1.
Arrondissements of Paris
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The city of Paris is divided into twenty arrondissements municipaux, administrative districts, more simply referred to as arrondissements. These are not to be confused with departmental arrondissements, which subdivide the 101 French départements, the word arrondissement, when applied to Paris, refers almost always to the municipal arrondissements listed below. The number of the arrondissement is indicated by the last two digits in most Parisian postal codes, the twenty arrondissements are arranged in the form of a clockwise spiral, starting from the middle of the city, with the first on the Right Bank of the Seine. The French cities of Lyon and Marseille have, more recently, in French, notably on street signs, the number is often given in Roman numerals. For example, the Eiffel Tower belongs to the VIIe arrondissement while Gare de lEst is in the Xe arrondissement, with the Bois de Vincennes 2. Without the Bois de Vincennes 3, with the Bois de Boulogne 4. Without the Bois de Boulogne 5,2005 is the year of the most recent official estimate, population of these arrondissements may still be growing Each arrondissement is subdivided administratively into four quartiers. Paris thus has eighty quartiers administratifs, each containing a police station, for a table giving the names of the eighty quartiers, see Quarters of Paris. On 11 October 1795, Paris was divided into twelve arrondissements and they were numbered from west to east, with the numbers 1-9 situated on the Right Bank of the Seine and the numbers 10-12 on the Left Bank. Each arrondissement was subdivided into four quartiers, which corresponded to the 48 original districts created in 1790, emperor Napoleon III and the Prefect of the Seine Baron Haussmann developed a plan to incorporate several of the surrounding communes into the Paris jurisdiction in the late 1850s. Parliament passed the legislation in 1859, and the expansion took effect when the law was promulgated on 3 November 1859. The previous twelve arrondissements were reorganized from twelve arrondissements into twenty, the mayor of Passy, Possoz, devised the idea of a numbering the arrondissements in a spiral pattern beginning with the first centered on the imperial palaces, which put Passy in the sixteenth. In historical records, when it is important to distinguish between two systems, the original arrondissements are indicated by adding the term ancienne, for example, arrondissement, for other uses of the term. Paris districts Paris, je taime, film composed of sequences on each arrondissement Cobb, Richard, Breach. Official Paris website Diagrams of each arrondissement showing its quartiers administratifs
Arrondissements of Paris
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Map showing the twelve old arrondissements. The surrounding grey area shows the size of Paris after the expansion in 1860.
Arrondissements of Paris
2.
4th arrondissement of Paris
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The 4th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. The 4th arrondissement contains the Renaissance-era Paris City Hall, the eastern parts of the Île de la Cité as well as the Île Saint-Louis are also included within the 4th arrondissement. The 4th arrondissement is known for its streets, cafés. It is desirable for those insisting on old buildings and multi-cultural exposure, with a land area of 1.601 km2, the 4th arrondissement is the third smallest arrondissement in the city. The peak of population of the 4th arrondissement actually occurred before 1861, in 1999, the population was 30,675, while the arrondissement hosted 41,424 jobs. ¹The peak of population actually occurred before 1861, but the arrondissement was created in 1860, the Île de la Cité has been inhabited since the 1st century BC, when it was occupied by the Parisii tribe of the Gauls. The Right Bank was first settled in the early Middle Ages, since the end of the 19th century, le Marais has been populated by a significant Jewish population, the Rue des Rosiers being at the heart of its community, with a handful of kosher restaurants. Since the 1990s, gay culture has made an impact on the arrondissement, opening a number of bars and cafés in the area by the town hall
4th arrondissement of Paris
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Notre-Dame, on the
Île de la Cité in the 4th arrondissement.
4th arrondissement of Paris
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Robert de Vaugondy 's map of Paris (4th arrondissement) - 1760
4th arrondissement of Paris
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Saint-Jacques Tower circa 1867
3.
11th arrondissement of Paris
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The 11th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. Situated on the Right Bank of the River Seine, the 11th is one of the most densely populated urban districts not just of Paris, the eleventh arrondissement is a varied and engaging area. The Place de la Bastille and the rue du Faubourg St Antoine are full of fashionable cafés, restaurants, and nightlife, the Oberkampf district to the north is another popular area for nightlife. The east is residential, with more wholesale commerce, while the areas around the Boulevard Voltaire. In recent years this district has emerged as one of the trendiest regions of Paris, on November 13th 2015, it was the site of coordinated shootings and bombings that left 132 dead. The land area of this arrondissement is 3.666 km2, the peak population of Pariss 11th arrondissement occurred in 1911, with 242,295 inhabitants. Today, the arrondissement remains the most densely populated in Paris, accompanied by a volume of business activity,149,102 inhabitants and 71,962 jobs in the last census. The population consists of a number of single adults, though its eastern portions are more family-oriented. There is a community spirit in most areas of the eleventh. Cirque dhiver Église Saint-Ambroise ESCP-EAP Musée Édith Piaf Musée du Fumeur 11th arrondissement travel guide from Wikivoyage Mairie du 11e website
11th arrondissement of Paris
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The
Cirque d'Hiver in the 11th arrondissement.
11th arrondissement of Paris
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Cirque d'hiver
11th arrondissement of Paris
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Église Saint-Ambroise
11th arrondissement of Paris
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Arrondissement hall
4.
12th arrondissement of Paris
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The 12th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. The 12th arrondissement contains the Opéra de la Bastille, the second largest opera house in Paris and it was inaugurated in 1989, on the 200th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. The Bois de Vincennes is also located in this arrondissement, the land area of this arrondissement is 16.324 km2, two-thirds of which consists of the Bois de Vincennes park. Excluding the Bois de Vincennes, its area is 6.377 km2. The peak of population of Pariss 12th arrondissement occurred in 1962 and was followed by three decades of decline, recently, however, the population has begun to grow again, since the restructuring of the 1990s. As of the last census, in 1999, the population was 136,591 inhabitants, the same census showed that the 12th arrondissement, heavily involved in business activity, contained 112,336 jobs, mainly around the new district of Bercy. The Derichebourg Group, the parent company of Servisair, has its office in the arrondissement. Foster Wheeler has its Foster Wheeler France division offices in the 12th arrondissement, lycée Paul Valéry is located in this arrondissement. Ensemble Scolaire Saint Michel de Picpus has two campuses in this arrondissmement
12th arrondissement of Paris
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The 12th arrondissement's town hall
12th arrondissement of Paris
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Lycée Paul Valéry
12th arrondissement of Paris
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Place Félix Eboué
5.
Quarters of Paris
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Below are a few quarters that have developed or retained a character of their own, usually identifiable by their commercial or cultural activity, and often named for a neighbourhood landmark. Paris islands were once many, but over the centuries have been united or joined to the mainland, today there are but two adjacent islands forming the centre of Paris, the Île de la Cité and the Île Saint-Louis. The westernmost of two islands, the Île de la Cité, is Paris heart and origin. Only the westernmost and north-eastern extremities of the island remain residential today, purely residential in nature, this islands first use was for the grazing of market cattle and the stocking of wood. One of Frances first examples of urban planning, it was mapped and built from end to end during the 17th-century reigns of Henri IV, a peaceful oasis of calm in the busy Paris centre, this island has but narrow one-way streets and no metro station. Paris Rive Droite, formerly a marshland between two arms of the Seine river, remained uninhabited until the early 11th century. Once growth began there it soon eclipsed that of both the island and its Rive Gauche combined, and has remained Paris densest area ever since. Le Châtelet, a stronghold/gatehouse guarding the northern end of a bridge from the Cité island, was the origin of Paris first real Rive Droite growth. As Les Halles is a Metro and RER hub for connecting all suburban regions around the capital. Fast-food is the restaurant staple of this quarters most central region, one of the regions most prominent landmarks is the 1976-built Centre Georges Pompidou. Recently renovated, it houses the BPI, one of the citys largest libraries and places of study. The wide square in front is a place for street performers. Just to the east of the Place du Châtelet lies Pariss Hôtel de Ville and it stands on the almost exact location of a 12th-century house of columns belonging to the citys Prévôt des Marchands, then a later version built in 1628 whose shell is still the same today. Just across the street to the north of rue de Rivoli is the large 1870s-built BHV household shopping centre, the Louvre, once Paris second Royal Palace, is today a museum, garden, and, more recently, a shopping mall and Fashion show centre. This quarter in general has many 17th- and 18th-century buildings of large standing, as well as some of Paris more grandiose constructions, namely along the avenue de lOpéra, from the Haussmann era. Centred on Paris Opéra Garnier, completed in 1882, this quarter houses at once central Paris largest shopping centres and is an important banking centre. The streets behind both sides of the avenue de lOpéra have many Japanese restaurants, and most of the avenues in this area duty-free stores selling luxury brands, the rue Saint Honoré is known for its luxury boutiques selling all fashion labels of international renown. The Place Vendôme, around its famous Hôtel Ritz, is the centre of the Paris Triangle dOr of jewellers, there are many major banks and offices in this area as well
Quarters of Paris
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The
Notre Dame de Paris cathedral
Quarters of Paris
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Place Vendôme seen from rue de la Paix.
Quarters of Paris
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The
Arc de Triomphe seen from the Avenue de Friedland.
Quarters of Paris
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Montmartre as seen from atop the
Centre Georges Pompidou.
6.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
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In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
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Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
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The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
7.
Bastille
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The Bastille was a fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine. It played an important role in the conflicts of France. The Bastille was built to defend the approach to the city of Paris from the English threat in the Hundred Years War. The innovative design proved influential in both France and England and was widely copied, the fortress was declared a state prison in 1417, this role was expanded first under the English occupiers of the 1420s and 1430s, and then under Louis XI in the 1460s. The defences of the Bastille were fortified in response to the English and Imperial threat during the 1550s, the Bastille played a key role in the rebellion of the Fronde and the battle of the faubourg Saint-Antoine, which was fought beneath its walls in 1652. Louis XIV used the Bastille as a prison for members of French society who had opposed or angered him including, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. From 1659 onwards, the Bastille functioned primarily as a state penitentiary, although inmates were kept in relatively good conditions, criticism of the Bastille grew during the 18th century, fueled by autobiographies written by former prisoners. Reforms were implemented and prisoner numbers were considerably reduced, in 1789 the royal governments financial crisis and the formation of the National Assembly gave rise to a swelling of republican sentiments among city-dwellers. On 14 July the Bastille was stormed by a revolutionary crowd, seven remaining prisoners were found and released and the Bastilles governor, Bernard-René de Launay, was killed by the crowd. The Bastille was demolished by order of the Committee of the Hôtel de Ville, souvenirs of the fortress were transported around France and displayed as icons of the overthrow of despotism. Almost nothing is left of the Bastille except some remains of its foundation that were relocated to the side of the Boulevard Henri IV. The Bastille was built in response to a threat to Paris during the Hundred Years War between England and France, in 1357, Marcel expanded the city walls and protected the Porte Saint-Antoine with two high stone towers and a 78-foot-wide ditch. A fortified gateway of this sort was called a bastille, and was one of two created in Paris, the other being built outside the Porte Saint-Denis, Marcel was subsequently removed from his post and executed in 1358. In 1369, Charles V became concerned about the weakness of the side of the city to English attacks. Charles instructed Hugh Aubriot, the new provost, to build a larger fortification on the same site as Marcels bastille. Work began in 1370 with another pair of towers being built behind the first bastille, the fortress was probably not finished by the time Charles died in 1380, and was completed by his son, Charles VI. Built to the height, the roofs of the towers. Each of the six towers had underground cachots, or dungeons, at its base
Bastille
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East view of the Bastille
Bastille
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Historical reconstruction showing the moat below the walls of Paris (left), the Bastille and the
Porte Saint-Antoine (right) in 1420
Bastille
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The eight medieval towers of the Bastille, showing the "calottes" and infamous "cachots" in the roofs and foundations, recorded in 1750
Bastille
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A depiction of the Bastille and neighbouring Paris in 1575, showing the new
bastions, the new Porte Saint-Antoine, the Arsenal complex and the open countryside beyond the city defences
8.
Storming of the Bastille
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The Storming of the Bastille occurred in Paris, France, on the afternoon of 14 July 1789. The medieval fortress, armory, and political prison in Paris known as the Bastille represented royal authority in the center of Paris. The prison contained just seven inmates at the time of its storming but was a symbol of abuses by the monarchy, in France, Le quatorze juillet is a public holiday, usually called Bastille Day in English. During the reign of Louis XVI, France faced an economic crisis, partially initiated by the cost of intervening in the American Revolution. The king initially opposed this development, but was forced to acknowledge the authority of the assembly, which subsequently renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July. The commoners had formed the National Guard, sporting tricolour cockades of blue, white and red, formed by combining the red and blue cockade of Paris and the white cockade of the king. These cockades, and soon simply their colour scheme, became the symbol of the revolution and, later, Paris, close to insurrection and, in François Mignets words, intoxicated with liberty and enthusiasm, showed wide support for the Assembly. The press published the Assemblys debates, political debate spread beyond the Assembly itself into the public squares, the Palais-Royal and its grounds became the site of an ongoing meeting. The Assembly recommended the imprisoned guardsmen to the clemency of the king, they returned to prison, the rank and file of the regiment, previously considered reliable, now leaned toward the popular cause. News of Neckers dismissal reached Paris in the afternoon of Sunday,12 July, the Parisians generally presumed that the dismissal marked the start of a coup by conservative elements. Crowds gathered throughout Paris, including more than ten thousand at the Palais-Royal and this very night all the Swiss and German battalions will leave the Champ de Mars to massacre us all, one resource is left, to take arms. By early July, approximately half of the 25,000 regular troops in Paris, the crowd clashed with the Royal German Cavalry Regiment between the Place Vendôme and the Tuileries Palace. From atop the Champs-Élysées, the Prince de Lambesc unleashed a cavalry charge that dispersed the protesters at Place Louis XV—now Place de la Concorde. The Royal commander, Baron de Besenval, fearing the results of a blood bath amongst the poorly armed crowds or defections among his own men, then withdrew the cavalry towards Sèvres. Meanwhile, unrest was growing among the people of Paris who expressed their hostility against state authorities by attacking customs posts blamed for causing increased food, the people of Paris started to plunder any place where food, guns and supplies could be hoarded. That night, rumors spread that supplies were being hoarded at Saint-Lazare, a property of the clergy. An angry mob broke in and plundered the property, seizing 52 wagons of wheat and that same day multitudes of people plundered many other places including weapon arsenals. The Royal troops did nothing to stop the spreading of chaos in Paris during those days
Storming of the Bastille
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Prise de la Bastille by
Jean-Pierre Houël
Storming of the Bastille
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Jacques Necker (1732–1804), French minister of finance
Storming of the Bastille
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The
Bastille of Paris before the Revolution.
Storming of the Bastille
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Engraving, c.1789: French soldiers or militia hoisting the heads of Flesselles and the
marquis de Launay on pikes. The caption reads "Thus we take revenge on traitors".
9.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
French Revolution
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The
August Insurrection in 1792 precipitated the last days of the monarchy.
French Revolution
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The French government faced a fiscal crisis in the 1780s, and King Louis XVI was blamed for mishandling these affairs.
French Revolution
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Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back.
French Revolution
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The meeting of the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles.
10.
July Column
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The July Column is a monumental column in Paris commemorating the Revolution of 1830. It was built between 1835 and 1840, the circular basin in which its socle stands was realised during the Empire as part of the Elephant of the Bastille, a fountain with an elephant in its centre. Its low base has been retained to support the socle of the column, the Colonne de Juillet was constructed by Alavoines partner in the project, Joseph-Louis Duc. It was inaugurated 28 July 1840, jean-Pierre Montagny issued commemorative medals on the occasion. In the foundation, a columbarium was arranged to receive the remains of 615 victims of the July Revolution, a further 200 victims of the Revolution of 1848 were later interred in the space, the throne of Louis-Philippe was symbolically burned in the square, in July 1848. The roosters at the corners are also by Barye, the column is engraved in gold with the names of those who died during the July 1830 revolution. Over the Corinthian capital is a gallery 4.9 metres wide, surmounted with a globe, on which stands a colossal gilded figure. Perched on one foot in the manner of Giambolognas Mercury, the star-crowned nude brandishes the torch of civilisation, formerly, the figure also appeared on French ten-franc coins. Gustave Flaubert, in Sentimental Education, compares the statue to a golden star shining in the east. Images of the Column Génie de la Liberté Histoire en-ligne, Colonne de Juillet
July Column
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The Colonne de Juillet (1835-40)
July Column
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Dumont 's Génie de la Liberté
July Column
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Alavoine 's elaboration of a
Corinthian capital 5 metres across, was cast in a single fonte
11.
July Revolution
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Supporters of the Bourbon would be called Legitimists, and supporters of Louis Philippe Orléanists. On 16 September 1824, Charles X ascended to the throne of France and he was the younger brother of Louis XVIII, who, upon the defeat of Napoleon I, and by agreement of the Allied powers, had been installed as King of France. Both Louis and Charles ruled by right rather than Revolution. Upon the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, continental Europe, the Congress of Vienna met to redraw the continents political map. Another very influential person at the Congress was Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, although France was considered an enemy state, Talleyrand was allowed to attend the Congress because he claimed that he had only cooperated with Napoleon under duress. Talleyrand proposed that Europe be restored to its borders and governments. France returned to its 1789 borders and the House of Bourbon, the Congress however forced Louis to grant the Charte constitutionnelle française, the French Constitution otherwise known as La Charte. This document was the trigger of the July Revolution. On 16 September 1824, after an illness of several months. Therefore, his brother, Charles, aged 66, inherited the throne of France. On 27 September Charles X as he was now known, made his entry into Paris to popular acclaim. But eight months later, the mood of the capital had sharply worsened in its opinion of the new king, the causes of this dramatic shift in public opinion were many, but the main two were, The imposition of the death penalty for anyone profaning the Eucharist. The provisions for financial indemnities for properties confiscated by the 1789 Revolution and these indemnities to be paid to any one, whether noble or non-noble, who had been declared enemies of the Revolution. Critics of the first accused the king and his new ministry of pandering to the Catholic Church, the second matter, that of financial indemnities, was far more opportunistic than the first. But opponents, many of whom were frustrated Bonapartists, began a campaign that Charles X was only proposing this in order to shame those who had not emigrated. Both measures, they claimed, were nothing more than clever subterfuge meant to bring about the destruction of La Charte and this, too, was about to change. On 12 April, propelled by both genuine conviction and the spirit of independence, the Chamber of Deputies roundly rejected the proposal to change the inheritance laws. The popular newspaper Le Constitutionnel pronounced this refusal a victory over the forces of counter-revolutionaries, the popularity of both the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies skyrocketed, and the popularity of the king and his ministry dropped
July Revolution
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Charles X in coronation robes
July Revolution
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Scenes of July 1830, a painting by
Léon Cogniet alluding to the July revolution of 1830.
July Revolution
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Taking of the
Hôtel de Ville (revolutionaries went there in 1789, and later 1848 and 1870), by Amédée Bourgeois
July Revolution
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Battle outside the Hôtel de Ville, by Jean Victor Schnetz
12.
Bastille (Paris Metro)
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Bastille is a station on lines 1,5 and 8 of the Paris Métro. It is located near the location of the Bastille and remains of the Bastille can be seen on line 5. The platforms for line 1 are situated below road level but above the Bassin of the Arsenal and Canal Saint Martin in a short open-air segment. The western end of the line 1 platforms have the sharpest curve used by trains on the Métro. The line 1 platforms, at 123 metres long, are longer than the average Métro platform length. The line 1 station opened as part of the first stage of the line between Porte de Vincennes and Porte Maillot on 19 July 1900, the line 5 platforms were opened on 17 December 1906 when the line was extended from Gare de Lyon to Lancry. The line 8 platforms were opened on 5 May 1931 when the line was extended from Richelieu – Drouot to Porte de Charenton, the platforms on line 1 were decorated in 1989 to celebrate the bicentenary of the French Revolution. Bassin de lArsenal, boat basin July Column, a monument to the revolution of 1830 Temple du Marais, an historic Protestant church Roland, Gérard
Bastille (Paris Metro)
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Aboveground platforms at Bastille station.
Bastille (Paris Metro)
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Line 1 platforms (eastbound view)
Bastille (Paris Metro)
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Line 1 platforms (westbound view)
Bastille (Paris Metro)
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Two
Sprague-Thomson trains negotiate the curve at the western end of the Line 1 platforms
13.
Canal Saint Martin
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The Canal Saint-Martin is a 4.5 km long canal in Paris. It connects the Canal de lOurcq to the river Seine and runs underground between Bastille and République and it is drained and cleaned every 10-15 years, uncovering tonnage of garbage and treasure alike. Gaspard de Chabrol, prefect of Paris, proposed building a canal from the Ourcq River, the canal was dug from 1802 to 1825, funded by a new tax on wine. The canal was used to supply Paris with food, building materials. Two ports were created in Paris on the canal to unload the boats, the Port de lArsenal, by the 1960s, traffic had dwindled to a trickle and the canal narrowly escaped being filled in and paved over for a highway. Today, the canal is covered from Rue du Faubourg du Temple to the Place de la Bastille, the entrance of the canal is a double lock near the Place de Stalingrad. Then, towards the river Seine, the canal is bordered by the Quai de Valmy on one side, the canal widens at Bassin de la Villette, the largest artificial lake in Paris, and finally ends at the Seine via the Port de lArsenal. Along the canal is a hydraulic lifting bridge, the Pont levant de la rue de Crimée. Today, the canal is a destination for Parisians and tourists who watch the barges navigate the series of locks. There are several restaurants and bars along it. The area is popular with students as well and it is near one of the highest natural points in Paris. The canal can be accessed from the following Paris Métro stations, Stalingrad, République, Goncourt, Jaurès, Oberkampf, Richard-Lenoir, Bastille, the canal inspired painters such as Alfred Sisley. The canal is shown in the 1938 film Hôtel du Nord, the canal was also the setting in part for Jean Vigos film LAtalante in 1934. In Les Malheurs dAlfred, Pierre Richard and Anny Duperey meet each other at the beginning of the film, Édith Piaf sings about the canal in the song Les mômes de la cloche, written by Vincent Scotto and Decaye, music by Médinger, in 1936. Blog of the Canal Saint-Martin quarter Canal Saint-Martin map
Canal Saint Martin
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The underground Canal Saint-Martin, 1862.
Canal Saint Martin
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At the southern end of the canal; locks and northern portal of the tunnel
Canal Saint Martin
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The Boulevard Jules-Ferry, which covers the lower end of the canal
14.
Gare de La Bastille
–
Gare de La Bastille was a railway station in Paris. The station was opened in 1859 and served as the terminus of the 55-kilometre -long line to Vincennes, the line was opened only to serve the Fort de Vincennes, and was extended to La Varenne and later to Brie-Comte-Robert. The line finally reached Verneuil-lÉtang in 1892, and connected to the line to Mulhouse, part of the line was included into the RER A on 14 December 1969. The station was demolished in 1984 so that the Opéra Bastille could be built, designed by François-Alexis Cendrier, the Gare de la Bastille was one of Pariss earliest railway termini. In 1853, the French government decided that a connection with the fort at Vincennes was desirable. The Compagnie du Chemin de Fer de Paris à Strasbourg was granted a concession to build the line, and a connecting line to Mulhouse. The Mulhouse line would share the Gare de Strasbourg, but the Ligne de Vincennes would also create a new terminus close to the centre of Paris, the Gare de la Bastille. In 1853, the company, now known as the Chemins de fer de lEst, the extension to Paris opened on 22 September 1859. and the line was soon carrying 6,000,000 passengers each year. In 1871, following the end of the Franco-Prussian War, France lost Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and this drastically reduced the territory served by the CF de lEst. As a result, the Gare de lEst was developed to become the CF de lEsts main station in Paris. Although the Gare de la Bastille was only a local terminus, by 1889 it was the second busiest in Paris, the Ligne de Vincennes was extended to Verneuil-lEtang in 1892, making it 55 kilometres long. The station served commuters during the week, and Parisians escaping to the country on weekends, by the 1920s, the Gare de la Bastille was handling 30,000,000 passengers each year. Electric traversers were installed to allow trains to be handled. Along with the Depression of the 1930s came increased competition from buses, passenger numbers decreased by half, and the CF de lEst attempted to close the line. In 1945, the Gare de la Bastille became for a few months what it had originally intended to be. This followed the destruction of a viaduct at Nogent-sur-Marne that had cut the main line from the Gare de lEst to Mulhouse so long distance trains were diverted to Bastille. In 1953, the Ligne de Vincennes closed to passengers beyond Boissy-Saint-Léger, in the mid-1960s, construction of the Réseau Express Régional began. The Ligne de Vincennes as far as Boissy-Saint-Léger was to part of a high-speed métro
Gare de La Bastille
–
La Bastille Station in Paris, early 20th century.
Gare de La Bastille
–
La Bastille Station in the 1980s.
Gare de La Bastille
–
Viaduc des Arts
Gare de La Bastille
–
Trains at
Mantes-sur-Seine, "Bidel" carriages in use
15.
Opera house
–
An opera house is a theatre building used for opera performances that consists of a stage, an orchestra pit, audience seating, and backstage facilities for costumes and set building. While some venues are constructed specifically for operas, other houses are part of larger performing arts centers. In contrast, there was no house in London when Henry Purcell was composing. Early United States opera houses served a variety of functions in towns and cities, hosting community dances, fairs, plays, with the rise of bourgeois and capitalist social forms in the 19th century, European culture moved away from its patronage system to a publicly supported system. In the 2000s, most opera and theatre companies raise funds from a combination of government and institutional grants, ticket sales, the Teatro San Carlo in Naples introduces the plant horseshoe, the oldest in the world, a model for the Italian theater. On this model were built following theaters of Italy and Europe, among others, the theater of the Palace of Caserta. Given the popularity of opera in 18th and 19th century Europe, opera houses are large, with generally more than 1,000 seats. Modern opera houses of the century such as New Yorks Metropolitan Opera. Many operas are better suited to being presented in smaller theatres, in a traditional opera house, the auditorium is U-shaped, with the length of the sides determining the audience capacity. Around this are tiers of balconies, and often, nearer to the stage, are boxes and this is especially true of Wagners Bayreuth Festspielhaus where the pit is almost completely covered. The size of an opera orchestra varies, but for some operas, oratorios and other works, it may be large, for some romantic period works. Similarly, an opera may have a large cast of characters, chorus, dancers, therefore, a major opera house will have extensive dressing room facilities. Opera houses often have on-premises set and costume building shops and facilities for storage of costumes, make-up, masks, and stage properties, major opera houses throughout the world often have highly mechanized stages, with large stage elevators permitting heavy sets to be changed rapidly. At the Metropolitan Opera, for instance, sets are changed during the action, as the audience watches. This occurs in the Mets productions of such as Aida. Much the same happened in the remodeling of Milans La Scala opera house between 2002 and 2004, since the 1990s, however, many opera houses have begun using a subtle form of sound reinforcement called acoustic enhancement. Often, operas are presented in their languages, which may be different from the first language of the audience. For example, a Wagnerian opera presented in London may be in German, therefore, since the 1980s modern opera houses have assisted the audience by providing translated supertitles, projections of the words above or near to the stage
Opera house
–
Teatro di San Carlo in
Naples, the world’s oldest working theatre.
Opera house
–
Opera-Theatre of
Metz, built by
benefactor Duke de Belle-Isle during the 18th century, it is the oldest opera house working in France
Opera house
–
The
Grand Theatre, Warsaw, ca. 1890
Opera house
–
The
Vienna Court Opera, ca. 1898
16.
Nightlife (activity)
–
Nightlife is a collective term for entertainment that is available and generally more popular from the late evening into the early hours of the morning. It may include pubs, bars, nightclubs, parties, live music, concerts, cabarets, theatre, cinemas, shows and these venues often require a cover charge for admission. Nightlife entertainment is often more adult-oriented than daytime entertainment, people who prefer to be active during the night-time are called night owls. Nightlife has been a vibrant area of research for sociologists, nightlife establishments including pubs, bars, restaurants, and nightclubs function as third places, according to Ray Oldenburg in The Great Good Place. Some sociologists have argued that vibrant city nightlife scenes contribute to the development of culture as well as political movements, there is debate about the degree to which nightlife contributes positively to social capital and the public goods of society. David Grazian points out that nightlife can replicate the same structures of race, ethnic, nightlife venues must be licensed to serve alcohol under the Licensing Act 2003. Venues with door security are required to ensure that the security staff are licensed by the Security Industry Authority. Since the introduction of the Licensing Act 2003, pubs and bars have been able to apply to operate until later, for nightclubs, this has become a form of competition as patrons can stay in the same pub or bar rather than move on to a club
Nightlife (activity)
–
People enjoying the nightlife at a
nightclub in Cape Town, South Africa
Nightlife (activity)
–
Nightlife in
Times Square,
New York City.
Nightlife (activity)
–
Nightlife: Rock bar at R. Augusta,
São Paulo,
Brazil
17.
2006 labor protests in France
–
The 2006 youth protests in France occurred throughout France during February, March, and April 2006 as a result of opposition to a measure set to deregulate labour. Young people were the participants in the protests as the bill would have directly affected their future jobs in a way that they considered negative. The controversial bill, entitled Loi pour légalité des chances, created a new job contract, the Contrat première embauche. Under this job contract, which aimed to encourage the creation of new jobs, it would have been easier and it would have allowed employers the opportunity to terminate employment of workers under twenty-six without any reason, within their first two years of employment. Proponents of the bill argued that Frances tightly regulated employment market discourages French businesses from employing staff, the French population was roughly split on the issue of whether the First Employment Contract should be implemented. The contract was first proposed after the civil unrest that occurred in France in October and November 2005, French Prime Minister Dominique de Villepins rating dropped to a four-month low of forty-two percent, largely because of the recent protests against the bill. He stated though that he had the backing of French President Jacques Chirac, later on, polls in LExpress and Paris-Match displayed a swing of the population behind protesters – around 70% were against the CPE law when it was promulgated by president Chirac. Protests against the bill originally occurred before the bill was approved by Dominique de Villepin, on 7 February, between 200,000 and 400,000 people took part in 187 demonstrations. Some universities, include Rennes, were occupied during February. Over a million took part in protests on 7 March, on 9 March, around 38 universities were on strike Protests across France on 16 March led to widespread disruptions. Approximately one hundred bicyclists barricaded streets around the Louvre in protests unrelated to the labour contract, another hundred protesters descended on City Hall in Rennes, refusing to leave. Other, mostly peaceful, protests occurred throughout the country, in such as Marseille. Many universities, including the University of Toulouse, were forced to close on 16 March as some wanted them to remain open and others wanted them closed during the large protests. Media attention focused on the violent element of the demonstrations in Paris on 18 March, once the protesters departed from the meeting, a few dozen rioters began to torch cars and vandalize store fronts as police were called in to calm the situation. To suppress the crowd, police began to spray tear gas. In the evening, new clashes occurred on the Place de la Sorbonne, between a hundred demonstrators and the police, until 1 am. A protester from that night, Cyril Ferez, a trade unionist from the Sud-PTT union and that day saw 156 people being arrested in Paris. Protesters in Marseille were also sprayed with gas after some of them climbed Marseilles City Hall
2006 labor protests in France
–
The protest at
Jussieu Campus
2006 labor protests in France
–
To protect the city, public authorities ordered the Place de
La Sorbonne closed. This square has been a symbol for French student protests since
May 1968.
2006 labor protests in France
–
A torched car burns in Paris on 18 March
2006 labor protests in France
–
In Cannes, on 31 March, a few hundred youths blocked the important junction "Place du 18 juin" for 10 to 15 minutes.
18.
Charles V of France
–
Charles V, called the Wise, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1364 to his death. In 1349, as a prince, Charles received from his grandfather King Philip VI the province of Dauphiné to rule. This allowed him to bear the title Dauphin until his coronation, after 1350, all heirs apparent of France bore the title of Dauphin until their coronation. Charles became regent of France when his father John II was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. With the help of talented advisers known as the Marmousets, his management of the kingdom allowed him to replenish the royal treasury. He established the first permanent army paid with regular wages, which liberated the French populace from the companies of routiers who regularly plundered the country when not employed. Furthermore, the French Navy, led by Jean de Vienne and he was succeeded by his son Charles VI the Mad, whose disastrous reign allowed the English to regain control of large parts of France. Charles was born at the Château de Vincennes outside of Paris, the future king was highly intelligent but physically weak, with pale skin and a thin, ill-proportioned body. This made a sharp contrast to his father, who was tall, strong, as neither the pope nor the emperor wanted to buy, the transaction was concluded with Philip VI. Under the Treaty of Romans, the Dauphiné of Viennois was to be held by a son of the future king John the Good, so it was Charles, the eldest son of the latter, who became the first Dauphin. At the age of twelve, he was confronted with the exercise of power while staying in Grenoble. A few days after his arrival, the people of Grenoble were invited to the Place Notre-Dame, young Charles took his place next to Bishop John of Chissé and received the oath of allegiance of the people. On April 8,1350 at Tain-lHermitage, the Dauphin married his cousin Joanna of Bourbon at the age of 12, the prior approval of the pope was obtained for this consanguineous marriage. The marriage was delayed by the death of his mother Bonne of Luxembourg and his grandmother Joan the Lame, the dauphin himself had been seriously ill from August to December 1349. Gatherings were limited to slow the spread of the then raging in Europe. Despite his young age, the applied to be recognized by his subjects. Charles was recalled to Paris at the death of his grandfather Philip VI, the legitimacy of John the Good, and that of the Valois in general, was not unanimous. His father, Philip VI, had lost all credibility with the disasters of Crecy, Calais, the ravages of the plague, the royal clan had to cope with opposition from all sides in the kingdom
Charles V of France
–
Charles V the Wise
Charles V of France
–
The
Château du Louvre, shown in this early fifteenth century illumination, representing the month of October in Les très riches Heures du duc de Berry, was rebuilt during the reign of Charles V – inaugurating a new era of royal architecture
19.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Cardinal Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu and Fronsac, commonly referred to as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman, nobleman, and statesman. He was consecrated as a bishop in 1607 and was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616, Richelieu soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIIIs chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642, he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the kings Chief Minister or First Minister. He sought to consolidate power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong and his chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years War that engulfed Europe. Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve his goals. While a powerful figure, events like the Day of the Dupes show that in fact he very much depended on the kings confidence to keep this power. As alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the Collège de Sorbonne, Richelieu was also famous for his patronage of the arts, most notably, he founded the Académie Française, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. Richelieu is also known by the sobriquet lÉminence rouge, from the red shade of a cardinals clerical dress and this in part allowed the colony to eventually develop into the heartland of Francophone culture in North America. He is also a character in The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas. Born in Paris, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children, at the age of nine, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy. Thereafter, he began to train for a military career and his private life seems to have been typical of a young officer of the era, in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea. King Henry III had rewarded Richelieus father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family the bishopric of Luçon. The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use, they were, however, challenged by clergymen, to protect the important source of revenue, Richelieus mother proposed to make her second son, Alphonse, the bishop of Luçon. Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a Carthusian monk, thus, it became necessary that the younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong interests, and threw himself into studying for his new post. In 1606 King Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon, as Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from the Pope. This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607, soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a reformer
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu, 1633–40,
Philippe de Champaigne,
National Gallery,
London
Cardinal Richelieu
–
The young King
Louis XIII was only a figurehead during his early reign; power actually rested with his mother,
Marie de Médicis.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Henri Motte 's depiction of Cardinal Richelieu at the
Siege of La Rochelle.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Letter of Cardinal Richelieu to
Claude de Razilly asking him to do everything in his power to relieve
Ré Island in the
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré, July 1627.
20.
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
–
Half Louis d'Or (1643) depicting Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII in 1611 by
Frans Pourbus the Younger (
Palazzo Pitti)
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII, young King, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1620
21.
Political prisoner
–
A political prisoner is someone imprisoned because they have opposed or criticized the government responsible for their imprisonment. The term is used by persons or groups challenging the legitimacy of the detention of a prisoner, supporters of the term define a political prisoner as someone who is imprisoned for his or her participation in political activity. If a political offense was not the reason for the prisoners detention. Some understand the political prisoner narrowly, equating it with the term prisoner of conscience. Amnesty International campaigns for the release of prisoners of conscience, which include political prisoners as well as those imprisoned for their religious or philosophical beliefs. To reduce controversy, and as a matter of principle, the organizations policy applies only to prisoners who have not committed or advocated violence, thus, there are political prisoners who do not fit the narrower criteria for POCs. The organisation defines the differences as follows, AI uses the political prisoner broadly. It does not use it, as others do, to imply that all such prisoners have a special status or should be released. It uses the only to define a category of prisoners for whom AI demands a fair. Governments often say they have no political prisoners, only prisoners held under the criminal law. AI however describes cases like the examples given above as political, for instance, French anarchist groups typically call the former members of Action Directe held in France political prisoners. While the French government deemed Action Directe illegal, the group fashioned itself as a guerilla movement. In this sense, political prisoner can be used to describe any politically active prisoner who is held in custody for a violent action which supporters deem ethically justified, some libertarians also include all convicted for treason and some convicted of espionage in the category of political prisoners. Currently, there is much controversy and debate around how to define this term. Political prisoners can also be imprisoned with no legal veneer by extrajudicial processes, some political prisoners need not be imprisoned at all. Supporters of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima in the 11th Panchen Lama controversy have called him a political prisoner and he is held under secluded house arrest. This is common in situations which may otherwise be decried nationally and internationally as a human rights violation or suppression of a political dissident, particularly in this latter situation, whether an individual is regarded as a political prisoner may depend upon subjective political perspective or interpretation of the evidence. In the Soviet Union, dubious psychiatric diagnoses were sometimes used to political prisoners in the so-called psikhushkas
Political prisoner
–
Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) member
Sabino Arana in Larrinaga prison, Bilbao, 1895. He defended independence for
Cuba.
Political prisoner
–
A painted portrait of
Nelson Mandela, one of the most famous political prisoners.
Political prisoner
–
Sahrawi activist
Ali Salem Tamek in Ait Melloul prison, Agadir, 2005. He was incarcerated on accusation of "incitement to trouble the public order"
22.
Seditious
–
Sedition is overt conduct, such as speech and organization, that tends toward insurrection against the established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent to lawful authority, Sedition may include any commotion, though not aimed at direct and open violence against the laws. Seditious words in writing are seditious libel, a seditionist is one who engages in or promotes the interests of sedition. Typically, sedition is considered an act, and the overt acts that may be prosecutable under sedition laws vary from one legal code to another. Where the history of legal codes has been traced, there is also a record of the change in the definition of the elements constituting sedition at certain points in history. This overview has served to develop a sociological definition of sedition as well, the term sedition in its modern meaning first appeared in the Elizabethan Era as the notion of inciting by words or writings disaffection towards the state or constituted authority. Australias sedition laws were amended in anti-terrorism legislation passed on 6 December 2005, updating definitions, opponents of these laws have suggested that they could be used against legitimate dissent. He had also brushed aside recommendations to curtail new clauses outlawing “urging conduct” that “assists” an “organisation or country engaged in armed hostilities” against the Australian military and these laws were amended in Australia on 19 September 2011. The ‘sedition’ clauses were repealed and replaced with ‘urging violence’, during World War II former Mayor of Montreal Camillien Houde campaigned against conscription in Canada. On 2 August 1940, Houde publicly urged the men of Quebec to ignore the National Registration Act, three days later, he was placed under arrest by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police on charges of sedition. After being found guilty, he was confined in internment camps in Petawawa, Ontario, upon his release on 18 August 1944, he was greeted by a cheering crowd of 50,000 Montrealers and won back his position as the Mayor of Montreal in the election in 1944. A Sedition Ordinance had existed in the territory since 1970, which was consolidated into the Crime Ordinance in 1972. The bill was shelved following massive opposition from the public, in 2010, writer Arundhati Roy was sought to be charged with sedition for her comments on Kashmir and Maoists. Two individuals have been charged with sedition since 2007, binayak Sen, an Indian paediatrician, public health specialist, and activist was found guilty of sedition. He is national Vice-President of the Peoples Union for Civil Liberties and they were sentenced to life imprisonment, but he got bail in Supreme Court on 16 April 2011. On 10 September 2012, Aseem Trivedi, a political cartoonist, was sent to judicial custody till 24 September 2012 on charges of sedition over a series of cartoons against corruption. Trivedi was accused of uploading ugly and obscene content to his website, trivedis arrest under sedition has been heavily criticised in India. The Press Council of India termed it a stupid move, in February 2016, JNU student union president Kanhaiya Kumar was arrested on charges of Sedition under section 124-A of Indian Penal Code
Seditious
–
Political cartoon by
Art Young,
The Masses, 1917.
23.
Lettres de cachet
–
Lettres de cachet were letters signed by the king of France, countersigned by one of his ministers, and closed with the royal seal, or cachet. They contained orders directly from the king, often to enforce arbitrary actions, in the case of organized bodies, lettres de cachet were issued for the purpose of preventing assembly or accomplishing some other definite act. The Lettres were mainly used against drunkards, troublemakers, prostitutes, squanderers of family fortune, the wealthy sometimes petitioned such lettres to dispose of inconvenient individuals, especially to prevent unequal marriages, or to prevent a scandal. In this respect, the lettres de cachet were a prominent symbol of the abuses of the ancien régime monarchy, in 1789 and 1790, all cases were revised by a commission which confirmed most of the sentences. The principle can be traced to a maxim which furnished a text of the Pandects of Justinian, in their Latin version, Rex solutus est a legibus, or The king is released from the laws. This meant that when the king intervened directly, he could decide without heeding the laws, in the 14th century the principle was introduced that the order should be written, and hence arose the lettre de cachet. They were employed by the police in dealing with prostitutes, and on their authority lunatics were shut up in hospitals and sometimes in prisons. They were also used by heads of families as a means of correction, for example. The case of the Marquis de Sade is a prominent example, wives, too, took advantage of them to curb the profligacy of husbands and vice versa. In reality, the secretary of state had a delegation, and could issue them at his own discretion, protests against the lettres de cachet were made continually by the parlement of Paris and by the provincial parlements, and also by the Estates-General. It was not until the reign of Louis XVI that a reaction against the abuse became clearly perceptible, the Comte de Mirabeau wrote a scathing indictment of lettres de cachet while imprisoned in the dungeon of Vincennes. The treatise was published after his liberation in 1782 under the title Les Lettres de cachet et des prisons detat and was read throughout Europe. The crown, however, did not decide to lay aside this weapon and this is all the more striking, given that Napoleon had pushed for measures ensuring the rule of law in the codes of laws adopted under his rule. Charles Simon Favart Luke Joseph Hooke Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau Marguerite Monvoisin, pigault-Lebrun Alexandre Balthazar Laurent Grimod de La Reynière Marquis de Sade Comte de Sanois Voltaire Jean-François Marmontel, accused to be the author of a satire against the duke dAumont. His account of his stay in the Bastille contains a description of the food he received, the room he was imprisoned with his servant. Doctor Alexandre Manette, in Dickens A Tale of Two Cities, was thrown into the Bastille prison by means of a lettre de cachet, bill of attainder Divine right of kings National Security Letter Firman Letters close
Lettres de cachet
–
Lettre de cachet ordering
Jean-François Marmontel 's detention at the Bastille, signed by
Louis XV in 1759
24.
Louis XV of France
–
Louis XV, known as Louis the Beloved, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five, Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinals death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, Louis returned the Austrian Netherlands, territory won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, Louis also ceded New France in North America to Spain and Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763. He incorporated the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France and he was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI in 1774. French culture and influence were at their height in the first half of the eighteenth century, however, many scholars believe that Louis XVs decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Evidence for this view is provided by the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death, norman Davies characterized Louis XVs reign as one of debilitating stagnation, characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and Parliament, and religious feuds. A few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Jerome Blum described him as a perpetual adolescent called to do a mans job, Louis XV was born in the Palace of Versailles on 15 February 1710 during the reign of Louis XIV. His grandfather, Louis Le Grand Dauphin, had three sons with his wife Marie Anne Victoire of Bavaria, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Philippe, Duke of Anjou, and Charles, Duke of Berry. Louis XV was the son of the Duke of Burgundy and his wife Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy. At birth, Louis XV received a title for younger sons of the French royal family. In April 1711, Louis Le Grand Dauphin suddenly died, making Louis XVs father, the Duke of Burgundy, at that time, Burgundy had two living sons, Louis, Duke of Brittany and his youngest son, the future Louis XV. A year later, Marie Adélaïde, Duchess of Burgundy, contracted smallpox and her husband, said to be heartbroken by her death, died the same week, also having contracted smallpox. Within a week of his death, it was clear that the two children had also been infected. The elder son was treated by bloodletting in an unsuccessful effort to save him. Fearing that the Dauphin would die, the Court had both the Dauphin and the Duke of Anjou baptised, the Dauphin died the same day,8 March 1712. His younger brother, the Duke of Anjou, was treated by his governess, Madame de Ventadour. The two year old Dauphin survived the smallpox, on 1 September 1715, Louis XIV died of gangrene, having reigned for 72 years
Louis XV of France
–
Louis XV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1730)
Louis XV of France
–
Signature
Louis XV of France
–
The duke of Brittany with his father Louis, Duke of Burgundy, his grandfather Louis, Le Grand Dauphin and his great-grandfather King Louis XIV in 1709. The future Louis XV, not yet born, is not on the painting.
Louis XV of France
–
Two
Louis d'or, 1717, depicting a very young Louis XV
25.
Louis XVI of France
–
Louis XVI, born Louis-Auguste, was the last King of France and Navarre before the French Revolution, during which he was also known as Louis Capet. In 1765, at the death of his father, Louis, Dauphin of France, son and heir apparent of Louis XV of France, Louis XVI was guillotined on 21 January 1793. The first part of his reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideas and these included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the reforms with hostility. Louis implemented deregulation of the market, advocated by his liberal minister Turgot. In periods of bad harvests, it would lead to food scarcity which would prompt the masses to revolt, from 1776, Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the Ancien Régime and this led to the convening of the Estates-General of 1789. In 1789, the storming of the Bastille during riots in Paris marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Louiss indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to view him as a symbol of the tyranny of the Ancien Régime. The credibility of the king was deeply undermined, and the abolition of the monarchy, Louis XVI was the only King of France ever to be executed, and his death brought an end to more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy. Louis-Auguste de France, who was given the title Duc de Berry at birth, was born in the Palace of Versailles. Out of seven children, he was the son of Louis, the Dauphin of France. His mother was Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, the daughter of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. A strong and healthy boy, but very shy, Louis-Auguste excelled in his studies and had a taste for Latin, history, geography, and astronomy. He enjoyed physical activities such as hunting with his grandfather, and rough-playing with his brothers, Louis-Stanislas, comte de Provence. From an early age, Louis-Auguste had been encouraged in another of his hobbies, locksmithing, upon the death of his father, who died of tuberculosis on 20 December 1765, the eleven-year-old Louis-Auguste became the new Dauphin. His mother never recovered from the loss of her husband, and died on 13 March 1767, throughout his education, Louis-Auguste received a mixture of studies particular to religion, morality, and humanities. His instructors may have also had a hand in shaping Louis-Auguste into the indecisive king that he became
Louis XVI of France
–
King Louis XVI by
Antoine-François Callet
Louis XVI of France
–
Marie Antoinette Queen of France with her three eldest children,
Marie-Thérèse,
Louis-Charles and
Louis-Joseph. By
Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun
Louis XVI of France
–
Louis XVI at the age of 20
Louis XVI of France
–
Louis-Charles, the dauphin of France and future Louis XVII. By
Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun.
26.
Livres
–
The livre tournois was, one of numerous currencies used in France in the Middle Ages, and a unit of account used in France in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The denier tournois coin was minted by the abbey of Saint Martin in the Touraine region of France. The livre tournois was, in common with the original livre of Charlemagne, divided into 20 sols, between 1360 and 1641, coins worth one livre tournois were minted, known as francs. Other francs were minted under Charles V of France, Henri III of France, the use of the name franc became a synonym for livre tournois in accounting. The first French paper money, issued between 1701 and 1720, was denominated in livres tournois and this was the last time the name was used officially, as later notes and coins were denominated simply in livres, the livre parisis having finally been abolished in 1667. With many forms of domestic and international money circulating throughout Europe in the late Middle Ages and the modern period. In the world of banking of the 13th century, it was the florin. For example, the Louisiana Purchase treaty of 1803 specified the relative ratios of the franc, dollar and livre tournois. The official use of the livre tournois accounting unit in all contracts in France was legislated in 1549, since coins in Europe in the Middle Ages and the Early modern period did not have any indication of their value, their official value was determined by royal edicts. In cases of financial need, French kings could use the value for currency devaluation. By reversing these techniques, currencies could be reinforced, royal finance officers faced many difficulties. For more on issues, see Monetary policy and Greshams Law. French livre Livre parisis French franc Louis Luxembourgish livre Écu Roman currency
Livres
–
John II of France
Livres
–
Charles V of France
Livres
–
La Banque Royale-100 livres Tournois (1720)
27.
Invalides
–
Louis XIV initiated the project by an order dated 24 November 1670, as a home and hospital for aged and unwell soldiers, the name is a shortened form of hôpital des invalides. The architect of Les Invalides was Libéral Bruant, the selected site was in the then suburban plain of Grenelle. By the time the project was completed in 1676, the river front measured 196 metres and the complex had fifteen courtyards. It was then felt that the veterans required a chapel, Jules Hardouin-Mansart assisted the aged Bruant, and the chapel was finished in 1679 to Bruants designs after the elder architects death. This chapel was known as Église Saint-Louis des Invalides, and daily attendance of the veterans in the services was required. Shortly after the chapel was completed, Louis XIV commissioned Mansart to construct a separate private royal chapel referred to as the Église du Dôme from its most striking feature. The domed chapel was finished in 1708, because of its location and significance, the Invalides served as the scene for several key events in French history. On 14 July 1789 it was stormed by Parisian rioters who seized the cannons, Napoleon was entombed under the dome of the Invalides with great ceremony in 1840. In December 1894 the degradation of Captain Alfred Dreyfus was held before the main building, the building retained its primary function of a retirement home and hospital for military veterans until the early twentieth century. In 1872 the musée dartillerie was located within the building to be joined by the musée historique des armées in 1896, the two institutions were merged to form the present musée de larmée in 1905. At the same time the veterans in residence were dispersed to smaller centres outside Paris, the building accordingly became too large for its original purpose. The modern complex does however include the facilities detailed below for about a hundred elderly or incapacitated former soldiers. On the north front of Les Invalides Hardouin-Mansarts chapel dome is large enough to dominate the long façade, at its far end, the Pont Alexandre III links this grand urbanistic axis with the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais. The Pont des Invalides is next, downstream the Seine river, the Hôpital des Invalides spurred William III of England to emulation, in the military Greenwich Hospital of 1694. The buildings still comprise the Institution Nationale des Invalides, an institution for disabled war veterans. The institution comprises, a retirement home a medical and surgical centre a centre for medical consultations. In 1676 Jules Hardouin-Mansart was commissioned with the construction of a place of worship on the site and he designed a building which combined a royal chapel with a veterans chapel. In this way, the King and his soldiers could attend mass simultaneously, while entering the place of worship though different entrances, when the Army Museum at Les Invalides was founded in 1905, the veterans chapel was placed under its administrative control
Invalides
–
Hôtel des Invalides
Invalides
–
Louis XIV ordering the construction of Les Invalides
Invalides
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Napoleon I visiting the infirmary of Les Invalides.
Invalides
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The north front of the Invalides: Mansart's dome above Bruant's pedimented central block
28.
Grenadiers
–
A grenadier was originally a specialized soldier, first established as a distinct role in the mid-to-late 17th century, for the throwing of grenades and sometimes assault operations. At that time grenadiers were chosen from the strongest and largest soldiers, certain countries such as France and Argentina established units of Horse Grenadiers and for a time the British Army had Horse Grenadier Guards. Like their infantry counterparts, these horse-mounted soldiers were chosen for their size. These soldiers operate as part of a fireteam, the concept of throwing grenades may go back to the Ming China, when Chinese soldiers on the Great Wall were reported to be using this weapon. The earliest references to these soldiers in Western armies come from Austria. References also appear in England during the English Civil War, however, it was King Louis XIV of France who made the grenadier an official type of soldier and company during his army reforms late in the 17th century. According to René Chartrand, Lt. Col. Jean Martinet introduced the idea of having men detailed to throw grenades in the Régiment du Roi in 1667 and their clothing being likewise piebald, yellow and red. The first grenades were small iron spheres filled with gunpowder fused with a length of slow-match, understandably, such requirements led to grenadiers being regarded as an elite fighting force. The wide hats with broad brims characteristic of infantry during the late 17th century were discarded and replaced with caps and this was originally to allow the grenadier to sling his musket over his back with greater ease while throwing grenades. Additionally, a brimless hat permitted the greater ease in throwing the grenade overhand. By 1700, grenadiers in the English and other armies had adopted a cap in the shape of a bishops mitre, in addition to grenades, they were equipped with contemporary longarms. The uniform included a tube that held the match for lighting the fuse. Grenade usage declined significantly in the early 18th century, a fact that can be attributed to the effectiveness of massive infantry line tactics. However, the need for assault troops remained, and the existing grenadier companies were used for this purpose. As noted, above average physical size had been considered important for the grenadiers and, in principle, height. In the British regiments of foot during the 18th century the preference was, however, the traditional criterion of size was only resorted to when newly raised regiments required a quick sorting of a mass of new recruits. Transferral to a company generally meant both enhanced status and an increase in subsistence pay. Whether for reasons of appearance or reputation, grenadiers tended to be the showpiece troops of their respective armies, when a regiment was in line formation the grenadiers were always the company which formed on the right flank
Grenadiers
–
Attack of Prussian grenadiers 1745
Grenadiers
–
Grenadier of the
Old Guard c1812 by
Édouard Detaille
Grenadiers
–
British grenadiers, distinguished by their mitre caps, acting as
assault troops at the
Battle of Bunker Hill. However, in 1768 the mitre cap pictured here had in fact been replaced within the British Army by a
bearskin.
Grenadiers
–
18th century Prussian grenadier caps (Grenadiermütze).
29.
Swiss mercenaries
–
Their service as mercenaries was at its peak during the Renaissance, when their proven battlefield capabilities made them sought-after mercenary troops. There followed a period of decline, as technological and organizational advances counteracted the Swiss advantages, switzerlands military isolationism largely put an end to organized mercenary activity, the principal remnant of the practice is the Swiss Guard at the Vatican. In William Shakespeares Hamlet, Act IV, Scene 5, Swiss mercenaries are called Switzers, Swiss mercenaries were valued throughout Late Medieval Europe for the power of their determined mass attack in deep columns with the pike and halberd. Some Swiss also hired themselves out individually or in small bands and this was furthered by later successful campaigns of regional expansion. By the fifteenth century they were valued as mercenary soldiers. The standing mercenary army of king Matthias Corvinus of Hungary also contained Swiss pikemen units, the native term Reisläufer literally means one who goes to war and is derived from Middle High German Reise, meaning military campaign. The Valois Kings of France, in fact, considered it an impossibility to take the field of battle without Swiss pikemen as the infantry core of their armies. Until roughly 1490, the Swiss had a monopoly on pike-armed mercenary service. However, after that date, the Swiss mercenaries were increasingly supplemented by imitators, Landsknechts were Germans and became proficient at Swiss tactics, even surpassing them with their usage of the Zweihänder to crush opposing pike formations. This produced a force that filled the ranks of European armies with mercenary regiments for decades, after 1515 the Swiss pledged themselves to neutrality, other than regarding Swiss soldiers serving in the ranks of the Royal French army. The Landsknecht, however, would continue to serve any paymaster, even, the Landsknecht often assumed the bright soldiers outfits of the Swiss. Although the Swiss generally had a significant edge in a push of pike, the resulting combat was nonetheless quite savage. Period artists such as Hans Holbein attest to the fact that two such huge pike columns crashing into each other could result in a maelstrom of battle, with many dead. Never before had the Swiss suffered such heavy losses while being unable to inflict damage upon their foe. The early contingents of Swiss mercenary pikemen organized themselves rather differently than the cantonal forces, in the cantonal forces, their armies were usually divided into the Vorhut, Gewalthut and Nachhut, generally of different sizes. In mercenary service they became less likely to resort to outmaneuvering the enemy. Such deep pike columns could crush lesser infantry in combat and were invulnerable to the effects of a cavalry charge. The Swiss mercenaries did deploy crossbows, handguns and artillery of their own, however these always remained very subsidiary to the pike and halberd square
Swiss mercenaries
–
Swiss mercenaries crossing the
Alps (
Luzerner Schilling)
Swiss mercenaries
–
"Bad War". (
Hans Holbein)
Swiss mercenaries
–
The Swiss (on the left) assault the Landsknecht mercenaries in the French lines at the
Battle of Marignano
Swiss mercenaries
–
Rudolfus Longus à Salis. Governor of
Pavia for
Dukes of Milan; wounded at
Novara, 1513; killed at
Marignano, 1515.
30.
Mercenary
–
A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or party to the conflict and is motivated to take part in the hostilities by desire for private gain. Mercenaries fight for money or other recompense instead of fighting for ideological interests, in the last century, and as reflected in the Geneva Convention, mercenaries have increasingly come to be seen as less entitled to protections by rules of war than non-mercenaries. However, whether or not a person is a mercenary may be a matter of degree, Protocol Additional GC1977 is a 1977 amendment protocol to the Geneva Conventions. Article 47 of the protocol provides the most widely accepted definition of a mercenary, though not endorsed by some countries. The Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, a mercenary shall not have the right to be a combatant or a prisoner of war. All the criteria must be met, according to the Geneva Convention, according to the GC III, a captured soldier must be treated as a lawful combatant and, therefore, as a protected person with prisoner-of-war status until facing a competent tribunal. That tribunal, using criteria in APGC77 or some equivalent domestic law, may decide that the soldier is a mercenary. The only possible exception to GC IV Art 5 is when he is a national of the authority imprisoning him, if, after a regular trial, a captured soldier is found to be a mercenary, then he can expect treatment as a common criminal and may face execution. As mercenary soldiers may not qualify as PoWs, they cannot expect repatriation at wars end, the four mercenaries sentenced to death were shot by a firing squad on 10 July 1976. The legal status of civilian contractors depends upon the nature of their work, on 4 December 1989, the United Nations passed resolution 44/34, the International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries. It entered into force on 20 October 2001 and is known as the UN Mercenary Convention. Article 1 contains the definition of a mercenary, Article 1.1 is similar to Article 47 of Protocol I, however Article 1. – under Article 1.2 a person does not have to take a part in the hostilities in a planned coup détat to be a mercenary. Critics have argued that the convention and APGC77 Art,47 are designed to cover the activities of mercenaries in post-colonial Africa and do not address adequately the use of private military companies by sovereign states. While the United States governed Iraq, no U. S. citizen working as a guard could be classified as a mercenary because he was a national of a Party to the conflict. S. However, those who acknowledge the United States and other forces as continuing parties to the conflict might insist that U. S. armed guards cannot be called mercenaries. The laws of countries forbid their citizens to fight in foreign wars unless they are under the control of their own national armed forces. If a person is proven to have worked as a mercenary for any other country while retaining Austrian citizenship, in 2003, France criminalized mercenary activities, as defined by the protocol to the Geneva convention for French citizens, permanent residents and legal entities
Mercenary
–
Leonardo da Vinci 's Profilo di capitano antico, also known as il
Condottiero, 1480. Condottiero meant "leader of mercenaries" in Italy during the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Mercenary
–
Frederick Russell Burnham in Africa
Mercenary
–
European mercenaries in the Katanga, 1960s
Mercenary
–
Turkish mercenary in Byzantine service c. 1436
