baudins expedition. In 1806, Jacques Labillardière used these specimens as the basis of his publication of the species in Novae Hollandiae plantarum specimen, leschenaults specimen was a fruiting plant, but the fruit was in poor condition, and as a result Labillardière erroneously placed it in the family Rosaceae. This error was not corrected until better fruiting specimens were collected by William Baxter in the 1820s and these were examined by Brown, who concluded that the plant merited its own family, and accordingly erected Cephalotaceae. It has remained in this family ever since. The Albany Pitcher Plant is an advanced rosid, and thus related to apples
8.
Bromeliaceae
–
They are among the basal families within the Poales and are unique because they are the only family within the order that has septal nectaries and inferior ovaries. These inferior ovaries characterize the Bromelioideae, a subfamily of the Bromeliaceae, the family includes both epiphytes, such as Spanish moss, and terrestrial species, such as the pineapple. Many bromeliads are able to water in a structure formed by their tightly-overlapping leaf bases. The largest bromeliad is Puya raimondii, which reaches 3–4 m tall in vegetative growth with a flower spike 9–10 m tall, Bromeliads are plants that are adapted to various climates. Foliage takes different shapes, from needle-thin to broad and flat, symmetrical to irregular, the foliage, which usually grows in a rosette, is widely patterned and colored. Leaf colors range from maroon, through shades of green, to gold, varieties may have leaves with red, yellow, white and cream variations. Others may be spotted with purple, red, or cream, while others have different colors on the tops, the inflorescences produced by bromeliads are also regarded as considerably more diverse than any other plant family. Some flower spikes may reach 10 meters tall, while others only measure 2–3 mm across, upright stalks may be branched or simple with spikes retaining their color from two weeks up to 12 months, depending on species. In some species, the flower remains unseen, growing deep in the base of the plants, root systems vary according to plant type. Terrestrial bromeliad species have complex systems that gather water and nutrients, while epiphytic bromeliads only grow hard, wiry roots to attach themselves to trees. Some bromeliads are faintly scented, while others are heavily perfumed, blooms from the species Tillandsia cyanea have a fragrance resembling that of clove spice. One study found 175,000 bromeliads per hectare in one forest, a wide variety of organisms takes advantage of the pools of water trapped by bromeliads. A study of 209 plants from the Ecuadorian lowlands identified 11,219 animals, representing more than 300 distinct species, examples include some species of ostracods, small salamanders about 2.5 cm in length, and tree frogs. Some bromeliads even form homes for other species of bromeliads, plants in the Bromeliaceae are widely represented in their natural climates across the Americas. One species can be found in Africa and they can be found at altitudes from sea level to 4200 meters, from rainforests to deserts. 1814 species are epiphytes, some are lithophytes, and some are terrestrial, Bromeliads often serve as phytotelmata, accumulating water between their leaves. The aquatic habitat created as a result is host to an array of invertebrates. These bromeliad invertebrates benefit their hosts by increasing nitrogen uptake into the plant, Bromeliads are among the more recent plant groups to have emerged
9.
Genus
–
A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
10.
Old World
–
The Old World consists of Africa, Europe, and Asia, regarded collectively as the part of the world known to Europeans before contact with the Americas. It is used in the context of, and contrast with and these regions were connected via the Silk Road trade route, and they have a pronounced Iron Age period following the Bronze Age. The concept of the three continents in the Old World, viz. Asia, Africa, and Europe, goes back to classical antiquity and their boundaries as defined by Ptolemy and other geographers of antiquity were drawn along the Nile and Don rivers. This definition remained influential throughout the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, the Old world has areas of North Africa, Eurasia, parts of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. The mainland of Afro-Eurasia has been referred to as the World Island, the term may have been coined by Sir Halford John Mackinder in The Geographical Pivot of History. The equivalent of the Old World had names in some of its ancient cultures, including Midgard in Germanic cosmology, synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Afro-Eurasia
11.
Tendril
–
They do not have a lamina or blade, but they can photosynthesize. They can be formed from modified shoots, modified leaves, or auxiliary branches and are sensitive to chemicals, often determining the direction of growth. The earliest and most comprehensive study of tendrils was Charles Darwins monograph On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants and this work also coined the term circumnutation to describe the motion of growing stems and tendrils seeking supports. Darwin also observed the phenomenon now known as tendril perversion, in which tendrils adopt the shape of two sections of counter-twisted helices with a transition in the middle, in the garden pea, it is only the terminal leaflets that are modified to become tendrils. In other plants such as the yellow vetch, the leaf is modified to become tendrils while the stipules become enlarged. Still others use the rachis of a leaf as a tendril. The specialised pitcher traps of Nepenthes plants form on the end of tendrils, the tendrils of aerial pitchers are usually coiled in the middle. If the tendril comes into contact with an object for long enough it will curl around it. In this way, the help to support the growing stem of the plant. Tendrils of Cuscuta, a plant, are guided by airborne chemicals. ExcitingNature. com - Tendril in Thigmotropism Media related to Tendrils at Wikimedia Commons
12.
Glossary of botanical terms
–
This glossary is incomplete, you can help by expanding it, you can also help by adding illustrations that assist an understanding of the terms. Ab- A prefix meaning from, away from, or outside of, abaxial The surface of an organ facing away from the axis, e. g. the lower surface of a lateral organ such as a leaf or petal. Abort To abandon development of a structure or organ, abscission shedding of an organ that is mature or aged, e. g. a ripe fruit or an old leaf. Abscission zone a specialised layer of tissue formed, for example, acaulescent An adjective descriptive of a plant that has no apparent stem, or at least none visible above ground. Examples include some species of Agave, Oxalis and Attalea, accrescent Increasing in size with age, such as a calyx that continues to grow after the corolla has fallen, for example in Physalis peruviana. -aceae The suffix added to the stem of a name to form the name of a family. Achene A dry 1-seeded indehiscent fruit, e. g. in the genus Ranunculus, acropetal Moving from roots to leaves, e. g. of molecular signals in plants. Acrophyll The regular leaves of a plant, produced above the base. Acrostichoid covering the entire surface of the frond, usually densely so. Actino- A prefix that indicates a radial form, actinodromous palmate or radially arranged venation with three or more primary veins arising from at or near the base of the leaf, the primary veins reaching the margin or not. Actinomorphic regular, radially symmetrical, may be bisected into similar halves in at least two planes. Applies e. g. to steles and flowers in which the segments within each whorl are alike in size and shape, compare regular, contrast with asymmetrical, irregular. Aculeate Armed with prickles, e. g. the stem of a rose, acuminate Tapering gradually to a point. Acute Sharply pointed, converging edges making an angle of less than 90°, ad- A prefix meaning near or towards. Adaxial The surface of an organ facing towards the axis, e. g. the upper surface of an organ such as a leaf or petal. Adnate grown or fused to an organ of a different kind, especially along a margin, e. g. a stamen fused to a petal, cf. connate. Adventitious A structure produced in a position, e. g. an adventitious bud produced from a stem rather than from the axil of a leaf. Aerial Of the air, growing or borne above the surface of the ground, aestivation The arrangement of sepals and petals or their lobes in an unexpanded flower bud, cf. vernation, the arrangement of leaves in a bud. aff
13.
Rhizome
–
In botany and dendrology, a rhizome is a modified subterranean stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks and rootstocks, Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and are diageotropic or grow perpendicular to the force of gravity. The rhizome also retains the ability to new shoots to grow upwards. If a rhizome is separated into pieces, each piece may be able to rise to a new plant. The plant uses the rhizome to store starches, proteins, and these nutrients become useful for the plant when new shoots must be formed or when the plant dies back for the winter. This is a known as vegetative reproduction and is used by farmers and gardeners to propagate certain plants. This also allows for lateral spread of grasses like bamboo and bunch grasses, examples of plants that are propagated this way include hops, asparagus, ginger, irises, Lily of the Valley, cannas, and sympodial orchids. Some rhizomes which are used directly in cooking include ginger, turmeric, galangal, stored rhizomes are subject to bacterial and fungal infections, making them unsuitable for replanting and greatly diminishing stocks. However, rhizomes can also be produced artificially from tissue cultures, the ability to easily grow rhizomes from tissue cultures leads to better stocks for replanting and greater yields. The plant hormones ethylene and jasmonic acid have found to help induce and regulate the growth of rhizomes. Ethylene that was applied externally was found to affect internal ethylene levels, knowledge of how to use these hormones to induce rhizome growth could help farmers and biologists producing plants grown from rhizomes more easily cultivate and grow better plants. The poplars are an example of trees that propagate using a rhizome, the Pando colony in Utah is a famous example, which has been living for about 80,000 years. In general, rhizomes have short internodes, they send out roots from the bottom of the nodes, a stem tuber is a thickened part of a rhizome or stolon that has been enlarged for use as a storage organ. In general, a tuber is high in starch, for example, the common potato, the term tuber is often used imprecisely, and is sometimes applied to plants with rhizomes. Some plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at the surface, including some Iris species. Rhizomes generally form a layer, but in Giant Horsetails. Many rhizomes have culinary value, and some, such as zheergen, are consumed raw. Aspen Corm Mycorrhiza Media related to Rhizomes at Wikimedia Commons
14.
Heliamphora
–
The genus Heliamphora contains 23 species of pitcher plants endemic to South America. The species are known as sun pitchers, based on the mistaken notion that the heli of Heliamphora is from the Greek helios. In fact, the name derives from helos, meaning marsh, species in the genus Heliamphora are carnivorous plants that consist of a modified leaf form that is fused into a tubular shape. They have evolved mechanisms to attract, trap, and kill insects, at least one species produces its own proteolytic enzymes that allows it to digest its prey without the help of symbiotic bacteria. All Heliamphora are herbaceous plants that grow from a subterranean rhizome. H. tatei grows as a shrub, up to four meters tall, all species form prostrate rosettes. The leaf size ranges from a few centimeters up to more than 50 cm, Heliamphora possess tubular traps formed by rolled leaves with fused edges. Marsh pitcher plants are unusual among plants in that they lack lids. This spoon-like structure secretes a substance, which serves as a lure for insects. Each pitcher also exhibits a small slit in its side that allows rainwater to drain away. This allows the pitcher plants to maintain a constant maximum level of rainwater within the pitcher. The pitchers inner surface is covered with downward-pointing hairs to force insects into the lower parts. They do, however, attract prey through special visual and chemical signals and trap, field studies of H. nutans, H. heterodoxa, H. minor, and H. ionasi have determined that none of these species produce their own proteolytic enzymes. If production of enzymes was used as a strict demarcation of what is and what is not a carnivorous plant. H. tatei is one of the few species observed to produce digestive enzymes and wax scales, which also aid in prey capture. Most Heliamphora typically capture ants, while H. tateis improvements on the design allow it to capture, all Heliamphora species are endemic to the tepuis of the Guiana Highlands and their surrounding uplands. Most are found in Venezuela, with a few extending into western Guyana, many of the tepuis have not yet been explored for Heliamphora, and the large number of species described in recent years suggests that many more species may be awaiting discovery. The first species of the genus to be described was H. nutans and this remained the only known species until Henry Allan Gleason described H. tatei and H. tyleri in 1931, also adding H. minor in 1939
15.
South America
–
South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
16.
North America
–
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
17.
Sarracenia
–
Sarracenia is a genus comprising 8 to 11 species of North American pitcher plants, commonly called trumpet pitchers. The genus belongs to the family Sarraceniaceae, which contain the closely allied genera Darlingtonia. The plants leaves have evolved into a funnel or pitcher shape in order to trap insects, the plant attracts its insect prey with secretions from extrafloral nectaries on the lip of the pitcher leaves, as well as a combination of the leaves color and scent. The trap is a tube with a hood extending over its entrance. The hood itself frequently produces nectar too, but in lesser quantities, each of these zones has a specific function, with corresponding morphophysiological characteristics. In most species the operculum covers at least part of the opening, preventing rain from excessively filling the pitcher. The operculum also serves to guide prey to the opening, using a combination of color, scent. Some species, specifically S. minor and S. psittacina, have opercula that hang low over the pitcher entrance. These are also studded with chlorophyll-free patches, translucent windows which confuse prey into attempting to fly through the operculum, Zone 2, Peristome and trap entrance. This zone is composed mainly of the peristome, which produces copious amounts of nectar and this zone also includes the waxy upper portion of the pitcher tube. Footing on this zone is especially treacherous, as the deposits on surface of this zone cause unwary insects to lose their footing. Zone 3, Located below Zone 2, this features a leaf surface with non-existent footing, as well as a coating of ultra-fine. Insects that have made it this far lose any chance of escape and it is also studded with digestive glands, which secrete digestive enzymes into the digestive fluid. Zone 4, This is the zone in most species. It is filled with fluids, and readily absorbs nutrients released from the insects by the work of the digestive enzymes. Along with more digestive glands, this features a thick coating of coarse downward pointing hairs. Zone 5, This zone, located below Zone 4 and found only in S. purpurea, is smooth, glabrous, lacks glands, all Sarracenia trap insects and other prey without the use of moving parts. Their traps are static and are based on a combination of lures, most species use a combination of scent, drugged nectar, waxy deposits and gravity to topple insect prey into their pitcher
18.
Operculum (botany)
–
An operculum or opercula are botanical terms describing a certain structure or structures of certain vascular plants, mosses, or fungi which act as a cap, flap, or lid. In vascular plants, an operculum may also be called a bud cap, examples of structures identified as opercula include, A flap of the sporangium of a moss, covering the peristome. The cap of the ascus in certain ascomycetous fungi, a lid covering the aperture of pollen grains. The bud cap covering the flowers of Eucalyptus and Corymbia trees which falls off as they open, the covering of a pyxidium of a plant, such as the plantain. The flared leaflet that prevents a pitcher plant from accumulating rainwater
19.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
20.
Darlingtonia californica
–
It is native to Northern California and Oregon, growing in bogs and seeps with cold running water. This plant is designated as uncommon due to its rarity in the field, the plant was discovered in 1841 by the botanist William D. Brackenridge at Mount Shasta. In 1853 it was described by John Torrey, who named the genus Darlingtonia after the Philadelphian botanist William Darlington. The cobra plant is not only restricted to nutrient-poor acidic bogs and seepage slopes, but many colonies actually thrive in ultramafic soils, because many carnivorous species live in hostile environments, their root systems are commonly as highly modified as their leaves. The cobra lily is able to fire by regenerating from its roots. While the temperatures in much of the range can exceed 25 °C. Temperature plays a part in the functioning of all plants. The physiological mechanisms and evolutionary benefits of this discrepancy are not fully understood, the cobra lily is unique among the three genera of American pitcher plants. It does not trap rainwater in its pitcher, instead, it regulates the level of water inside physiologically by releasing or absorbing water into the trap that has been pumped up from the roots. Recent studies have indicated that Darlingtonia secretes at least one proteolytic enzyme that digests captured prey, the cells that absorb nutrients from the inside of the pitcher are the same as those on the roots that absorb soil nutrients. The efficiency of the plants trapping ability is attested to by its leaves and pitchers, upon trying many times to leave via the false exits, the insect will tire and fall down into the trap. The slippery walls and hairs prevent the prey from escaping. The only other species that utilizes this technique is the Parrot Pitcher Plant, a remaining mystery surrounding the cobra lily is its means of pollination. Its flower is shaped and complex, typically a sign of a close pollinator-plant specialization. The flower is purple in color and grows on a stalk with a similar length to the stalk. It has five sepals, green in color, which are longer than the red-veined petals and they prefer cool to warm day-time temperatures and cold or cool night-time temperatures. The problem is that cobra lilies typically grow in bogs or streambanks that are fed by cold mountain water and it is best to mimic these conditions in cultivation, and water the plants with cold, purified water. On hot days, it helps to place ice cubes of purified water on the soil surface and they prefer sunny conditions if in a humid, warm location, and prefer part-shade if humidity is low or fluctuates often
21.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
22.
Brocchinia reducta
–
Brocchinia reducta /brɒˈkɪniə riːˈdʌktə/ is one of few carnivorous bromeliads. It is native to southern Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, and Guyana, brocchinia reducta adapts to different environments, growing on rocks and uses its roots as anchors. Brocchinia reducta, like many other bromeliads, forms a cup with its tightly-overlapping leaves. The leaves surrounding the cup of B. reducta are coated with loose and these scales are highly reflective of ultraviolet light. Since many insects are attracted to ultraviolet, this is an efficient lure, the water in the cup also emits a sweet odor, which may serve to attract ants and other insects. The brocchinia reducta absorbs its nutrients from the cell wall that contain trichomes that transport molecules that are 6.6 nm. ( The scales, being loose, provide a foothold for insects landing on them. This allows insects to slip into the cup and eventually drown. It has been argued that B. reducta is not actually carnivorous in the sense of such plants because the production of digestive enzymes could not be found. However, in 2005 it was shown that the plant produces at least phosphatase, the enzymes and bacteria digest the trapped insects and thus release the nutrients for absorption by the leaves. Adlassnig, W, Peroutka, M, Lendl, T, traps of carnivorous pitcher plants as a habitat, composition of the fluid, biodiversity and mutualistic activities
23.
Catopsis berteroniana
–
Catopsis berteroniana /kəˈtɒpsɪs ˌbɜːrtəˌroʊniˈɑːnə/ is an epiphytic bromeliad thought to be a possible carnivorous plant, similar to Brocchinia reducta, although the evidence is equivocal. Its native range is from southern Florida to southern Brazil and it generally grows on the unshaded twigs of trees, and has been shown experimentally to trap more insects in its tank than other bromeliads of comparable size. There are several species in the genus, none of which is believed to be carnivorous. Catopsis berteroniana is an insectivorous plant with elongate leaves. These erect leaves overlap to form tube-like structures, the tubes form water-impounding axils characteristic of many tank bromeliads. Rainwater falls and lands in the axils of the plant forming pools of water called phytotelmata and this medium is slightly acidic, but very close to neutral, according to algae in bromeliads, the pH of the phytotelmata of Catopsis berteroniana is 6.8. This species has sessile glands located on the plant epidermis that are used to absorb nutrients, other species of carnivorous plants, like Cephalotus follicularis, use these glands to secrete enzymes to break down detritus and trap prey. However, C. berteroniana lacks enzyme production, so this plant breaks down materials using other methods, an important feature located on the leaves of Catopsis berteroniana is the presence of a white powder. This powder is released from the leaves of the plant and it is very slippery and reflects ultraviolet light. Catopsis berteroniana is an epiphyte, meaning it grows on another host, however, the plant does not receive nutrients from its host via its roots. Instead, the roots attach to the tree in order to provide stability, in turn, nutrients are obtained from its leaves. According to Fish,1976, plants have moved away from root absorption in relation to adaptations, Catopsis berteroniana is found in the neotropics, from south Florida to southern Brazil. It grows above the canopies where it is exposed to a high amount of sunlight. In Everglades National Park in south Florida, these plants were found at the apex of red mangroves, one of the major reasons this species is restricted to the neotropics is because the phytotelmata are limited to humid environments. This is because the plant does not have enough available to make up for the excessive evaporation that occurs in very dry climates. Phytotelmata of Catopsis berteroniana axils serve as homes for many organisms, many types of larvae develop in this medium. This is an interesting feature because the major function of phytotelmata is to catch prey. According to Adlassnig, Peroutka & Lendl,2010, this plant hosts 11 inquiline species, wyeomyia mitchellii is a species of mosquito that develops in the medium of the axils
24.
Monocotyledon
–
Monocotyledons, commonly referred to as monocots, are flowering plants whose seeds typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. However, molecular research has shown that while the monocots form a monophyletic group or clade. Monocots have almost always recognized as a group, but with various taxonomic ranks. The APG III system of 2009 recognises a clade called monocots, the monocots include about 60,000 species. The largest family in this group by number of species are the orchids, about half as many species belong to the true grasses, which are economically the most important family of monocots. In agriculture the majority of the biomass produced comes from monocots and these include not only major grains, but also forage grasses, sugar cane, and the bamboos. Other economically important monocot crops include various palms, bananas, gingers and their relatives, turmeric and cardamom, asparagus and the onions and garlic family. Additionally most of the bulbs, plants cultivated for their blooms, such as lilies, daffodils, irises, amaryllis, cannas, bluebells. The monocots or monocotyledons have, as the name implies, a single cotyledon, or embryonic leaf, from a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly useful characteristic, nor is it completely reliable. Nevertheless, monocots are sufficiently distinctive that there has rarely been disagreement as to membership of this group, however, morphological features that reliably characterise major clades are rare. Thus monocots are distinguishable from other angiosperms both in terms of their uniformity and diversity, although largely herbaceous, some arboraceous monocots reach great height, length and mass. The latter include agaves, palms, pandans, and bamboos and this creates challenges in water transport that monocots deal with in various ways. Some such as species of Yucca develop anomalous secondary growth, while palm trees, the axis undergoes primary thickening, that progresses from internode to internode, resulting in a typical inverted conical shape of the basal primary axis. The limited conductivity also contributes to limited branching of the stems, despite these limitations a wide variety of adaptive growth forms has resulted from epiphytic orchids and bromeliads to submarine Alismatales and mycotrophic Burmanniaceae and Triuridaceae. Other monocots, particularly Poales have adopted a life form. Leaves The cotyledon, the primordial Angiosperm leaf consists of a proximal leaf base or hypophyll, in moncots the hypophyll tends to be the dominant part in contrast to other angiosperms. Mature monocot leaves are narrow and linear, forming a sheathing around the stem at its base. There is usually only one leaf per node because the leaf base encompasses more than half the circumference, the evolution of this monocot characteristic has been attributed to developmental differences in early zonal differentiation rather than meristem activity
25.
Natural selection
–
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a population over time, Charles Darwin popularised the term natural selection, and compared it with artificial selection. Variation exists within all populations of organisms and this occurs partly because random mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism, and offspring can inherit such mutations. Throughout the lives of the individuals, their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits, the environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment. Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other, less successful, variants, therefore, factors that affect reproductive success are also important, including sexual selection and fecundity selection. Over time, this process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches, in other words, natural selection is a key process in the evolution of a population. Natural selection can be contrasted with artificial selection, in which humans intentionally choose specific traits, Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a theory of heredity, at the time of Darwins writing. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the synthesis of the mid-20th century. The addition of molecular genetics has led to developmental biology. While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift, natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution, empedocles idea that organisms arose entirely by the incidental workings of causes such as heat and cold was criticised by Aristotle in Book II of Physics. He posited natural teleology in its place, and believed that form was achieved for a purpose, nevertheless, he accepted in his biology that new types of animals, monstrosities, can occur in very rare instances. And in like manner as to the parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Yet it is impossible that this should be the true view, for teeth and all other natural things either invariably or normally come about in a given way, but of not one of the results of chance or spontaneity is this true. We do not ascribe to chance or mere coincidence the frequency of rain in winter, but frequent rain in summer we do, nor heat in the dog-days, therefore action for an end is present in things which come to be and are by nature. The struggle for existence was later described by the Islamic writer Al-Jahiz in the 9th century, the classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwins grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. Until the early 19th century, the view in Western societies was that differences between individuals of a species were uninteresting departures from their Platonic ideals of created kinds. However, the theory of uniformitarianism in geology promoted the idea that simple and this theory, Lamarckism, was an influence on the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenkos antagonism to mainstream genetic theory as late as the mid 20th century
26.
Wax
–
Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are hydrophobic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C, waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic, nonpolar solvents. Natural waxes of different types are produced by plants and animals, waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long alkyl chains. They may also include various groups such as fatty acids, primary and secondary long chain alcohols, unsaturated bonds, aromatics, amides, ketones. They frequently contain fatty acid esters as well, synthetic waxes are often long-chain hydrocarbons that lack functional groups. Waxes are synthesized by plants and animals. Those of animal origin typically consist of wax esters derived from a variety of carboxylic acids, in waxes of plant origin characteristic mixtures of unesterified hydrocarbons may predominate over esters. The composition depends not only on species, but also on location of the organism. The most commonly known animal wax is beeswax, but other insects secrete waxes, a major component of the beeswax used in constructing honeycombs is the ester myricyl palmitate which is an ester of triacontanol and palmitic acid. Its melting point is 62-65 °C, spermaceti occurs in large amounts in the head oil of the sperm whale. One of its constituents is cetyl palmitate, another ester of a fatty acid. Lanolin is a wax obtained from wool, consisting of esters of sterols, plants secrete waxes into and on the surface of their cuticles as a way to control evaporation, wettability and hydration. From the commercial perspective, the most important plant wax is carnauba wax, containing the ester myricyl cerotate, it has many applications, such as confectionery and other food coatings, car and furniture polish, floss coating, and surfboard wax. Other more specialized vegetable waxes include candelilla wax and ouricury wax, plant and animal based waxes or oils can undergo selective chemical modifications to produce waxes with more desirable properties than are available in the unmodified starting material. This approach has relied on green chemistry approaches including olefin metathesis and enzymatic reactions, although many natural waxes contain esters, paraffin waxes are hydrocarbons, mixtures of alkanes usually in a homologous series of chain lengths. These materials represent a significant fraction of petroleum and they are refined by vacuum distillation. Paraffin waxes are mixtures of saturated n- and iso- alkanes, naphthenes, a typical alkane paraffin wax chemical composition comprises hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2, such as Hentriacontane, C31H64. The degree of branching has an important influence on the properties, millions of tons of paraffin waxes are produced annually
27.
Sarracenia purpurea
–
Sarracenia purpurea, commonly known as the purple pitcher plant, northern pitcher plant, or side-saddle flower, is a carnivorous plant in the family Sarraceniaceae. Its range includes the Eastern seaboard and Gulf Coast of the United States, the Great Lakes region, all of Canada, Washington state, and Alaska. That makes it the most common and broadly distributed pitcher plant, the species is the floral emblem of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The species was introduced into bogs in parts of Ireland, where it has proliferated and it is an introduced and naturalized species in northern California. It is found in habitats of the carnivorous species Darlingtonia californica, in the Klamath Mountains. Like other species of Sarracenia, S. purpurea obtains most of its nutrients through prey capture, however, prey acquisition is said to be inefficient, with less than 1% of the visiting prey captured within the pitcher. Even so, anecdotal evidence by growers often shows that pitchers quickly fill up with prey during the summer months. Prey fall into the pitcher and drown in the rainwater that collects in the base of each leaf. Prey items such as flies, ants, spiders, and even moths, are digested by an invertebrate community, made up mostly by the mosquito Wyeomyia smithii. The relationship between W. smithii and S. purpurea is an example of commensalism, protists, rotifers, and bacteria form the base of inquiline food web that shreds and mineralizes available prey, making nutrients available to the plant. The species is divided into two subspecies, S. purpurea subsp. The former is found from New Jersey north, while the latter is found from New Jersey south, venosa var. burkii was described as a species of its own, Sarracenia rosea. This re-ranking has been debated among carnivorous plant enthusiasts since then, the following species and infraspecific taxa are usually recognized, Sarracenia purpurea subsp. Purpurea f. heterophylla Sarracenia purpurea subsp, purpurea f. ruplicola Sarracenia purpurea subsp. Venosa var. burkii Sarracenia purpurea subsp, venosa var. burkii f. luteola Sarracenia purpurea subsp. Venosa var. USDA Plants Profile for Sarracenia purpurea Sarracenia purpurea at Barry Rices carnivorous plant FAQ, botanical Society of America, Sarracenia - the Pitcher Plants UC Photos gallery — Sarracenia purpurea
28.
Floral emblem
–
In a number of countries, plants have been chosen as symbols to represent specific geographic areas. Some countries have a floral emblem, others in addition have symbols representing subdivisions. Different processes have been used to adopt these symbols – some are conferred by government bodies, the term floral emblem, which refers to flowers specifically, is primarily used in Australia and Canada. In the United States, the state flower is more often used. The national flower and floral emblem of Bangladesh is the shapla, or Nymphaea nouchali) See also, bhutan – Blue poppy Brunei – Simpoh Ayer Cambodia formally adopted the romduol as its national flower in the year 2005 by a royal decree. The royal decree designates the taxon as Mitrella mesnyi, however this is an illegitimate synonym for Sphaerocoryne affinis Ridley. The flower of India is also the lotus, a symbol of purity that remains immaculate despite growing from mud, keralas state floral emblem is the tree Cassia fistula. Tamil Nadus floral emblem is Glory lily, water-lily is the state flower of Andhra Pradesh. Kapau is the flower of Assam. Bihars floral emblem is kachnaar and that of Uttarakhand is the rhododendron, there are three types of floral emblems that symbolize Indonesia, the puspa bangsa of Indonesia is melati the puspa pesona is anggrek bulan the puspa langka is padma raksasa rafflesia. Melati, a white flower with sweet fragrance, has long been considered as a sacred flower in Indonesian tradition, as it symbolizes purity, sacredness. For example, on her day, a traditional Indonesian brides hair is often adorned with arrangements of jasmine. However, jasmine is also used as floral offering for spirits and deities. Moon Orchid was chosen for its beauty, while the two rare flowers, Rafflesia arnoldii and Titan arum were chosen to demonstrate uniqueness and Indonesian rich biodiversity. Each of the 33 provinces of Indonesia also has a plant as its provincial flower. Iran – red rose, tulip, Nymphaea, Cupressus sempervirens Iraq – Rose The Israeli national flower is the poppy anemone, jordan – Black iris Kuwait – Rhanterium epapposum The national flower is the plumeria, despite it being no longer endemic. The national flower of Malaysia is the bunga raya, the flower of the eastern Malaysian state of Sarawak is the orchid Phalaenopsis bellina, while that of the state of Kedah is the pokok padi. Malaccas state flower is the bread-flower, Vallaris glabra, from there, it spread into France, Italy and the Mediterranean, and eventually it was introduced to the rest of Western Europe and Britain
29.
Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province
30.
Nepenthes truncata
–
Nepenthes truncata is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to the Philippines. It is known from the islands of Dinagat, Leyte, the species grows at an elevation of 0–1500 m above sea level. Nepenthes truncata is characterised by its leaves and very large pitchers. Nepenthes robcantleyi was once considered a dark, highland form of this species, on September 29,2006, at the Botanical Gardens in Lyon, France, a Nepenthes truncata was photographed containing the decomposing corpse of a mouse. This incident is the first record of a mammal being successfully trapped in the pitchers of N. truncata, both N. rajah and N. rafflesiana are known to occasionally catch small mammals in the wild. N. alata × N. truncata N. mindanaoensis × N. truncata
31.
Insect
–
Insects are a class of hexapod invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species, the number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans. The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs, insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, Insects that undergo 3-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear, fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm. The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants, adult insects typically move about by walking, flying or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with adaptations that include gills. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water, Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs, Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances, other species communicate with sounds, crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order communicate with light, humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits, a few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles, blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion, Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, in some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects. Insect first appears documented in English in 1601 in Hollands translation of Pliny, translations of Aristotles term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, etc. The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear, in the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea
32.
Anthocyanin
–
Anthocyanins are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that may appear red, purple, or blue depending on the pH. They belong to a parent class of molecules called flavonoids synthesized via the pathway, they are odorless but flavorful. Anthocyanins occur in all tissues of plants, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers. Anthoxanthins are clear, white to yellow counterparts of anthocyanins occurring in plants, anthocyanins are derived from anthocyanidins by adding sugars. Anthocyanins have an antioxidant role in plants against reactive oxygen species caused by abiotic stresses, such as overexposure to ultraviolet light, tomato plants protect against cold stress with anthocyanins countering reactive oxygen species, leading to a lower rate of cell death in leaves. Anthocyanins are considered secondary metabolites as an additive with E number E163, they are approved for use as a food additive in the EU, Australia. Although anthocyanins have antioxidant properties in vitro, this antioxidant effect is not conserved after the plant is consumed, as interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute and European Food Safety Authority, dietary anthocyanins and other flavonoids have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. The absorbance pattern responsible for the red color of anthocyanins may be complementary to that of green chlorophyll in photosynthetically active tissues such as young Quercus coccifera leaves and it may protect the leaves from attacks by plant eaters that may be attracted by green color. Anthocyanins are found in the vacuole, mostly in flowers and fruits but also in leaves, stems. In these parts, they are predominantly in outer cell layers such as the epidermis. Most frequently occurring in nature are the glycosides of cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, roughly 2% of all hydrocarbons fixed in photosynthesis are converted into flavonoids and their derivatives such as the anthocyanins. Not all land plants contain anthocyanin, in the Caryophyllales, they are replaced by betalains, anthocyanins and betalains have never been found in the same plant. Sometimes bred purposely for high anthocyanin quantities, ornamental plants such as sweet peppers may have unusual culinary, anthocyanins occur in the flowers of many plants, such as the famously blue poppies of some Meconopsis species and cultivars. Red-fleshed peaches and apples contain anthocyanins, anthocyanins are less abundant in banana, asparagus, pea, fennel, pear, and potato, and may be totally absent in certain cultivars of green gooseberries. The highest recorded amount appears to be specifically in the coat of black soybean containing around 2 g per 100 g, in purple corn kernels and husks. Due to critical differences in origin, preparation and extraction methods determining anthocyanin content. The variety known as Indigo Rose became commercially available to the agricultural industry, investing tomatoes with high anthocyanin content doubles their shelf-life and inhibits growth of a post-harvest mold pathogen, Botrytis cinerea. Tomatoes have also been modified with transcription factors from snapdragons to produce high levels of anthocyanins in the fruits
33.
Nectar
–
Common nectar-consuming pollinators include mosquitoes, hoverflies, wasps, bees, butterflies and moths, hummingbirds, and bats. M. scutellata and the honey bee. Nectar is an important item, the sugar source for honey. It is also useful in agriculture and horticulture because the adult stages of some predatory insects feed on nectar, for example, the social wasp species Apoica flavissima relies on nectar as a primary food source. In turn, these wasps then hunt agricultural pest insects as food for their young, for example, thread-waisted wasps are known for hunting caterpillars that are destructive to crops. Caterpillars however, do eventually become butterflies and moths, which are important pollinators. Nectar secretion increases as the flower is visited by pollinators, after pollination, the nectar is frequently reabsorbed into the plant. Nectar is derived from Greek nektar, the drink of the gods. The current meaning, sweet liquid in flowers, is first recorded in AD1600, floral nectaries are generally located at the base of the perianth, so pollinators are made to brush the flowers reproductive structures, the stamen and pistil, while accessing the nectar. A septal nectary is nectar-producing tissue that is found in the wall of a plant ovary, septal nectaries function as a way of attracting pollinators. Plants that rely on insects, birds, or bats for pollination often have septal nectaries, aside from attracting pollinators, septal nectaries have also been known to attract plant protectors. Some plants, like Ruellia radicans, have nectaries that continue to secrete nectar even after the petals have been shed and this attracts ants which will in turn protect the developing fruits of the plant from seed predators and herbivores in exchange for nectar. Extrafloral nectaries are nectar-secreting plant glands that develop outside of flowers and are not involved in pollination and they are highly diverse in form, location, size, and mechanism. They have been described in virtually all above-ground plant parts—including leaves, petioles, stipules, cotyledons, fruits and they range from single-celled trichomes to complex cup-like structures that may or may not be vascularized. In contrast to floral nectaries, nectar produced outside the flower generally have a defensive function, the nectar attracts predatory insects which will eat both the nectar and any plant-eating insects around, thus functioning as bodyguards. Foraging predatory insects show a preference for plants with extrafloral nectaries, particularly species of ants and wasps. Among passion flowers, for example, extrafloral nectaries prevent herbivores by attracting ants, in many carnivorous plants, extrafloral nectaries are also used to attract insect prey. Extrafloral nectaries were originally believed to simply be excretory in nature and their defensive functions were first recognized by the Italian botanist Federico Delpino in his important monograph Funzione mirmecofila nel regno vegetale
34.
Aldehyde
–
The group—without R—is the aldehyde group, also known as the formyl group. Aldehydes are common in organic chemistry, Aldehydes feature an sp2-hybridized, planar carbon center that is connected by a double bond to oxygen and a single bond to hydrogen. The C–H bond is not ordinarily acidic, because of resonance stabilization of the conjugate base, an α-hydrogen in an aldehyde is far more acidic, with a pKa near 15, compared to the acidity of a typical alkane. This acidification is attributed to the quality of the formyl center and the fact that the conjugate base. Related to, the group is somewhat polar. Aldehydes can exist in either the keto or the enol tautomer, keto-enol tautomerism is catalyzed by either acid or base. Usually the enol is the minority tautomer, but it is more reactive, the common names for aldehydes do not strictly follow official guidelines, such as those recommended by IUPAC, but these rules are useful. IUPAC prescribes the following nomenclature for aldehydes, Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes are named as derivatives of the longest carbon chain containing the aldehyde group, thus, HCHO is named as a derivative of methane, and CH3CH2CH2CHO is named as a derivative of butane. The name is formed by changing the suffix -e of the parent alkane to -al, so that HCHO is named methanal, in other cases, such as when a -CHO group is attached to a ring, the suffix -carbaldehyde may be used. Thus, C6H11CHO is known as cyclohexanecarbaldehyde, if the presence of another functional group demands the use of a suffix, the aldehyde group is named with the prefix formyl-. This prefix is preferred to methanoyl-, the word aldehyde was coined by Justus von Liebig as a contraction of the Latin alcohol dehydrogenatus. In the past, aldehydes were sometimes named after the corresponding alcohols, for example, the term formyl group is derived from the Latin word formica ant. This word can be recognized in the simplest aldehyde, formaldehyde, Aldehydes have properties that are diverse and that depend on the remainder of the molecule. Smaller aldehydes are more soluble in water, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde completely so, the volatile aldehydes have pungent odors. Aldehydes degrade in air via the process of autoxidation, the two aldehydes of greatest importance in industry, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, have complicated behavior because of their tendency to oligomerize or polymerize. They also tend to hydrate, forming the geminal diol, the oligomers/polymers and the hydrates exist in equilibrium with the parent aldehyde. Aldehydes are readily identified by spectroscopic methods, using IR spectroscopy, they display a strong νCO band near 1700 cm−1. In their 1H NMR spectra, the formyl hydrogen center absorbs near δH =9 and this signal shows the characteristic coupling to any protons on the alpha carbon
35.
Plant cuticle
–
A plant cuticle is a protecting film covering the epidermis of leaves, young shoots and other aerial plant organs without periderm. It consists of lipid and hydrocarbon polymers impregnated with wax, and is synthesized exclusively by the epidermal cells, the plant cuticle is a layer of lipid polymer impregnated with waxes that is present on the outer surfaces of the primary organs of all vascular land plants. The cuticle is composed of an insoluble cuticular membrane impregnated by, cutin, a polyester polymer composed of inter-esterified omega hydroxy acids which are cross-linked by ester and epoxide bonds, is the best-known structural component of the cuticular membrane. The cuticle can also contain a non-saponifiable hydrocarbon polymer known as Cutan, aerial organs of many plants, such as the leaves of the sacred lotus have ultra-hydrophobic and self-cleaning properties that have been described by Barthlott and Neinhuis. The lotus effect has applications in biomimetic technical materials, dehydration protection provided by a maternal cuticle improves offspring fitness in the moss Funaria hygrometrica. and in the sporophytes of all vascular plants. The waxy sheet of cuticle also functions in defense, forming a barrier that resists penetration by virus particles, bacterial cells
36.
Phytotelma
–
Phytotelma is a term for water bodies held by terrestrial plants. The water accumulated within these plants may serve as the habitat for associated fauna, often the faunae associated with phytotelmata are unique. A rich literature in German summarised by Thienemann developed many aspects of phytotelm biology, reviews of the subject by Kitching and Maguire introduced the concept of phytotelmata to English-speaking readers. A review by Greeney identified seven forms, tree holes, leaf axils, flowers, modified leaves, fallen vegetative parts, fallen fruit husks, the word phytotelma derives from the Ancient Greek roots phyto-, meaning plant, and telma, meaning pond. Thus, the singular is phytotelma. The term was coined by L. Varga in 1928, the correct pronunciation is phytotēlma and phytotēlmata because of the Greek origin. Nepenthes infauna Bromeliaceae Bromeliad Biota Heliconia Biota
37.
Enzyme
–
Enzymes /ˈɛnzaɪmz/ are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process upon which enzymes may act are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. The study of enzymes is called enzymology, enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types. Most enzymes are proteins, although a few are catalytic RNA molecules, enzymes specificity comes from their unique three-dimensional structures. Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation energy, some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is orotidine 5-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would take millions of years to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules, inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzymes activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH, some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics. French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to discover an enzyme, diastase and he wrote that alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells. In 1877, German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne first used the term enzyme, the word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms. Eduard Buchner submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897, in a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture. He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose zymase, in 1907, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of cell-free fermentation. Following Buchners example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out, the biochemical identity of enzymes was still unknown in the early 1900s. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a protein and crystallized it. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, the discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x-ray crystallography. This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology, an enzymes name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes, with the word ending in -ase
38.
Mutualism (biology)
–
Mutualism is the way two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each individual benefits from the activity of the other. Similar interactions within a species are known as co-operation, symbiosis involves two species living in close proximity and includes relationships that are mutualistic, parasitic, and commensal. Symbiotic relationships are sometimes, but not always, mutualistic, a well-known example of mutualism is the relationship between ungulates and bacteria within their intestines. The ungulates benefit from the produced by the bacteria, which facilitates digestion. This can also be found in many different symbiotic relationships. Mutualism plays a key part in ecology, in addition, mutualism is thought to have driven the evolution of much of the biological diversity we see, such as flower forms and co-evolution between groups of species. However mutualism has historically received less attention than other such as predation. It is therefore common to categorise mutualisms according to the closeness of the association, using such as obligate. Defining closeness, however, is also problematic and it can refer to mutual dependency or the biological intimacy of the relationship in relation to physical closeness. The term mutualism was introduced by Pierre-Joseph van Beneden in 1876, other examples include rhizobia bacteria that fix nitrogen for leguminous plants in return for energy-containing carbohydrates. Pollination in which nectar or pollen are traded for pollen dispersal or ant protection of aphids, phagophiles feed on ectoparasites, thereby providing anti-pest service, as in cleaning symbiosis. Elacatinus and Gobiosoma, genus of gobies, also feed on ectoparasites of their clients while cleaning them, zoochory is the dispersal of the seeds of plants by animals. This is similar to pollination in that the plant produces food resources for animals that disperse the seeds, strict service-service interactions are very rare, for reasons that are far from clear. Therefore, what appears to be a service-service mutualism in fact has a service-resource component, a second example is that of the relationship between some ants in the genus Pseudomyrmex and trees in the genus Acacia, such as the whistling thorn and bullhorn acacia. The ants nest inside the plants thorns, in exchange for shelter, the ants protect acacias from attack by herbivores and competition from other plants by trimming back vegetation that would shade the acacia. In addition, another component is present, as the ants regularly feed on lipid-rich food-bodies called Beltian bodies that are on the Acacia plant. In the neotropics, the ant, Myrmelachista schumanni makes its nest in cavities in Duroia hirsute. Plants in the vicinity that belong to other species are killed with formic acid and this selective gardening can be so aggressive that small areas of the rainforest are dominated by Duroia hirsute
39.
Larva
–
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a phase of their life cycle. The larvas appearance is very different from the adult form. A larva often has unique structures and organs that do not occur in the adult form and their diet may also be considerably different. Larvae are frequently adapted to separate from adults. For example, some such as tadpoles live almost exclusively in aquatic environments. By living in an environment, larvae may be given shelter from predators. Animals in the stage will consume food to fuel their transition into the adult form. In some species like barnacles, adults are immobile but their larvae are mobile, some larvae are dependent on adults to feed them. In many eusocial Hymenoptera species, the larvae are fed by female workers, in Ropalidia marginata the males are also capable of feeding larvae but they are much less efficient, spending more time and getting less food to the larvae. The larvae of species can become pubescent and do not develop further into the adult form. This is a type of neoteny and it is a misunderstanding that the larval form always reflects the groups evolutionary history. This could be the case, but often the stage has evolved secondarily. In these cases the form may differ more than the adult form from the groups common origin. Within Insects, only Endopterygotes show different types of larvae, several classifications have been suggested by many entomologists, and following classification is based on Antonio Berlese classification in 1913. There are four types of endopterygote larvae types, Apodous larvae - no legs at all and are poorly sclerotized. Based on sclerotization, three forms are recognized. Eucephalous - with well sclerotized head capsule, found in Nematocera, Buprestidae and Cerambycidae families
40.
Excreta
–
Excretion is the process by which metabolic wastes and other non-useful materials are eliminated from an organism. In vertebrates this is carried out by the lungs, kidneys. This is in contrast with secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell, excretion is an essential process in all forms of life. For example, in urine is expelled through the urethra. In unicellular organisms, waste products are discharged directly through the surface of the cell, green plants produce carbon dioxide and water as respiratory products. In green plants, the carbon dioxide released during respiration gets utilized during photosynthesis, oxygen is a by product generated during photosynthesis, and exits through stomata, root cell walls, and other routes. Plants can get rid of water by transpiration and guttation. These latter processes do not need added energy, they act passively, however, during the pre-abscission phase, the metabolic levels of a leaf are high. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them, in animals, the main excretory products are carbon dioxide, ammonia, urea, uric acid, guanine and creatine. The liver and kidneys clear many substances from the blood, aquatic animals usually excrete ammonia directly into the external environment, as this compound has high solubility and there is ample water available for dilution. In terrestrial animals ammonia-like compounds are converted into other materials as there is less water in the environment. Birds excrete their nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of a paste and this is metabolically more expensive, but allows more efficient water retention and it can be stored more easily in the egg. Many avian species, especially seabirds, can also excrete salt via specialized nasal salt glands, in insects, a system involving Malpighian tubules is utilized to excrete metabolic waste. Metabolic waste diffuses or is actively transported into the tubule, which transports the wastes to the intestines, the metabolic waste is then released from the body along with fecal matter. The excreted material may be called dejecta or ejecta, in pathology the word ejecta is more commonly used. UAlberta. ca, Animation of excretion Brian J Ford on leaf fall in Nature
41.
Amino acid
–
Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine and carboxyl functional groups, along with a side chain specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. About 500 amino acids are known and can be classified in many ways, in the form of proteins, amino acids comprise the second-largest component of human muscles, cells and other tissues. Outside proteins, amino acids perform critical roles in such as neurotransmitter transport. In biochemistry, amino acids having both the amine and the acid groups attached to the first carbon atom have particular importance. They are known as 2-, alpha-, or α-amino acids and they include the 22 proteinogenic amino acids, which combine into peptide chains to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all L-stereoisomers, although a few D-amino acids occur in bacterial envelopes, as a neuromodulator, twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as standard amino acids. The other two are selenocysteine, and pyrrolysine, pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons, for example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element. N-formylmethionine is generally considered as a form of methionine rather than as a separate proteinogenic amino acid, codon–tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to expand the genetic code and create novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids. Many important proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids also play critical roles within the body. Nine proteinogenic amino acids are called essential for humans because they cannot be created from other compounds by the human body, others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also differ between species, because of their biological significance, amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements, fertilizers, and food technology. Industrial uses include the production of drugs, biodegradable plastics, the first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century. In 1806, French chemists Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine, cystine was discovered in 1810, although its monomer, cysteine, remained undiscovered until 1884. Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820, usage of the term amino acid in the English language is from 1898. Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis, in the structure shown at the top of the page, R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. The carbon atom next to the group is called the α–carbon. Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as amino acids
42.
Peptide
–
Peptides are biologically occurring short chains of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. The covalent chemical bonds are formed when the group of one amino acid reacts with the amine group of another. The shortest peptides are dipeptides, consisting of 2 amino acids joined by a peptide bond, followed by tripeptides, tetrapeptides. A polypeptide is a long, continuous, and unbranched peptide chain, hence, peptides fall under the broad chemical classes of biological oligomers and polymers, alongside nucleic acids, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, etc. Peptides are distinguished from proteins on the basis of size, all peptides except cyclic peptides have an N-terminal and C-terminal residue at the end of the peptide. Ribosomal peptides Ribosomal peptides are synthesized by translation of mRNA and they are often subjected to proteolysis to generate the mature form. These function, typically in higher organisms, as hormones and signaling molecules, some organisms produce peptides as antibiotics, such as microcins. Since they are translated, the amino acid residues involved are restricted to those utilized by the ribosome, however, these peptides frequently have posttranslational modifications such as phosphorylation, hydroxylation, sulfonation, palmitoylation, glycosylation and disulfide formation. In general, they are linear, although lariat structures have been observed, more exotic manipulations do occur, such as racemization of L-amino acids to D-amino acids in platypus venom. Nonribosomal peptides Nonribosomal peptides are assembled by enzymes that are specific to each peptide, the most common non-ribosomal peptide is glutathione, which is a component of the antioxidant defenses of most aerobic organisms. Other nonribosomal peptides are most common in organisms, plants. These complexes are often out in a similar fashion. These peptides are often cyclic and can have highly complex cyclic structures, since the system is closely related to the machinery for building fatty acids and polyketides, hybrid compounds are often found. The presence of oxazoles or thiazoles often indicates that the compound was synthesized in this fashion, Peptones See also Tryptone Peptones are derived from animal milk or meat digested by proteolysis. In addition to containing small peptides, the material includes fats, metals, salts, vitamins. Peptones are used in nutrient media for growing bacteria and fungi, Peptide fragments Peptide fragments refer to fragments of proteins that are used to identify or quantify the source protein. Peptides received prominence in molecular biology for several reasons, the first is that peptides allow the creation of peptide antibodies in animals without the need of purifying the protein of interest. This involves synthesizing antigenic peptides of sections of the protein of interest and these will then be used to make antibodies in a rabbit or mouse against the protein
43.
Urea
–
Urea, also known as carbamide, is an organic compound with the chemical formula CO2. This amide has two groups joined by a carbonyl functional group. Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals and it is a colorless, odorless solid, highly soluble in water, and practically non-toxic. Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor alkaline, the body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. The liver forms it by combining two molecules with a carbon dioxide molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen and is an important raw material for the chemical industry, Friedrich Wöhlers discovery in 1828 that urea can be produced from inorganic starting materials was an important conceptual milestone in chemistry. More than 90% of world production of urea is destined for use as a nitrogen-release fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common use, therefore, it has the lowest transportation costs per unit of nitrogen nutrient. The standard crop-nutrient rating of urea is 46-0-0, many soil bacteria possess the enzyme urease, which catalyzes conversion of urea to ammonia or ammonium ion and bicarbonate ion. Thus urea fertilizers rapidly transform to the form in soils. Ammonium and nitrate are readily absorbed by plants, and are the dominant sources of nitrogen for plant growth, Urea is also used in many multi-component solid fertilizer formulations. Urea is highly soluble in water and is also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions. For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills because of their particle size distribution. The most common impurity of synthetic urea is biuret, which impairs plant growth, Urea is usually spread at rates of between 40 and 300 kg/ha but rates vary. Smaller applications incur lower losses due to leaching, during summer, urea is often spread just before or during rain to minimize losses from volatilization. Because of the nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. The application equipment must be calibrated and properly used. Drilling must not occur on contact with or close to seed, Urea dissolves in water for application as a spray or through irrigation systems
44.
Nitrogen
–
Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7. It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently done so at about the same time, Rutherford is generally accorded the credit because his work was published first. Nitrogen is the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, the name comes from the Greek πνίγειν to choke, directly referencing nitrogens asphyxiating properties. It is an element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen, a colourless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula N2, dinitrogen forms about 78% of Earths atmosphere, making it the most abundant uncombined element. Nitrogen occurs in all organisms, primarily in amino acids, in the nucleic acids, the human body contains about 3% nitrogen by mass, the fourth most abundant element in the body after oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air, into the biosphere and organic compounds, many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates, and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in elemental nitrogen, the second strongest bond in any diatomic molecule. Synthetically produced ammonia and nitrates are key industrial fertilisers, and fertiliser nitrates are key pollutants in the eutrophication of water systems. Apart from its use in fertilisers and energy-stores, nitrogen is a constituent of organic compounds as diverse as Kevlar used in high-strength fabric, Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class, including antibiotics. Many notable nitrogen-containing drugs, such as the caffeine and morphine or the synthetic amphetamines. Nitrogen compounds have a long history, ammonium chloride having been known to Herodotus. They were well known by the Middle Ages, alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis, as well as other nitrogen compounds such as ammonium salts and nitrate salts. The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia, celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold, the discovery of nitrogen is attributed to the Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air. Though he did not recognise it as a different chemical substance, he clearly distinguished it from Joseph Blacks fixed air. The fact that there was a component of air that does not support combustion was clear to Rutherford, Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as air or azote, from the Greek word άζωτικός. In an atmosphere of nitrogen, animals died and flames were extinguished
45.
Phosphorus
–
Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
46.
Soil
–
Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally translates ground stone. Soil consists of a phase of minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that holds gases. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a system of solids, liquids. Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief, organisms, Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists. Most soils have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the particle density is much higher. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, Soil science has two basic branches of study, edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, pedology is focused on the formation, description, and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose material that lies above the solid geology. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt, technically, as soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance. Soil is a component of the Earths ecosystem. The worlds ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next largest carbon reservoir on Earth, as the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a positive feedback response to global warming. Since soil has a range of available niches and habitats. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial, Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 procaryotic organisms per milliliter of seawater. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil and this ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake
. PMID 21937485.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pitcher Plants". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
