1.
Holocene
–
The Holocene is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years before present. The term Recent has often used as an exact synonym of Holocene. The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period and its name comes from the Ancient Greek words ὅλος and καινός, meaning entirely recent. It has been identified with the current warm period, known as MIS1, given these, a new term, Anthropocene, is specifically proposed and used informally only for the very latest part of modern history involving significant human impact. It is accepted by the International Commission on Stratigraphy that the Holocene started approximately 11,700 years ago, the epoch follows the Pleistocene and the last glacial period. The Holocene can be subdivided into five time intervals, or chronozones, based on climatic fluctuations, Preboreal, Boreal, Atlantic, Subboreal and they find a general correspondence across Eurasia and North America, though the method was once thought to be of no interest. The scheme was defined for Northern Europe, but the changes were claimed to occur more widely. The periods of the include a few of the final pre-Holocene oscillations of the last glacial period. Paleontologists have not defined any faunal stages for the Holocene, if subdivision is necessary, periods of human technological development, such as the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age, are usually used. However, the time periods referenced by these terms vary with the emergence of those technologies in different parts of the world, climatically, the Holocene may be divided evenly into the Hypsithermal and Neoglacial periods, the boundary coincides with the start of the Bronze Age in Europe. According to some scholars, a division, the Anthropocene, has now begun. Continental motions due to plate tectonics are less than a kilometre over a span of only 10,000 years, however, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 m in the early part of the Holocene. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea, Holocene marine fossils are known, for example, from Vermont and Michigan. Other than higher-latitude temporary marine incursions associated with depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely tectonic uplift of non-glacial origin, post-glacial rebound in the Scandinavia region resulted in the formation of the Baltic Sea. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe, the equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries. Climate has been stable over the Holocene. It appears that this was influenced by the glacial ice remaining in the Northern Hemisphere until the later date
Holocene
–
Holocene cinder cone volcano on State Highway 18 near
Veyo, Utah
Holocene
–
Bronze bead necklace,
Muséum de Toulouse
2.
Pleistocene
–
The Pleistocene is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the worlds most recent period of repeated glaciations. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period, the Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era. In the ICS timescale, the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages, all of these stages were defined in southern Europe. In addition to this subdivision, various regional subdivisions are often used. Charles Lyell introduced the term pleistocene in 1839 to describe strata in Sicily that had at least 70% of their molluscan fauna still living today and this distinguished it from the older Pliocene Epoch, which Lyell had originally thought to be the youngest fossil rock layer. The Pleistocene has been dated from 2.588 million to 11,700 years before present and it covers most of the latest period of repeated glaciation, up to and including the Younger Dryas cold spell. The end of the Younger Dryas has been dated to about 9640 BC, the IUGS has yet to approve a type section, Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point, for the upper Pleistocene/Holocene boundary. The proposed section is the North Greenland Ice Core Project ice core 75°06 N 42°18 W, the lower boundary of the Pleistocene Series is formally defined magnetostratigraphically as the base of the Matuyama chronozone, isotopic stage 103. Above this point there are notable extinctions of the calcareous nanofossils, Discoaster pentaradiatus, the Pleistocene covers the recent period of repeated glaciations. The name Plio-Pleistocene has, in the past, been used to mean the last ice age. The revised definition of the Quaternary, by pushing back the date of the Pleistocene to 2.58 Ma. Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places and it is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earths surface was covered by ice. In addition, a zone of permafrost stretched southward from the edge of the sheet, a few hundred kilometres in North America. The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was −6 °C, during interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions. The effects of glaciation were global, antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap, there were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The current decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains. In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one, the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the North American northwest, the east was covered by the Laurentide
Pleistocene
–
The maximum extent of
glacial ice in the north polar area during the Pleistocene period.
Pleistocene
–
Ice ages as reflected in atmospheric CO 2, stored in bubbles from glacial ice of
Antarctica.
Pleistocene
–
Pleistocene of
Northern Spain showing
woolly mammoth,
cave lions eating a
reindeer,
tarpans, and
woolly rhinoceros.
Pleistocene
–
Pleistocene of
South America showing
Megatherium and two
Glyptodon.
3.
8th millennium BC
–
In the 8th millennium BC, agriculture became widely practised in the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia. Pottery became widespread and animal husbandry spread to Africa and Eurasia, world population was approximately 5 million. C.8083 BC—Comet Hale–Bopp appears in the sky and it comes back in the 6th millennium BC. c.8000 BC—Upper Paleolithic period ends. C.8000 BC—Settlement in Franchthi Cave in Peloponnese, continues, first evidence of seed and animal stocking and obsidian trade with Melos. The settlement was occupied since 20,000 BC and abandoned in 3000 BC. c.8000 BC—Settlements at Nevali Cori in present-day Turkey are established. C.8000 BC—Asikli Hoyuk, Cappadocia, established, C.8000 BC—Settlements at Sagalassos in present-day southwest Turkey are established. C.8000 BC—Settlements at Akure in present-day southwest Nigeria are established, C.8000 BC—Settlements at Øvre Eiker and Nedre Eiker in present-day Buskerud, Norway are established. C.8000 BC—Settlements at Ærø, Denmark are established, C.8000 BC—Settlements at Deepcar near present-day Sheffield, England are established. C.8000 BC—North American Arctic is inhabited by hunter-gatherers of the Paleo-Arctic Tradition, C.8000 BC—Pre-Anasazi Paleo-Indians move into present-day Southwest United States. C.8000 BC—Plano cultures inhabit the Great Plains area of North America, C.7500 BC—Settlements at Sand, Applecross on the coast of Wester Ross, Scotland are constructed. C.7500 BC—Çatalhöyük, a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, is founded, C.7500 BC—Cattle Period begins in the Sahara. C.7500 BC—Mesolithic hunter-gatherers are the first humans to reach Ireland, C.7570 BC—Bhirrana, the earliest Indus Valley site, is settled. C.7370 BC—End of the settlement at Jericho. C.7200 BC—Cayonu in southeast Turkey, the likely site of emmer wheat. C.7200 BC–5000 BC—Ain Ghazal, Jordan is inhabited, C.8000 BC—Glaciers form the rock formation in present-day New Hampshire, formerly known as the Old Man of the Mountain. C.7911 BC—Series of seven massive volcanic eruptions give volcanic skies, locations not known, but show in polar ice. One possibility is the Phlegraean Fields caldera near Naples, Italy, C.7640 BC—Date theorized for impact of Tollmanns hypothetical bolide with Earth and associated global cataclysm. C.7220 BC—Eruption of Mount Edgecumbe, Alaska, large outflow of fresh water from Black Sea into Aegean Sea
8th millennium BC
–
The south area of
Çatalhöyük. An
archaeological dig is in progress.
8th millennium BC
–
Cave painting in Doushe cave,
Lorestan, Iran, 8th millennium BC
4.
Boreal (age)
–
In peat bog sediments, the Boreal is also recognized by its characteristic pollen zone. It was preceded by the Younger Dryas, the last cold snap of the Pleistocene, and followed by the Atlantic, the Boreal, transitional between the two periods, varied a great deal, at times comprising within it climates like todays. Subsequent to the original Blytt-Sernander scheme, the first stage of the Boreal was divided off as a Pre-boreal transitional phase, some current schemes based on pollen zones also distinguish a pre-Boreal, an early Boreal and a late Boreal. The generally accepted date for the end of the Younger Dryas, the start of the period is relatively sharply defined by a rise of 7 °C in 50 years. The date is based fairly solidly on Greenland ice cores, which give 11,640 BP for the late Younger Dryas and 11,400 BP for the early Pre-Boreal, but estimates of other dates vary by up to 1000 years, for a number of reasons. First, Boreal can identify a paleoclimate, a zone or a temporally-fixed chronozone. Second, different dating methods obtain different dates, the underlying problem is that climate and pollen vary somewhat from region to region. The scientists of each use the methods available in their region, whether lake varves. Standardization has become of increasing concern to scientists everywhere, dates from many methods continue to multiply as paleoclimatologists seek higher resolution. But it is unclear whether regional variation will allow high-resolution standardization, yet, there are some solid dates of the Pre-Boreal and Boreal. The Saksunarvatn tephra is dated in Greenland ice to 10, 180±60 BP, in deposits at Krakenes in Norway, to 10, 010–9,980 years BP calibrated, in northwest German lakes. The tephra occurs in early Boreal contexts, so, it seems certain that the early Boreal includes the year 10,000 BP. Similarly, the late Boreal includes the Kilian/Vasset tephra of Swiss and southwest German lakes at 8200 BP, but the borders are less certain. Studies of bogs in northwest Russia are the basis for a division of the PreBoreal into PB-1,10, 000-9800, the scheme goes on to divide the Boreal into BO-1, 9300–9000, BO-2, 9000–8500, and BO-3, 8500–8000, incal. CalPal used on these dates suggests overall boundaries of 11,500 and 10,500 BP for the Pre-Boreal, dates given recently are usually earlier than those given more than 10 years ago. For example, Iverson and Rud give dates of 10, 000–9000 BP for the PreBoreal and 9000–8000 BP for the Boreal, presumably, more-recent dates are more accurate, as technology improves with time, often quite rapidly. Yet, pollen and climate phases also to some degree may depend on latitude, scientists look for the overall pattern of the dates, but that technique is not 100% reliable, either. Large numbers of herbivores wandered in herds over vast distances, the blanket teemed with small, rapidly reproducing species, which supported food chains of larger predators
Boreal (age)
–
Morning in a Pine Forest, a painting by
Ivan Shishkin and
Konstantin Savitsky.
Boreal (age)
–
Pine tree rings
Boreal (age)
–
Distribution of
tephra
Boreal (age)
–
Peat
5.
Atlantic (period)
–
The Atlantic in palaeoclimatology was the warmest and moistest Blytt-Sernander period, pollen zone and chronozone of Holocene northern Europe. The climate was warmer than today. It was preceded by the Boreal, with a similar to today’s, and was followed by the Subboreal. Because it was the warmest period of the Holocene, the Atlantic is often referenced more directly as the Holocene climatic optimum, the Atlantic is equivalent to Pollen Zone VII. Sometimes a Pre-atlantic or early Atlantic is distinguished, on the basis of an early dividing cold snap, other scientists place the Atlantic entirely after the cold snap, assigning the latter to the Boreal. The period is still in the process of definition, which then would end at the well-known 6.2 ka BC -cold-event. Or one single Atlantic period is defined, starting at that just mentioned cold-event, after a lake-level criterion, Kul’kova and others define the Atlantic as running from 8000 to 5000 BP. Each period has its distinctive ratios of species, according to the ice-core criterion it is extremely difficult to find a clear boundary, because the measurements still differ too much and alignments are still under construction. Many find a decline of temperature significant enough after 4800 BC, another criterion comes from bio-stratigraphy, the elm-decline. However, this appears in different regions between 4300 and 3100 BC, the Atlantic was a time of rising temperature and marine transgression on the islands of Denmark and elsewhere. The sea rose to 3 m above its present level by the end of the period, the oysters found there required lower salinity. Tides of up to 1 m were present, inland, lake levels in all north Europe were generally higher, with fluctuations. The temperature rise had the effect of extending southern climates northward in a short period. The treelines on northern mountains rose by 600 to 900 m and they did not replace the species that were there, but shifted the percentages in their favor. Across middle Europe, the forests were replaced by climax or old growth deciduous ones. The dense canopy theory, however, has been questioned recently by F. Vera, oak and hazel require more light than is allowed by the dense canopy. Vera hypothesizes that the lowlands were more open and that the low frequency of grass pollen was caused by the browsing of large herbivores, such as Bos primigenius and Equus ferus. During the Atlantic period the temperate zone forests of south and central Europe extended northward to replace the boreal mixed forest
Atlantic (period)
–
Canopy of deciduous temperate forest, which spread to the north in the Atlantic Period.
Atlantic (period)
–
Tree line
Atlantic (period)
–
Hedera helix
Atlantic (period)
–
Trapa natans
6.
6th millennium BC
–
During the 6th millennium BC, agriculture spread from the Balkans to Italy and Eastern Europe, and also from Mesopotamia to Egypt. World population was stable at numbers ranging between approximately 5 and 7 million. A massive volcanic landslide off Mount Etna, Sicily, caused a megatsunami that devastated the eastern Mediterranean coastline on the continents of Asia, Africa, C.6000 BC, The entire 6th millennium was a part of the Holocene climatic optimum. This was a period also known as the Atlantic period and was characterized by minimal glaciation. C.6000 BC, The Chalcolithic comes to the Fertile Crescent, first use of copper in Middle East. C.6000 BC, Fully Neolithic agriculture has spread through Anatolia to the Balkans, C.6000 BC, Junglefowl kept in India. C.6000 BC, Female figurines holding serpents are fashioned on Crete and may have associated with water, regenerative power. C.6000 BC, Equidae disappear from the Americas, C.5900 BC, Vinča culture emerges on the shores of lower Danube. C.5800 BC, Beginning of the Dadiwan culture in China, C.5800 BC, The Hassuna culture in Mesopotamia, with the earliest version of stamp seals. C.5760 BC, The volcano Puy de Dôme in France erupts, C.5677 BC, Cataclysmic volcanic eruption of 12, 000-foot high Mount Mazama creates Oregons Crater Lake when the resulting caldera fills with water. It is the largest single Holocene eruption in history of the Cascade Range, C.5600 BC, Beginning of the desertification of North Africa, ultimately leading to the creation of the Sahara desert. This process may have spurred migration to the region of the Nile in the east, C.5600 BC, Favored date of the Black Sea deluge hypothesis. C.5600 BC, The Red Paint People become established in the region from present-day Labrador to the state of New York,5509 BC, The Byzantine calendar dates the Genesis creation narrative to 1 September of this year. C.5500 BC, Beginning of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture in the region of modern-day Romania, Moldova, C.5500 BC, Beginning of Tell Zeidan in Syria. C. 6th millennium BC, Beginning of Teppe Hasanlu in Iran, C. 6th millennium BC, Beginning of Zayandeh River Culture in Iran, including Sialk. C. late 6th and early 5th millennium BC, Beginning of Samara culture at the Samara bend region of the middle Volga, 5500–4800 BC, Samarra culture in Iraq. C.5500 BC, Beginning of the Xinle culture in China, C.5500 BC, Agriculture started in Ancient Egypt. C.5500 BC, Predynastic stage of Prehistoric Egypt, C.5450 BC, Volcano Hekla eruption
6th millennium BC
–
Byzantine Calendar illustrating 1 September 5509 BC (the calendar is from the 12th century CE).
6th millennium BC
–
Black Sea today (light blue) and in 5600 BC (dark blue) according to Ryan's and Pitman's theories, versions of the
Black Sea deluge theory
6th millennium BC
–
Yangshao culture
7.
4th millennium BC
–
The 4th millennium BC spans the years 4000 through 3000 BC. Some of the changes in human culture during this time included the beginning of the Bronze Age and the invention of writing. The city states of Sumer and the kingdom of Egypt were established, world population in the course of the millennium doubled, approximately from 7 to 14 million people. C.4000 BC—First neolithic settlers in the island of Thera, Greece, C.4000 BC—Beaker from Susa is made. It is now at Musée du Louvre, Paris, 4000–2000 BC—People and animals, a detail of rock-shelter painting in Cogul, Lleida, Spain, are painted. It is now at Museo Arqueológico, Barcelona, C.3900 BC—5.9 kiloyear event, one of the most intense aridification events during the Holocene. It ended the Neolithic Subpluvial and likely initiated the most recent desiccation of the Sahara desert, triggering migration to river valleys, babylonian influence predominant in Mediterranean regions of Asia. In Colombia, circa 3600 BC, first rupestrian art Chiribiquete,3600 BC—Construction of the Ġgantija megalithic temple complex on the Island of Gozo, Malta, the worlds oldest extant unburied free-standing structures, and the worlds oldest religious structures. 3600–3000 BC—Construction of the Ta Ħaġrat and Kordin III temples on Malta,3500 Metalcasting began in the Mohenjodaro area. C.3500 BC—Figures of a man and a woman, from Cernavodă and they are now at National Historical Museum, Bucharest. 3500–3400 BC—Jar with boat designs, from Hierakonpolis is created, 3500–2340 BC—First cities developed in Southern Mesopotamia. The cuneiform script proper emerges from pictographic proto-writing in the later 4th millennium, mesopotamias proto-literate period spans the 35th to 32nd centuries. The first documents written in the Sumerian language date to the 31st century. 3300–2900 BC—Construction of the Newgrange solar observatory/passage tomb in Ireland, 3300—Bronze Age starts in Indus Valley. C.3300 BC—Ötzi the Iceman dies near the border between Austria and Italy, only to be discovered in 1991 buried in a glacier of the Ötztal Alps. His cause of death is believed to be homicide, 3250–3000 BC—Construction of three megalithic temples at Tarxien, Malta. 3200–2500 BC—Construction of the Ħaġar Qim megalithic temple complex on Malta, C.3150 BC—Predynastic period ended in Ancient Egypt. The period includes 1st and 2nd Dynasties, C.3150 BC a lesser Tollmanns hypothetical bolide event may have occurred
4th millennium BC
–
Sumerian Cuneiform Script
4th millennium BC
–
Monte d'Accoddi is an archaeological site in northern
Sardinia,
Italy, located in the territory of
Sassari near
Porto Torres. 4th millennium BC.
8.
Subboreal
–
The Subboreal is the second before last climatic period of the Holocene. It lasted from 3710 to 450 BCE, the composite scientific term Subboreal, i. e. below the Boreal, is derived from the Latin sub and the Greek Βορέας - Boreas, the God of the North Wind. It was first introduced in 1889 by Rutger Sernander to distinguish it from Axel Blytts Boreal, the Subboreal replaces the Atlantic and is followed by the Subatlantic. The Subboreal is equivalent to W. H. Zagwijns pollen zones IVa and IVb, in the pollen scheme of Fritz Theodor Overbeck it occupies pollen zone X. In paleoclimatology the Subboreal is divided into an Older Subboreal and a Younger Subboreal, historically the Subboreal is equivalent to most of the Neolithic and the entire Bronze Age which started 4200 to 3800 years ago. The beginning of the Subboreal is usually defined as 3710 years BCE or 5660 years BP. This lower limit is flexible, as authors prefer to use 4400 BCE or 6350 BP or like in northwestern Poland even 4830 BC or 6780 BP. The upper limit of the Subboreal is also flexible and can be attributed to the interval 1170 to 830 BCE, in varve years the Subboreal corrsponds to the interval 5660 till 2750 years BP. The boundary between the older and the younger Subboreal is equated as 1350 BCE, during the subboreal the climate was generally dryer and slightly cooler than in the preceding Atlantic, but still was warmer than today. The temperatures were 0.7 °C higher than during the following Subatlantic, consequently, in Scandinavia the lower limit of the glaciers was a 100 to 200 metres higher than during the Subatlantic. On the whole the oscillating temperatures slightly receded in the course of the Subboreal by about 0.3 °C, in the Aegean the beginning of the Subboreal was marked by a pronounced drought centered around 5600 years BP. Yet of far greater importance at this time was the coming to an end of the African Humid Period, during the interval 6200 to 5000 years BP more arid conditions were also on the fore in southern Mesopotamia causing great demographic changes and probably instigating the end of Uruk. In Northwestern Europe a drastic climatic cooling can be observed around 5000 varve years BP in the maars of the Eifel, in the preceding interval lasting from 8200 till 5000 varve years the July temperatures were on average still 1 °C higher. Yet at the time the January temperatures were rising and the yearly precipitation increased. In North Africa and in the Near East the interval lasting from 4700 to 4100 years BP is characterized by renewed, between 4500 and 4100 years BP monsoonal precipitations weakened, a possible cause for the upheavals leading to the end of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. The region of the Levant shows a similar climatic evolution, the dry conditions prevailing in Mesopotamia around 4200 years BP probably resulted in the downfall of the Akkadian Empire. The greenhouse gas carbon dioxide had reached right at the beginning of the Subboreal its Holocene minimal value of 260 ppm, during the Subboreal this value started rising and arrived at 293 ppm at the end of the period. As a comparison, todays value is over 400 ppm, in Scandinavia the Atlantic/Subboreal boundary shows a distinct vegetational change
Subboreal
–
Oak-hornbeam forest at Žernov, Czech Republic.
Subboreal
–
Stand of beech trees in the Sonian Forest near Brussels, Belgium
9.
3rd millennium BC
–
The 3rd millennium BC spans the years 3000 through 2000 BC. This period of time corresponds to the Early to Middle Bronze Age, in which imperialism, or the desire to conquer, grew to prominence in the city-states of the Middle East, the civilization of Ancient Egypt rose to a peak with the Old Kingdom. World population is estimated to have doubled in the course of the millennium, the Bronze Age occurred roughly between 3000 BC and 2500 BC. Along with this came the first appearances of mega architecture, imperialism, organized absolutism, the civilizations of Sumer and Akkad in Mesopotamia became a collection of volatile city-states in which warfare was common. Uninterrupted conflicts drained all available resources, energies and populations, in this millennium, larger empires succeeded the last, and conquerors grew in stature until the great Sargon of Akkad pushed his empire to the whole of Mesopotamia and beyond. It would not be surpassed in size until Assyrian times 1,500 years later, in the Old Kingdom of Egypt, the Egyptian pyramids were constructed and would remain the tallest and largest human constructions for thousands of years. Also in Egypt, pharaohs began to themselves as living gods made of an essence different from that of other human beings. Even in Europe, which was still largely neolithic during the same period, in the Near East and the Occident during the 3rd millennium BC, limits were being pushed by architects and rulers. Towards the close of the millennium, Egypt became the stage of the first popular revolution recorded in history. This dynasty was later to become involved with a wave of nomadic invaders known as the Amorites, certain 4th millennium BC events were precursors to the 3rd millennium BC, c.3700 BC, Lothal Advanced Civilization in India. C.3650 BC–3000 BC, Minoan culture appeared on Crete, C.3200 BC/3100 BC, Helladic culture and Cycladic culture both emerge in Greece. The 3rd millennium BC included the key events, c.3000 BC. C.3000 BC, Nubian A-Group, Ta-Seeti kingdom came to an end, C.3000 BC–2000 BC, Vessels from Denmark are made, they are now at National Museum, Copenhagen. C.2890 BC, Second Dynasty of Egypt, reign of Hotepsekhemwy, syria, Foundation of the city of Mari. Semitic tribes occupy Assyria in northern part of the plain of Shinar, phoenicians settle on Syrian coast, with centers at Tyre and Sidon. Beginning of the period of the Sage Kings in China, also known as the Three Sovereigns, C.2879 BC, Rise of the Văn Lang Kingdom and the Hồng Bàng Dynasty in northern Viet Nam. C.2800 BC–2700 BC, Harp Player, from Keros and it is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Iran, Creation of the Kingdom of Elam, germination of the Bristlecone pine tree Methuselah about 2700 BC, one of the oldest known trees still living now
3rd millennium BC
–
A model of the prehistoric town of
Los Millares, with its walls.
3rd millennium BC
–
Minoan Snake Goddess.
3rd millennium BC
–
Great Pyramid of Giza, Kheops.
3rd millennium BC
–
The Medicine Wheel in
Bighorn National Forest, Wyoming, USA
10.
1st millennium BC
–
The 1st millennium BC encompasses the Iron Age and sees the rise of many successive empires, and spanned from 1000 BC to 1 BC. The Neo-Assyrian Empire develops, followed by the Achaemenids, in Greece, Classical Antiquity begins with the colonization of Magna Graecia and peaks with the rise of Hellenism. The close of the sees the rise of the Roman Empire. In South Asia, the Vedic civilization blends into the Maurya Empire, the early Celts dominate Central Europe while Northern Europe is in the Pre-Roman Iron Age. In China, the Spring and Autumn period sees the rise of Confucianism, towards the close of the millennium, the Han Dynasty extends Chinese power towards Central Asia, where it borders on Indo-Greek and Iranian states. The Maya civilization rises in Central America, while in Africa, Ancient Egypt begins its decline, rise of the Nubian Empire, the religions of Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism develop. Graeco-Roman Europe, India and China see the rise of literature, world population greatly increases in the course of the millennium, reaching some 170 to 400 million people at its close depending on the estimates used. Qin built and unified various sections of the Great Wall of China, Qin built Qin Shi Huangs Mausoleum guarded by the life-sized Terracotta Army. Late 3rd century BC or 2nd century BC—Veiled and masked dancer is made and it is now kept at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The Genius of China,3000 years of science, discovery, New York, Simon and SchusterBased on the works of Joseph Needham Zimmer, Heinrich, Joseph Campbell, ed. Philosophy of India, London, E. C.4, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, Not in copyright
1st millennium BC
–
Human-headed winged bull facing. Bas-relief from the king
Sargon II 's palace at Dur Sharrukin in
Assyria (now Khorsabad in Iraq), c. 713–716 BC. From Paul-Émile Botta's excavations in 1843–1844.
11.
Subatlantic
–
The Subatlantic is the current climatic age of the Holocene epoch. It started at about 2,500 years BP and is still ongoing and its average temperatures were slightly lower than during the preceding Subboreal and Atlantic. During its course the temperature underwent several oscillations which had a influence on fauna and flora. With intensifying industrialisation, human society started to stress the natural climatic cycles with increased greenhouse gas emissions, the term subatlantic was first introduced in 1889 by Rutger Sernander to differentiate it from Axel Blytts atlantic. It follows upon the previous subboreal, according to Franz Firbas and Litt et al. it consists of the pollen zones IX and X. This corresponds in the scheme of Fritz Theodor Overbeck to the pollen zones XI, in climate stratigraphy the subatlantic is usually subdivided into an older subatlantic and a younger subatlantic. The older subatlantic corresponds to pollen zone IX characterized in central and northern Europe by beech or oak-beech forests, the beginning of the subatlantic is usually defined as 2,400 calendar years BP or 450 BC. Yet this lower limit is by no means rigid, some authors prefer to define the start of the subatlantic as 2,500 radiocarbon years which represents roughly 625 BC. Occasionally the onset of the subatlantic has even pushed back as far as 1200 BC. It occurred in the reaches of the Lower Oder valley between 930 and 830 BC, whereas in southwestern Poland this event had taken place already between 1170 and 1160 BC. The beginning of the younger subatlantic at 1250 AD coincides with the population increase and distinguishes itself by an increase in pine. In SW-Poland this event can be dated between 1050 and 1270 AD, if one equates the onset of the younger subatlantic with the first maximum of beech occurrence it shifts back to Carolingian times around 700 AD. The summer temperatures of the subatlantic are generally cooler than during the preceding subboreal. At the same time the winter precipitations augmented by up to 50%, overall the climate during the subatlantic therefore tends to cooler and wetter conditions. The lower limit of the glaciers in Scandinavia descended during the subatlantic by 100 to 200 meters, the beginning of the subatlantic opened at the middle of the first millennium BC with the so-called Roman Warm Period which lasted to the beginning of the 4th century. This corresponds broadly to classical antiquity, the optimum is marked by a temperature spike centered around 2,500 BP. As a consequence in Europe the winter temperatures were raised by 0.6 °C during this period, Ice cores from Greenland also demonstrate a distinct temperature rise after the younger subboreal. The cooling that followed coincides with the Migration Period and it was not very pronounced and of short duration – an average temperature drop of 0.2 °C and a winter temperature drop of 0.4 °C center around 350 AD
Subatlantic
–
Reconstructed temperatures of the earth during the last 2,000 years.
12.
Kiloannus
–
A year is the orbital period of the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun. Due to the Earths axial tilt, the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons, marked by changes in weather, the hours of daylight, and, consequently, vegetation and soil fertility. In temperate and subpolar regions around the globe, four seasons are recognized, spring, summer, autumn. In tropical and subtropical regions several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons, but in the seasonal tropics, a calendar year is an approximation of the number of days of the Earths orbital period as counted in a given calendar. The Gregorian, or modern, calendar, presents its calendar year to be either a common year of 365 days or a year of 366 days, as do the Julian calendars. For the Gregorian calendar the average length of the year across the complete leap cycle of 400 years is 365.2425 days. The ISO standard ISO 80000-3, Annex C, supports the symbol a to represent a year of either 365 or 366 days, in English, the abbreviations y and yr are commonly used. In astronomy, the Julian year is a unit of time, it is defined as 365.25 days of exactly 86400 seconds, totalling exactly 31557600 seconds in the Julian astronomical year. The word year is used for periods loosely associated with, but not identical to, the calendar or astronomical year, such as the seasonal year, the fiscal year. Similarly, year can mean the period of any planet, for example. The term can also be used in reference to any long period or cycle, west Saxon ġēar, Anglian ġēr continues Proto-Germanic *jǣran. Cognates are German Jahr, Old High German jār, Old Norse ár and Gothic jer, all the descendants of the Proto-Indo-European noun *yeh₁rom year, season. Cognates also descended from the same Proto-Indo-European noun are Avestan yārǝ year, Greek ὥρα year, season, period of time, Old Church Slavonic jarŭ, Latin annus is from a PIE noun *h₂et-no-, which also yielded Gothic aþn year. Both *yeh₁-ro- and *h₂et-no- are based on verbal roots expressing movement, *h₁ey- and *h₂et- respectively, the Greek word for year, ἔτος, is cognate with Latin vetus old, from the PIE word *wetos- year, also preserved in this meaning in Sanskrit vat-sa- yearling and vat-sa-ras year. Derived from Latin annus are a number of English words, such as annual, annuity, anniversary, etc. per annum means each year, anno Domini means in the year of the Lord. No astronomical year has an number of days or lunar months. Financial and scientific calculations often use a 365-day calendar to simplify daily rates, in the Julian calendar, the average length of a year is 365.25 days. In a non-leap year, there are 365 days, in a year there are 366 days
Kiloannus
–
Key concepts
13.
Gotland
–
Gotland, Gutland in the local dialect Gutnish, is a province, county, municipality, and diocese of Sweden. The province includes the islands of Fårö and Gotska Sandön to the north. The population is 57,221, of which about 23,600 live in Visby, the island of Gotland and the other areas of the province of Gotland make up less than one percent of Swedens total land area. From a military viewpoint, it occupies a location in the Baltic sea. The island is the home of the Gutes, and sites such as the Ajvide Settlement show that it has occupied since prehistory. This is consistent with the spread of peoples from the Middle East at about that time. Early on, Gotland became a center, with the town of Visby the most important Hanseatic city in the Baltic Sea. In late medieval times, the island had twenty district courts, each represented by its elected judge at the island-ting, new laws were decided at the landsting, which also took other decisions regarding the island as a whole. Gutasaga contains legends of how the island was settled by Þieluar, according to some historians, it is therefore an effort not only to write down the history of Gotland, but also to assert Gotlands independence from Sweden. In 1361, Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark invaded the island, the Victual Brothers occupied the island in 1394 to set up a stronghold as a headquarters of their own in Visby. At last, Gotland became a fief of the Teutonic Knights, an invading army of Teutonic Knights conquered the island in 1398, destroying Visby and driving the Victual Brothers from Gotland. The number of Arab dirhams discovered on the island of Gotland alone is astoundingly high, in the various hoards located around the island, there are more of these silver coins than at any other site in Western Eurasia. The total sum is almost as great as the number that has been unearthed in the entire Muslim world, the Berezan Runestone, discovered in 1905 in Ukraine, was made by a Varangian trader named Grani in memory of his business partner Karl. It is assumed that they were from Gotland, the Mästermyr chest, an important artefact from the Viking Age, was found in Gotland. The authority of the landsting was successively eroded after the island was occupied by the Teutonic Order, then sold to Eric of Pomerania, in late medieval times, the ting consisted of twelve representatives for the farmers, free-holders or tenants. Since the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645, the island has remained under Swedish rule, the Order never regained its territory, and eventually it reestablished itself in Rome as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. On 22 April 1808, during the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia, a Russian army landed on the shores of Gotland near Grötlingbo. Under command of Nikolaus Andrejevich Bodisco 1,800 Russians took the city of Visby without any combat or engagement, and occupied the island
Gotland
–
Tofta Church, one of the island's many
iconic, well-preserved medieval churches.
Gotland
Gotland
–
Torsätra runestone (
U 614) raised in memory of one of the Swedish king's tribute collectors who fell ill and died during a trip to Gotland.
Swedish History Museum, Stockholm.
Gotland
–
A part of the Spillings Hoard at Gotlands Museum.
14.
Sweden
–
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
Sweden
–
A
Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
–
Flag
Sweden
–
A
romantic nationalist interpretation of
Valdemar IV taking control over
Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
–
Stockholm in mid-17th century
15.
Hunter-gatherer
–
A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging, in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was humanitys first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 percent of human history, following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change have been displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their activity with horticulture and/or keeping animals. In the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that humans were obtaining food via scavenging. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view and this hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis, both subsistence strategies could have been in use – sequentially, alternating or even simultaneously. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago and this specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as, fishing nets, hooks, and bone harpoons. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated and spread in different areas including the Middle East, Asia, Mesoamerica. Forest gardening was also being used as a production system in various parts of the world over this period. Forest gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions, in the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved, whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior introduced species were selected and incorporated into the gardens, many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, as the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility. Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements, mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available
Hunter-gatherer
–
A
San man from
Namibia. The San still live full-time the traditional way, as hunter-gatherers.
Hunter-gatherer
Hunter-gatherer
–
A 19th century
engraving of an
Indigenous Australian encampment.
Hunter-gatherer
–
A
Shoshone encampment in the
Wind River Mountains of Wyoming, photographed by Percy Jackson, 1870
16.
Archaeological culture
–
An archaeological culture is a recurring assemblage of artifacts from a specific time and place, which may constitute the material culture remains of a particular past human society. The connection between the artifacts is based on understanding and interpretation and does not necessarily relate to real groups of humans in the past. The concept of culture is fundamental to culture-historical archaeology. Different cultural groups have material culture items which differ both functionally and aesthetically due to varying cultural and social practices and this notion is observably true on the broadest scales. For example, the equipment associated with the brewing of tea varies greatly across the world, social relations to material culture often include notions of identity and status. The classic definition of this comes from Gordon Childe, We find certain types of remains - pots, implements, ornaments, burial rites. Such a complex of associated traits we shall call a group or just a culture. We assume that such a complex is the expression of what today we would call a people. The concept of a culture was crucial to linking the typological analysis of archaeological evidence to mechanisms that attempted to explain why they change through time. The key explanations favoured by culture-historians were the diffusion of forms from one group to another or the migration of the peoples themselves. Conversely, if one pottery-type suddenly replaces a great diversity of types in an entire region. Archaeological cultures were generally equated with separate peoples leading in some cases to distinct nationalist archaeologies, most archaeological cultures are named after either the type artifact or type site that defines the culture. For example, cultures may be named after pottery types such as Linear Pottery Culture or Funnelbeaker culture, more frequently, they are named after the site at which the culture was first defined such as the Halstatt culture or Clovis culture. Since the term culture has different meanings, scholars have also coined a more specific term paleo-culture or paleoculture. Works of Kulturgeschichte were produced by a number of German scholars, particularly Gustav Klemm, from 1780 onwards, the first use of culture in an archaeological context was in Christian Thomsens 1836 work Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed. It was not until the 20th century and the works of German prehistorian, Kossinna saw the archaeological record as a mosaic of clearly defined cultures that were strongly associated with race. The strongly racist character of Kossinnas work meant it had direct influence outside of Germany at the time. However, the general culture history approach to archaeology that he began did replace social evolutionism as the dominant paradigm for much of the 20th century
Archaeological culture
–
Taiwanese tea kettle
Archaeological culture
–
British Denby tea set
Archaeological culture
–
Russian decorated
samovar
17.
Scandinavia
–
Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
Scandinavia
–
Scandinavia
Scandinavia
–
Late
Baltic Ice Lake around 10,300 years
B.P., with a channel near Mount
Billingen through what is now central
Sweden (political boundaries added)
Scandinavia
–
Kautokeino, the main
Sami city in
Norway
18.
Svealand
–
Svealand, Swealand or Sweden proper is the historical core region of Sweden. It is located in south central Sweden and is one of three lands of Sweden, bounded to the north by Norrland and to the south by Götaland, deep forests, Tiveden, Tylöskog, and Kolmården, separated Svealand from Götaland. Historically, its inhabitants were called Svear, from which is derived the English Swedes, Svealand consists of the capital region Mälardalen in the east, Roslagen in the north-east, the former mining district Bergslagen in the center, and Dalarna and Värmland in the west. The older name of Sweden in Swedish, Svea rike or the Realm of the Swedes, Swea Region, other forms are Sweoðeod, and Sweorice. As the domains of the Swedish kings grew, the name Svealand began to be used to separate the territory from the new. Since 1634, Sweden has been divided into counties instead of provinces, Svealand was the original Sweden, to which it gave its name. This is supported by linguistics and is based on medieval sources. In Old Norse and in Old English, Svealand and Sweden are synonymous, in Sögubrot af Nokkrum for instance, Kolmården between Svealand and Östergötland is described as the border between Sweden and Östergötland. In Hervarar saga, king Ingold I rides to Sweden through Östergötland, hann reið austr um Smáland ok í eystra Gautland ok svá í Svíþjóð. Sweoland is mentioned in the travels of Ohthere of Hålogaland around 890, the lord Bo Jonsson Grip was probably the one who was best acquainted with the geography of the Swedish kingdom since he owned more than half of it. In 1384, he stated in his will that the kingdom consisted of Swerige, the 15th-century Swedish version of the Þiðrekssaga says that Vilkinaland was formerly a name for Sweden and Götaland, wilcina land som nw är kalladh swerige oc götaland. A campaign to the east started by the kings of Svealand during the 12th century eventually conquered the provinces of Österland, an older name for Finland. In the early Middle Ages the modern province of Gästrikland was part of Tiundaland, for a time in the early 19th century, the province of Värmland belonged to the Court of Appeal for Svealand. Even though Värmland historically belonged to Götaland, it has by custom long been considered part of Svealand, Norrland Götaland Österland Rike Media related to Svealand at Wikimedia Commons
Svealand
–
Sweden's historical four lands.
19.
Denmark
–
Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of 42,924 square kilometres. The country consists of a peninsula, Jutland, and an archipelago of 443 named islands, with the largest being Zealand, the islands are characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts, low elevation and a temperate climate. The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were ruled together under the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. Denmark and Norway remained under the monarch until outside forces dissolved the union in 1814. The union with Norway made it possible for Denmark to inherit the Faroe Islands, Iceland, beginning in the 17th century, there were several cessions of territory to Sweden. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945, the Constitution of Denmark was signed on 5 June 1849, ending the absolute monarchy which had begun in 1660. It establishes a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy, the government and national parliament are seated in Copenhagen, the nations capital, largest city and main commercial centre. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs, Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948, in Greenland home rule was established in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009. Denmark became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973, maintaining certain opt-outs, it retains its own currency, the krone. It is among the members of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, OSCE. The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a kingdom, is a subject which attracts debate. This is centred primarily on the prefix Dan and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning land, related to German Tenne threshing floor. The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland, with references to the border forests in south Schleswig. The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth
Denmark
–
The gilded side of the
Trundholm sun chariot dating from the Nordic Bronze Age.
Denmark
–
Flag
Denmark
–
The
Ladby ship, the largest ship burial found in Denmark.
Denmark
–
Larger of the two Jelling stones, raised by
Harald Bluetooth.
20.
Norway
–
The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
Norway
–
The
helmet found at Gjermundbu near
Haugsbygd,
Buskerud, is the only
Viking Age helmet that has been found.
Norway
–
Flag
Norway
–
The
Gokstad ship at the
Viking Ship Museum in
Oslo, Norway
Norway
–
The
Battle of the Sound between an allied Dano-Norwegian–
Dutch fleet and the Swedish navy, 8 November 1658 (29 October
O.S.)
21.
Mesolithic
–
In archaeology, the Mesolithic is the culture between Paleolithic and Neolithic. The term Epipaleolithic is often used for areas outside northern Europe, Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It was originally post-Pleistocene, pre-agricultural material in northwest Europe about 10,000 to 5000 BC, in the archaeology of Northern Europe, for example for archaeological sites in Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, Ukraine, and Russia, the term Mesolithic is almost always used. In the archaeology of other areas, the term Epipaleolithic may be preferred by most authors, in the New World, neither term is used. Other authors use the term Mesolithic for a variety of Late Paleolithic cultures subsequent to the end of the last glacial period whether they are transitional towards agriculture or not, conversely, those that are in course of transition toward artificial food production are assigned to the Mesolithic. Therefore, care must be taken in translating Mesolithic as Middle Stone Age, subdivisions of earlier and later were added to the Stone Age by Thomsen and especially his junior colleague and employee Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae. John Lubbock kept these divisions in his work Pre-historic Times in 1865 and he saw no need for an intermediate category. When Hodder Westropp introduced the Mesolithic in 1866, as an intermediate between Paleolithic and Neolithic, a storm of controversy immediately arose around it. A British school led by John Evans denied any need for an intermediate, the ages blended together like the colors of a rainbow, he said. A European school led by Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet asserted that there was a gap between the earlier and later, edouard Piette claimed to have filled the gap with his discovery of the Azilian Culture. Knut Stjerna offered an alternative in the Epipaleolithic, a continuation of the use of Paleolithic technology, the start and end dates of the Mesolithic vary by geographical region. Childes view prevails that the term covers the period between the end of the Pleistocene and the start of the Neolithic. If the Mesolithic is more similar to the Paleolithic it is called the Epipaleolithic, the Paleolithic was an age of purely hunting and gathering while in the Neolithic domestication of plants and animals had occurred. Some Mesolithic peoples continued with intensive hunting, others were practising the initial stages of domestication. The type of remains the diagnostic factor, The Mesolithic featured composite devices manufactured with Mode V chipped stone tools. The Paleolithic had utilized Modes I–IV and the Neolithic mainly abandoned the chipped microliths in favor of polished, not chipped, the first period, known as Mesolithic 1, followed the Aurignacian or Levantine Upper Paleolithic periods throughout the Levant. By the end of the Aurignacian, gradual changes took place in stone industries, small stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time. The microliths of this period differ greatly from the Aurignacian artifacts
Mesolithic
–
Mesolithic microliths
Mesolithic
–
Two skeletons of women aged between 25 and 35 years, dated between 6740 and 5680 BP, both of whom died a violent death. Found at
Téviec,
France in 1938.
22.
Neolithic
–
It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
Neolithic
–
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.
Neolithic
–
Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes
Neolithic
–
Female figure from
Tumba Madžari,
Republic of Macedonia
Neolithic
–
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)
23.
Agricultural
–
Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
Agricultural
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Agriculture
Agricultural
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Fields in
Záhorie (
Slovakia) - a typical Central European agricultural region.
Agricultural
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Domestic sheep and a
cow (heifer) pastured together in
South Africa.
Agricultural
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A
Sumerian harvester's sickle made from baked clay (ca. 3000 BC).
24.
Funnelbeaker culture
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The Funnelbeaker culture, in short TRB or TBK was an archaeological culture in north-central Europe. Especially in the southern and eastern groups, local sequences of variants emerged, the younger TRB in these areas was superseded by the Single Grave culture at about 2800 BC. The north-central European megaliths were built primarily during the TRB era, the Funnelbeaker culture is named for its characteristic ceramics, beakers and amphorae with funnel-shaped tops, which were found in dolmen burials. The TRB ranges from the Elbe catchment in Germany and Bohemia with an extension into the Netherlands, to southern Scandinavia in the north. With the exception of some settlements such as Alvastra pile-dwelling. It was characterised by single-family daubed houses c.12 m x 6 m and it was dominated by animal husbandry of sheep, cattle, pigs and goats, but there was also hunting and fishing. One find assigned to the Funnelbeaker culture is the Bronocice pot from Poland, primitive wheat and barley was grown on small patches that were fast depleted, due to which the population frequently moved small distances. There was also mining and collection of flintstone, which was traded into regions lacking the stone, the culture imported copper from Central Europe, especially daggers and axes. The houses were centered on a grave, a symbol of social cohesion. Burial practices were varied, depending on region and changed over time, inhumation seems to have been the rule. The oldest graves consisted of wooden chambered cairns inside long barrows, originally, the structures were probably covered with a heap of dirt and the entrance was blocked by a stone. The Funnelbeaker culture marks the appearance of megalithic tombs at the coasts of the Baltic and of the North sea, the megalithic structures of Ireland, France and Portugal are somewhat older and have been connected to earlier archeological cultures of those areas. At graves, the people sacrificed ceramic vessels that contained food along with amber jewelry, flint-axes and vessels were also deposed in streams and lakes near the farmlands, and virtually all Swedens 10,000 flint axes that have been found from this culture were probably sacrificed in water. They also constructed large cult centres surrounded by pales, earthworks, the largest one is found at Sarup on Fyn. It comprises 85,000 m2 and is estimated to have taken 8000 workdays, another cult centre at Stävie near Lund comprises 30,000 m2. Marija Gimbutas postulated that the relationship between the aboriginal and intrusive cultures resulted in quick and smooth cultural morphosis into the Corded Ware culture. By contrast a number of archaeologists in the past have proposed that the Corded Ware culture was a purely local development from Funnel Beaker. Thus the question of continuity versus migration at the cusp of the change was of interest to geneticists specialising in ancient DNA
Funnelbeaker culture
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Dolmen in Lancken-Granitz, one of about 1,000 preserved
TRB burial sites in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Funnelbeaker culture
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Skarpsallingkarret, the clay pot from Skarpsalling, is from around 3200 BC. It was found in 1891 on the Oudrup moor near Skarpsalling in Himmerland,
Denmark.
Funnelbeaker culture
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Pottery from a
dolmen in
Västergötland,
Sweden
Funnelbeaker culture
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Polygonal battle axe, from
Dalarna
25.
Corded Ware culture
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Corded Ware culture encompassed a vast area, from the Rhine on the west to the Volga in the east, occupying parts of Northern Europe, Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The Corded Ware was genetically related to the Yamnaya culture. The Corded Ware culture may have disseminated the Proto-Germanic and Proto-Balto-Slavic Indo-European languages, the Corded Ware Culture also shows genetic affinity with the later Sintashta culture, where the proto-Indo-Iranian language originated. The term Corded Ware culture was first introduced by the German archaeologist Friedrich Klopfleisch in 1883 and he named it after cord-like impressions or ornamentation characteristic of its pottery. The term Single Grave culture comes from its burial custom, which consisted of inhumation under tumuli in a position with various artifacts. Battle Axe culture, or Boat Axe culture, is named from its characteristic grave offering to males, at the same time, they had several shared elements that are characteristic of all Corded Ware groups, such as their burial practices, pottery with cord decoration and unique stone-axes. The contemporary Beaker culture overlapped with the extremity of this culture, west of the Elbe. The origins and dispersal of Corded Ware culture was for a time one of the pivotal unresolved issues of the Indo-European Urheimat problem. Its wide area of distribution indicates rapid expansion at the time of the dispersal of Indo-European languages. Some archaeologists believed it sprang from central Europe while others saw an influence from nomadic societies of the steppes. In favour of the first view was the fact that Corded Ware coincides considerably with the earlier north-central European Funnelbeaker culture, according to Gimbutas, the Corded Ware culture was preceded by the Globular Amphora culture, which she regarded to be an Indo-European culture. The Globular Amphora culture stretched from central Europe to the Baltic sea, however, in other regions Corded Ware appears to herald a new culture and physical type. The degree to which cultural change generally represents immigration were matter of debate, according to controversial radiocarbon dates, Corded Ware ceramic forms in single graves develop earlier in the area that is now Poland than in western and southern Central Europe. The earliest radiocarbon dates for Corded Ware indeed come from Kujawy and Lesser Poland in central and southern Poland, whereas in the area of the present Baltic states and East Prussia, it is seen as an intrusive successor to the southwestern portion of the Narva culture. However, today Corded Ware is now seen as intrusive, though not necessarily aggressively so. A Genetic study conducted by Haak et al, about 75% of the DNA of late Neolithic Corded Ware skeletons found in Germany was a precise match to DNA from individuals of the Yamnaya culture. Haak et al. also note that their results suggest that haplogroups R1b and R1a spread into Europe from the East after 3,000 BCE.5 In terms of phenotypes, Wilde et al. and Haak et al. Autosomal DNA tests also indicate that the Yamnaya migration from the steppes introduced a component of ancestry referred to as Ancient North Eurasian admixture into Europe
Corded Ware culture
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Boat-shaped battle axe from
Närke
Corded Ware culture
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Corded Ware culture
Corded Ware culture
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Corded ware pottery in the
Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte (Berlin). Ca. 2500 BC
Corded Ware culture
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Late battle axe from
Gotland
26.
Alvastra Pile Dwelling
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The Alvastra pile-dwelling is a pile dwelling from ca 3000 BC in Ödeshög Municipality, Östergötland County, Sweden. Southern Scandinavia has many types of cult centres, but the Alvastra pile dwelling is unique in Northern Europe and is the only of its kind outside of the Alpine Pile Dweller culture. It was the social and religious centre of a tribe that left objects from the Funnelbeaker culture. Ca 2/3 of the dwelling was excavated by archaeologists in the years 1908–18, 1928–39. The archaeologists found stilts made of trees, notably oak, hazel, elm. A dendrochronological study showed that the construction had proceeded in two stages during 18 years, and after a break of 22 years, the work had been finished 40–42 years after the work had begun. During the first years, the construction consisted of two surfaces, which were delimited by rows of oak stakes and the surfaces were placed in an oblique angle. Each rectangle was ca 200 m² and were separated into eight or nine rooms, most of the rooms had floors of logs. The reconstructions and the additions were partly motivated by fires, the construction was connected with the shore by footbridges on both sides. The size of the pile dwelling indicates that it was a communal work and it was also no fortification, because the stilts are too sparse and pushed into the bottom of the swamp too shallowly. The location in the swamp is also unfit for work. The pile dwelling was only inhabited during summer months. It was the tribes or the social centre where they gathered for festivities. There are about 100 hearths of limestone evenly distributed across the dwelling, around the hearths, there is an abundance of residue from meals, charred wheat and barley, split and charred crabapples, hazel nut shells, bone of cattle, sheep and pigs. There are remains of game, such as red deer, moose, wolf, and bear, remains from such as mallard and black grouse. The ceramics are the same as those of the hunter-gatherer Pitted Ware culture, the remains of craftmanship are few, and so the tools have been transported to the pile dwelling from the workshops, where they were probably sacrificed to the gods. Among the most remarkable finds are double edged battle axes, which appear to have played a role in the cult, after the reconstruction, year 40–42, the construction was used as a cemetery, where the dead appear to have been left on platforms raised on stilts. Alvastra Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps Post in ground Nationalencyklopedin An article from the National History Museum
Alvastra Pile Dwelling
–
The location of the pile dwelling as seen in 2005
27.
Lithic blade
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In archaeology a blade is a type of stone tool created by striking a long narrow flake from a stone core. This process of reducing the stone and producing the blades is called lithic reduction, archaeologists use this process of flintknapping to analyze blades and observe their technological uses for historical peoples. Blades are defined as being flakes that are at least twice as long as they are wide and it is important to note that blade cores appear and are different from regular flaking cores, as each cores conchoidal nature is suited for different types of flaking. Blades are created using stones that have a structure and easily be fractured into a smooth piece without fracturing. Blades became the technology of the Upper Palaeolithic era, although they are occasionally found in earlier periods. Different techniques are required for blade creation, a soft punch or hammerstone is necessary for creating a blade. The long sharp edges of blades made them useful for a variety of purposes, after blades are flaked, they are often incorporated as parts of larger tools, such as spears. Other times, the shape and sharpness serves the designed role. Blades were often employed in the process of material culture. Scrapers, used for working or woodworking, or burins. Cores from which blades have been struck are called blade cores, small examples are called microblades and were used in the Mesolithic as elements of composite tools. Blades with one edge blunted by removal of flakes are called backed blade. A blade core becomes a core when there are no more useful angles to knock off blades. Blades can be classified into different types depending on their shape. Archaeologists have also known to use the microscopic striations created from the lithic reduction process to classify the blades into specific types. Once classified archaeologists can use information to see how the blade was produced, who produced it. Blade technology, too, is able to provide researchers with understanding of the realms of the culture in question. For example, in 2002 an article was published concerning research done in Tehran which is located in central Iran, the researched focused on six late prehistoric sites which coincidentally had a large focus of blade production
Lithic blade
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Flint blade from
Lithic reduction -
Upper Paleolithic -
Brassempouy, France - Muséum of Toulouse
28.
Uppland
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Uppland is a historical province or landskap on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital. It borders Södermanland, Västmanland and Gästrikland and it is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic sea. It has a short and strangely shaped land border with Åland. The name literally means up land, a name which is encountered in especially older English literature. Its Latinised form, which is used, is Uplandia. The traditional provinces of Sweden serve no administrative or political purposes, the corresponding administrative county, or län, is Uppsala County, which occupies the larger part of the territory. The bulk of the population, however, is within Stockholm County, minor parts of the province are also in Västmanland County, Gävleborg County and Södermanland County. Upplands arms were granted in 1560, distinctive in its depiction of a Globus cruciger, historically, Uppland ranked as a duchy and the coat of arms is represented with a ducal coronet. Blazoned thus, Gules, a Royal Orb Or gemmed of the field, despite the fact that the Uppsala län has a different name and a smaller territory it was granted the same coat of arms in 1940. Uppland was historically divided into chartered cities and districts, within Roslagen they were called skeppslag, and in the rest of the province hundreds. The abovementioned districts and cities have no administrative function today, the provincial population corresponds to the different overlapping counties as follows, Uppland is the birth place of Saint Brigitta of Sweden. The earliest unambiguous mention of the province of Uppland comes from the 1296, the Swedish capital of Stockholm is divided between two provinces. The southern half lies in Södermanland and the half in Uppland. Prince Waldemar Princess Ingiburga, his wife Prince Gustav Prince Sigvard Uppsala is the seat of the archbishop of the Lutheran Church of Sweden. The archaeological site Birka and the castle of Drottningholm are UNESCO World Heritage sites, football in the province is administered by Upplands Fotbollförbund. Uppland - Tourist site Uppland - Tourist information
Uppland
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Coat of arms
29.
Pottery
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Pottery is the craft of making ceramic material into pots or potterywares using mud. Major types of potterywares include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain, the place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery. Early Neolithic pottery have found in places such as Jomon Japan. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing, however, prior to shaping processes. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, after shaping, it is dried and then fired. Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery, at sufficient moisture content, bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form. Leather-hard refers to a body that has been dried partially. At this stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content, clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state, bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisque fired, bisque refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time, known as bisque fired or biscuit fired. This firing changes the body in several ways. Mineral components of the body will undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay. Glaze fired is the stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is glazed fired, which causes the material to melt
Pottery
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A potter at work in
Bangalore,
India
Pottery
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Unfired "green ware" pottery on a traditional drying rack at
Conner Prairie living history museum
Pottery
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Pottery workshop reconstruction in the Museum of traditional crafts and applied arts,
Troyan,
Bulgaria
Pottery
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A potter at work in Jaura,
Madhya Pradesh,
India.
