1.
Saline (medicine)
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Saline, also known as saline solution, is a mixture of sodium chloride in water and has a number of uses in medicine. Applied to the area it is used to clean wounds, help remove contact lenses. By injection into a vein it is used to treat such as from gastroenteritis. It is also used to other medications to be given by injection. Large amounts may result in fluid overload, swelling, acidosis, in those with long standing low blood sodium excessive use may result in osmotic demyelination syndrome. Saline is in the family of medications. It is most commonly used as a sterile 9 g of salt per litre solution, higher and lower concentrations may also occasionally be used. The medical use of saline began around 1831 and it is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the world is about 0.60 to 4.20 USD per liter of normal saline. Concentrations vary from low to normal to high, high concentrations are used rarely in medicine but frequently in molecular biology. Normal saline is the commonly used phrase for a solution of 0. 90% w/v of NaCl,308 mOsm/L or 9.0 g per litre. NS is used frequently in intravenous drips for patients who cannot take fluids orally and have developed or are in danger of developing dehydration or hypovolemia, NS is also used for aseptic purpose. However, it is now known that rapid infusion of NS can cause metabolic acidosis, the solution is 9 grams of sodium chloride dissolved in water, to a total volume of 1000 ml. The mass of 1 millilitre of normal saline is 1.0046 gram at 22 °C, the molecular weight of sodium chloride is approximately 58.5 grams per mole, so 58.5 grams of sodium chloride equals 1 mole. Since normal saline contains 9 grams of NaCl, the concentration is 9 grams per litre divided by 58.5 grams per mole, since NaCl dissociates into two ions – sodium and chloride –1 molar NaCl is 2 osmolar. Thus, NS contains 154 mEq/L of Na+ and Cl− and it has a slightly higher degree of osmolarity than blood Nonetheless, the osmolarity of normal saline is a close approximation to the osmolarity of NaCl in blood. One litre of 0. 9% Saline contains,154 mEq of sodium ion =154 mmol 154 mEq of chloride ion =154 mmol For medical purposes, saline is used to flush wounds. Normal saline will not burn or sting when applied, Saline is also used in I. V. therapy, intravenously supplying extra water to rehydrate patients or supplying the daily water and salt needs of a patient who is unable to take them by mouth
2.
Scientific control
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A scientific control is an experiment or observation designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements, scientific controls are a part of the scientific method. Controls eliminate alternate explanations of experimental results, especially experimental errors, the selection and use of proper controls to ensure that experimental results are valid can be very difficult. Other variables, which may not be obvious, may interfere with the experimental design. For instance, the artificial sweetener might be mixed with a dilutant, to control for the effect of the dilutant, another treatment is added which is the dilutant alone. Now the experiment is controlled for the dilutant and the experimenter can distinguish between sweetener, dilutant and non-treatment, controls are most often necessary where a confounding factor cannot easily be separated from the primary treatments. For example, it may be necessary to use a tractor to spread fertilizer where there is no practicable way to spread fertilizer. The simplest solution is to have a treatment where a tractor is driven over plots without spreading fertilizer, the simplest types of control are negative and positive controls, and both are found in many different types of experiments. Negative controls are groups where no phenomenon is expected and they ensure that there is no effect when there should be no effect. To continue with the example of drug testing, a control is a group that has not been administered the drug of interest. This group receives either no preparation at all or a sham preparation and we would say that the control group should show a negative or null effect. In other examples, outcomes might be measured as lengths, times, percentages, in the drug testing example, we could measure the percentage of patients cured. In this case, the treatment is inferred to have no effect when the treatment group, some improvement is expected in the placebo group due to the placebo effect, and this result sets the baseline which the treatment must improve upon. Even if the treatment group shows improvement, it needs to be compared to the placebo group, if the groups show the same effect, then the treatment was not responsible for the improvement. The treatment is effective if the treatment group shows more improvement than the placebo group. Positive controls are groups where a phenomenon is expected and that is, they ensure that there is an effect when there should be an effect, by using an experimental treatment that is already known to produce that effect. Positive controls are used to assess test validity. For example, to assess a new ability to detect a disease
3.
Clinical trial
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Clinical trials are experiments or observations done in clinical research. Clinical trials generate data on safety and efficacy and they are conducted only after they have received health authority/ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial – their approval does not mean that the therapy is safe or effective, only that the trial may be conducted. Clinical trials can vary in size and cost, and they can involve a research center or multiple centers. Clinical study design aims to ensure the validity and reproducibility of the results. Trials can be costly, depending on a number of factors. The sponsor may be an organization or a pharmaceutical, biotechnology or medical device company. Certain functions necessary to the trial, such as monitoring and lab work, may be managed by an outsourced partner, only 10 percent of all drugs started in human clinical trials become an approved drug. Some clinical trials involve healthy subjects with no pre-existing medical conditions, other clinical trials pertain to patients with specific health conditions who are willing to try an experimental treatment. When participants are healthy volunteers who receive financial incentives, the goals are different than when the participants are sick, during dosing periods, study subjects typically remain under supervision for one to 40 nights. Usually pilot experiments are conducted to gain insights for design of the trial to follow. There are two goals to testing medical treatments, to whether they work well enough, called efficacy or effectiveness. The benefits must outweigh the risks, in the US, the elderly constitute only 14 percent of the population, while they consume over one-third of drugs. Women, children and people with unrelated medical conditions are frequently excluded. For women, a reason for exclusion is the possibility of pregnancy. If the sponsor cannot obtain enough test subjects at one location investigators at other locations are recruited to join the study, during the trial, investigators recruit subjects with the predetermined characteristics, administer the treatment and collect data on the subjects health for a defined time period. The researchers send the data to the sponsor, who then analyzes the pooled data using statistical tests. Except for small, single-location trials, the design and objectives are specified in a document called a clinical trial protocol
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Disease
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A disease is a particular abnormal condition, a disorder of a structure or function, that affects part or all of an organism. The study of disease is called pathology which includes the study of cause, Disease is often construed as a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. When caused by pathogens, even in the literature, the term disease is often misleadingly used in the place of its causal agent. This language habitat can cause confusion in the communication of the principle in epidemiology. Diseases can affect not only physically, but also emotionally. Death due to disease is called death by natural causes, there are four main types of disease, infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, genetic diseases, and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified as communicable and non-communicable, the deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease, followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections. In many cases, terms such as disease, disorder, morbidity, there are situations, however, when specific terms are considered preferable. Disease The term disease broadly refers to any condition that impairs the normal functioning of the body, for this reason, diseases are associated with dysfunctioning of the bodys normal homeostatic processes. The term disease has both a count sense and a noncount sense, by contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but expected to produce symptoms later, is usually considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most forms of cancer, heart disease, acquired disease disease that began at some point during ones lifetime, as opposed to disease that was already present at birth, which is congenital disease. Acquired sounds like it could mean caught via contagion, but it simply means acquired sometime after birth and it also sounds like it could imply secondary disease, but acquired disease can be primary disease. It is often, genetic and can be inherited and it can also be the result of a vertically transmitted infection from the mother such as HIV/AIDS. Genetic disease disease that is caused by genetic mutation and it is often inherited, but some mutations are random and de novo. Hereditary or inherited disease a type of disease caused by mutation that is hereditary Iatrogenic disease A disease condition caused by medical intervention. Idiopathic disease disease whose cause is unknown, as medical science has advanced, many diseases whose causes were formerly complete mysteries have been somewhat explained or even extensively explained. Bacterial infections can be primary or secondary to a viral infection or burn. Terminal disease disease with death as an inevitable result Illness Illness is generally used as a synonym for disease, however, this term is occasionally used to refer specifically to the patients personal experience of his or her disease
5.
Jerome
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Jerome was a priest, confessor, theologian and historian. He was the son of Eusebius, born at Stridon, a village near Emona on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia and he is best known for his translation of most of the Bible into Latin, and his commentaries on the Gospels. His list of writings is extensive, the protégé of Pope Damasus I, who died in December of 384, Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. In many cases, he focused his attention to the lives of women and this focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families. He is recognised as a Saint and Doctor of the Church by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Church, and his feast day is 30 September. Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus was born at Stridon around 347 A. D and he was of Illyrian ancestry and his native tongue was the Illyrian dialect. He was not baptized until about 360–366 A. D. when he had gone to Rome with his friend Bonosus to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies and he studied under the grammarian Aelius Donatus. There Jerome learned Latin and at least some Greek, though not the familiarity with Greek literature he would later claim to have acquired as a schoolboy. As a student in Rome, he engaged in the superficial escapades and wanton behaviour of students there, to appease his conscience, he would visit on Sundays the sepulchres of the martyrs and the Apostles in the catacombs. Here and there the light, not entering in through windows, but again, as soon as you found yourself cautiously moving forward, the black night closed around and there came to my mind the line of Vergil, Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent. Jerome used a quote from Virgil—On all sides round horror spread wide, although initially skeptical of Christianity, he was eventually converted. Next came a stay of at least several months, or possibly years, with Rufinus at Aquileia, some of these accompanied him when he set out about 373 on a journey through Thrace and Asia Minor into northern Syria. At Antioch, where he stayed the longest, two of his companions died and he himself was seriously ill more than once, during one of these illnesses, he had a vision that led him to lay aside his secular studies and devote himself to God. Seized with a desire for a life of penance, he went for a time to the desert of Chalcis, to the southeast of Antioch, known as the Syrian Thebaid. During this period, he seems to have time for studying and writing. He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under the guidance of a converted Jew, Jerome translated parts of this Hebrew Gospel into Greek. Returning to Antioch in 378 or 379, he was ordained by Bishop Paulinus, apparently unwillingly, soon afterward, he went to Constantinople to pursue a study of Scripture under Gregory Nazianzen. He seems to have spent two years there, then left, and the three he was in Rome again, as secretary to Pope Damasus I and the leading Roman Christians
6.
Cannabinoid
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A cannabinoid is one of a class of diverse chemical compounds that acts on cannabinoid receptors in cells that alter neurotransmitter release in the brain. Ligands for these proteins include the endocannabinoids, the phytocannabinoids. The most notable cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive compound in cannabis. Cannabidiol is another constituent of the plant. There are at least 113 different cannabinoids isolated from cannabis, exhibiting varied effects, the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate. These receptors are common in animals, and have found in mammals, birds, fish. At present, there are two types of cannabinoid receptors, termed CB1 and CB2, with mounting evidence of more. The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor type, CB1 receptors are found primarily in the brain, more specifically in the basal ganglia and in the limbic system, including the hippocampus. They are also found in the cerebellum and in male and female reproductive systems. CB1 receptors are absent in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brain responsible for respiratory. CB1 is also found in the anterior eye and retina. CB2 receptors are found in the immune system, or immune-derived cells with the greatest density in the spleen. While found only in the nervous system, a report does indicate that CB2 is expressed by a subpopulation of microglia in the human cerebellum. CB2 receptors appear to be responsible for the anti-inflammatory and possibly other therapeutic effects of cannabis seen in animal models, the classical cannabinoids are concentrated in a viscous resin produced in structures known as glandular trichomes. At least 113 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the Cannabis plant To the right, the best studied cannabinoids include tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol. All classes derive from cannabigerol-type compounds and differ mainly in the way this precursor is cyclized, the classical cannabinoids are derived from their respective 2-carboxylic acids by decarboxylation. CBG CBC CBL CBV THCV CBDV CBCV CBGV CBGM THC THCA CBD CBDA Tetrahydrocannabinol is the psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, mimic the actions of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol neurotransmitters produced naturally in the body and these cannabinoids produce the effects associated with cannabis by binding to the CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the brain
7.
Endogenous opioid
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Opioid peptides are peptides that bind to opioid receptors in the brain, opiates and opioids mimic the effect of these peptides. Such peptides may be produced by the body itself, for example endorphins, the effects of these peptides vary, but they all resemble those of opiates. Brain opioid peptide systems are known to play an important role in motivation, emotion, attachment behaviour, the response to stress and pain, opioid-like peptides may also be absorbed from partially digested food. The opioid food peptides have lengths of typically 4–8 amino acids, the bodys own opioids are generally much longer. Opioid peptides are released by post-translational proteolytic cleavage of precursor proteins, sequence analysis reveals that the conserved N-terminal region of the precursors contains 6 cysteines, which are probably involved in disulfide bond formation. It is speculated that this region might be important for neuropeptide processing, the human genome contains several homologous genes that are known to code for endogenous opioid peptides. The nucleotide sequence of the gene for proopiomelanocortin was characterized in 1980. The POMC gene codes for endogenous opioids such as β-endorphin and gamma-endorphin, the peptides with opioid activity that are derived from proopiomelanocortin comprise the class of endogenous opioid peptides called endorphins. The human gene for the enkephalins was isolated and its described in 1982. The human gene for dynorphins was isolated and its described in 1983. The PNOC gene encoding prepronociceptin, which is cleaved into nociceptin, adrenorphin, amidorphin, and leumorphin were discovered in the 1980s. The endomorphins were discovered in the 1990s, hemorphins, hemoglobin-derived opioid peptides, including hemorphin-4, valorphin, and spinorphin, among others. While not peptides, codeine and morphine are also produced in the human body
8.
Childhood
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Childhood is the age span ranging from birth to adolescence. According to Piagets theory of development, childhood consists of two stages, preoperational stage and concrete operational stage. In developmental psychology, childhood is divided up into the stages of toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood. Various childhood factors could affect a persons attitude formation, the concept of childhood emerged during the 17th and 18th centuries, particularly through the educational theories of the philosopher John Locke and the growth of books for and about children. Previous to this point, children were seen as incomplete versions of adults. The term childhood is non-specific and can imply a range of years in human development. Developmentally and biologically, it refers to the period between infancy and adulthood, in common terms, childhood is considered to start from birth. Some consider childhood as a concept of play and innocence which ends at adolescence, in the legal systems of many countries, there is an age of majority when childhood officially ends and a person legally becomes an adult. The age ranges anywhere from 15 to 21, with 18 being the most common, Early childhood follows the infancy stage and begins with toddlerhood when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently. While toddlerhood ends around age three when the child becomes less dependent on assistance for basic needs, early childhood continues approximately through years seven or eight. According to the National Association for the Education of Young Children, at this stage children are learning through observing, experimenting and communicating with others. Adults supervise and support the development process of the child, which then lead to the childs autonomy. Also during this stage, an emotional bond is created between the child and the care providers. The children also start to begin kindergarten at this age to start their social lives, Middle childhood begins at around age seven or eight, approximating primary school age. It ends around puberty, which marks the beginning of adolescence. In this period, children are attending school, thus developing socially and mentally and they are at a stage where they make new friends and gain new skills, which will enable them to become more independent and enhance their individuality. However, because of reasons, that adolescents arent kids its most acceptable to call this age late childhood rather than middle childhood. Adolescence is usually determined by the onset of puberty, however, puberty may also begin in preadolescence
9.
Adult
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Biologically, an adult is a human or other organism that has reached sexual maturity. In human context, the term adult additionally has meanings associated with social and legal concepts, in contrast to a minor, a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as independent, self-sufficient, and responsible. Human adulthood encompasses psychological adult development, conversely, one may legally be an adult but possess none of the maturity and responsibility that may define an adult character. In different cultures there are events that relate passing from being a child to becoming an adult or coming of age. This often encompasses the passing a series of tests to demonstrate that a person is prepared for adulthood, or reaching a specified age, most modern societies determine legal adulthood based on reaching a legally specified age without requiring a demonstration of physical maturity or preparation for adulthood. Historically and cross-culturally, adulthood has been determined primarily by the start of puberty, in the past, a person usually moved from the status of child directly to the status of adult, often with this shift being marked by some type of coming-of-age test or ceremony. After the social construct of adolescence was created, adulthood split into two forms, biological adulthood and social adulthood, thus, there are now two primary forms of adults, biological adults and social adults. Depending on the context, adult can indicate either definition, thus, the base definition of the word adult is the period beginning at puberty. Puberty generally begins around 10 or 11 years of age for girls and 11 or 12 years of age for boys, legally, adulthood means that one can engage in a contract. One can distinguish the legality of acts of a person, or of enabling a young person to carry out that act, by selling, renting out, showing, permitting entrance, allowing participation. There may be distinction between commercially and socially enabling, sometimes there is the requirement of supervision by a legal guardian, or just by an adult. Sometimes there is no requirement, but rather a recommendation, with regard to films with violence, etc. Some cultures in Africa define adulthood at age 13, according to Jewish tradition, adulthood is reached at age 13 for Jewish boys and girls, they are expected to demonstrate preparation for adulthood by learning the Torah and other Jewish practices. The Christian Bible and Jewish scripture contain no age requirement for adulthood or marrying, which includes engaging in sexual activity. The 1983 Code of Canon Law states, A man before he has completed his year of age
10.
Unintended consequences
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In the social sciences, unintended consequences are outcomes that are not the ones foreseen and intended by a purposeful action. The term was popularised in the century by American sociologist Robert K. Merton. Unintended consequences can be grouped into three types, Unexpected benefit, A positive unexpected benefit, Unexpected drawback, An unexpected detriment occurring in addition to the desired effect of the policy. Perverse result, A perverse effect contrary to what was originally intended and this is sometimes referred to as backfire. The idea of unintended consequences dates back at least to John Locke who discussed the consequences of interest rate regulation in his letter to Sir John Somers. The idea was discussed by Adam Smith, the Scottish Enlightenment. However, it was the sociologist Robert K. Merton who popularized this concept in the twentieth century and he emphasized that his term purposive action. Concerned with conduct as distinct from behavior and that is, with action that involves motives and consequently a choice between various alternatives. Mertons usage included deviations from what Max Weber defined as social action, instrumentally rational. Merton also stated that no blanket statement categorically affirming or denying the practical feasibility of all social planning is warranted, akin to Murphys law, it is commonly used as a wry or humorous warning against the hubristic belief that humans can fully control the world around them. As a sub-component of complexity, the nature of the universe—and especially its quality of having small. Likewise the creation of no-mans lands during the Cold War, in such as the border between Eastern and Western Europe, and the Korean Demilitarized Zone, has led to large natural habitats. The sinking of ships in shallow waters during wartime has created many artificial coral reefs, in medicine, most drugs have unintended consequences associated with their use. For instance, aspirin, a reliever, is also an anticoagulant that can help prevent heart attacks and reduce the severity. The existence of beneficial side effects also leads to off-label use—prescription or use of a drug for an unlicensed purpose, famously, the drug Viagra was developed to lower blood pressure, with its main current use being discovered as a side effect in clinical trials. The implementation of a profanity filter by AOL in 1996 had the consequence of blocking residents of Scunthorpe, North Lincolnshire. The accidental censorship of innocent language, known as the Scunthorpe problem, has been repeated, in 1990, the Australian state of Victoria made safety helmets mandatory for all bicycle riders. The risk of death and serious injury per cyclist seems to have increased, research by Vulcan, et al. found that the reduction in juvenile cyclists was because the youths considered wearing a bicycle helmet unfashionable
11.
Annals of Internal Medicine
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Annals of Internal Medicine is an academic medical journal published by the American College of Physicians. It is one of the most widely cited and influential specialty medical journals in the world, Annals publishes content relevant to the field of internal medicine and related sub-specialties. In addition, the journal publishes personal narratives that convey the feeling, selected articles in the journal are open access, these include patient oriented content and Clinical Guidelines. In 2016 a commentary published in Nature claimed that Annals of Internal Medicine supports and defends the unethical, the claims made by the author/activist were unsubstantiated and were addressed by the Annals editors in letters published online first in Annals of Internal Medicine. According to the Journal Citation Reports, Annals most recent Impact Factor is 16.593, currently, Annals is ranked fifth among 151 general medicine journals, making it one of the most highly cited and influential journals in the world. The journal is abstracted and indexed in, The Annals of Internal Medicine was established in 1927 and has published twice monthly since 1988. ACP previously produced two other journals, the Annals of Medicine was established in 1920 was discontinued after a short run due to financial problems of the publisher. The Annals of Clinical Medicine was renamed to the current title when the ACP took direct control and became publisher. Editors-in-chief have included Aldred Scott Warthin, Carl Weller, Maurice Pincoffs, Paul Clough, J. Russell Elkington, Edward Huth, Robert and Suzanne Fletcher, Frank Davidoff, peer review was introduced by Elkington. The current editor-in-chief is Christine Laine, MD, MPH, FACP, in May 2008, ACP Journal Club was merged into Annals of Internal Medicine as a monthly feature, previously it was a separate bimonthly journal
12.
Olive oil
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Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives, a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by pressing whole olives and it is commonly used in cooking, whether for frying or as a salad dressing. It is also used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for oil lamps. It is associated with the Mediterranean diet for its health benefits. The olive is one of three core food plants in Mediterranean cuisine, the two are wheat and grapes. Olive trees have grown around the Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC. Spain is the largest producer of oil, followed by Italy. However, per capita consumption is highest in Greece, followed by Spain, Italy, consumption in North America and northern Europe is far less, but rising steadily. The composition of oil varies with the cultivar, altitude, time of harvest. It consists mainly of acid, with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid. The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin, wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC, the wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor or in ancient Greece. It is not clear when and where trees were first domesticated, in Asia Minor, in the Levant. Archeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Palestine. Until 1500 BC, eastern areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 BC, the cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the islands economy, as it did across the Mediterranean. Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla, which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and these belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the Tanakh, dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth
13.
Corn oil
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Corn oil is oil extracted from the germ of corn. Its main use is in cooking, where its high smoke point makes refined corn oil a valuable frying oil and it is also a key ingredient in some margarines. Corn oil is less expensive than most other types of vegetable oils. One bushel of corn contains 1.55 pounds of corn oil, corn agronomists have developed high-oil varieties, however, these varieties tend to show lower field yields, so they are not universally accepted by growers. Corn oil is also a used for biodiesel. Other industrial uses for corn oil include soap, salve, paint, rustproofing for metal surfaces, inks, textiles, nitroglycerin and it is sometimes used as a carrier for drug molecules in pharmaceutical preparations. Almost all corn oil is expeller-pressed, then solvent-extracted using hexane or 2-methylpentane, the solvent is evaporated from the corn oil, recovered, and re-used. After extraction, the oil is then refined by degumming and/or alkali treatment. Alkali treatment also neutralizes free fatty acids and removes color, final steps in refining include winterization, and deodorization by steam distillation of the oil at 232–260 °C under a high vacuum. Some specialty oil producers manufacture unrefined, 100%-expeller-pressed corn oil and this is a more expensive product since it has a much lower yield than the combination expeller and solvent process, as well as a smaller market share. Of the saturated fatty acids, 80% are palmitic acid, 14% stearic acid, over 99% of the monounsaturated fatty acids are oleic acid 98% of the polyunsaturated fatty acids are the omega-6 linoleic acid with the 2% remainder being the omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid. Some medical research suggests that levels of omega-6 fatty acids, relative to omega-3 fatty acids, may increase the probability of a number of diseases. Modern Western diets typically have ratios of omega-6 to omega-3 in excess of 10 to 1, some as high as 30 to 1, the optimal ratio is thought to be 4 to 1 or lower. A high intake of fatty acids may increase the likelihood that postmenopausal women will develop breast cancer. Similar effects were observed on prostate cancer, other analysis suggested an inverse association between total polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk. Corn wet-milling Dupont J, PJ White, MP Carpenter, EJ Schaefer, SN Meydani, CE Elson, M Woods, food uses and health effects of corn oil. Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils The Maize Page
14.
Lactose
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Lactose is a disaccharide sugar composed of galactose and glucose that is found in milk. Lactose makes up around 2–8% of milk, although the amount varies among species and individuals and it is extracted from sweet or sour whey. The name comes from lac, the Latin word for milk and it has a formula of C12H22O11 and the hydrate formula C12H22O11·H2O, making it an isomer of sucrose. The first crude isolation of lactose, by Italian physician Fabrizio Bartoletti, was published in 1633, in 1700, the Venetian pharmacist Lodovico Testi published a booklet of testimonials to the power of milk sugar to relieve, among other ailments, the symptoms of arthritis. In 1715, Testis procedure for making milk sugar was published by Antonio Vallisneri, lactose was identified as a sugar in 1780 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. In 1812, Heinrich Vogel recognized that glucose was a product of hydrolyzing lactose, in 1856, Louis Pasteur crystallized the other component of lactose, galactose. By 1894, Emil Fischer had established the configurations of the component sugars, lactose was named by the French chemist Jean Baptiste André Dumas in 1843. Lactose is a derived from the condensation of galactose and glucose. Lactose is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose, isomerised in alkaline solution to lactulose, lactose monohydrate crystals have a characteristic tomahawk shape that can be observed with a light microscope. Several million tons are produced annually as a by-product of the dairy industry, whey is made up of 6. 5% solids of which 4. 8% is lactose that may be purified by crystallisation. Whey or milk plasma is the liquid remaining after milk is curdled and strained, lactose makes up about 2–8% of milk by weight. Industrially, lactose is produced from whey permeate – that is whey filtrated for all major proteins, the protein fraction is used in infant nutrition and sport nutrition while the permeate can be evaporated to 60–65% solids and crystallized while cooling. Lactose can also be precipitated from whey using ethanol, since it is insoluble in ethanol, lactose precipitates, in about 65% yield. Infant mammals nurse on their mothers to drink milk, which is rich in lactose, the intestinal villi secrete the enzyme called lactase to digest it. This enzyme cleaves the molecule into its two subunits, the simple sugars glucose and galactose, which can be absorbed. Since lactose occurs mostly in milk, in most mammals, the production of lactase gradually decreases with maturity due to a lack of continuing consumption. Many people with ancestry in Europe, West Asia, South Asia, the Sahel belt in West Africa, East Africa, in many of these areas, milk from mammals such as cattle, goats, and sheep is used as a large source of food. Hence, it was in these regions that genes for lifelong lactase production first evolved, the genes of adult lactose tolerance have evolved independently in various ethnic groups
15.
Cochrane (organisation)
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Cochrane, previously known as the Cochrane Collaboration, is an independent, non-profit, non-governmental organization consisting of a group of more than 37,000 volunteers in more than 130 countries. The group conducts systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials of health-care interventions and diagnostic tests, a few reviews have also studied the results of non-randomized, observational studies. Cochrane was founded in 1993 under the leadership of Iain Chalmers and it was developed in response to Archie Cochranes call for up-to-date, systematic reviews of all relevant randomized controlled trials of health care. Cochrane is currently concentrating on capacity building in health research in individuals, groups, the Cochrane logo illustrates a meta-analysis of data from seven randomized controlled trials, comparing one health care treatment with a placebo in a forest plot. This treatment reduces the odds of the babies of such women dying from the complications of immaturity by 30–50% and their work has also led to methodological improvements in the medical literature. A broader analysis across multiple therapeutic areas reached similar conclusions but was performed by Cochrane authors, compared to non-Cochrane reviews, those from Cochrane are less likely to reach a positive conclusion about the utility of medical interventions. In some cases Cochranes internal structure may make it difficult to publish studies that run against the opinions of internal subject matter experts. An ongoing systematic review being performed by Cochrane authors will examine the impact of selective inclusion of results in meta-analyses. Other support includes a stipend and travel expenses for a Wikipedian in Residence at Cochrane. World Health Organization Cochrane has been in relations with the World Health Organization since 2011. This collaboration includes the right to appoint a representative to participate, without vote, in WHO’s meetings, including at the World Health Assembly, participation in that assembly allows Cochrane to make expository statements on WHO health resolutions
16.
Irving Kirsch
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Irving Kirsch is Associate Director of the Program in Placebo Studies and a lecturer in medicine at the Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. He is also professor emeritus of psychology at the Universities of Hull and Plymouth in the United Kingdom, Kirsch is noted for his research on placebo effects, antidepressants, expectancy, and hypnosis. He is the originator of response expectancy theory, and his analyses of clinical trials of antidepressants have influenced official treatment guidelines in the United Kingdom and he is the author of the 2009 book, The Emperors New Drugs. The son of Jewish immigrants from Poland and Russia, Kirsch was born in New York City on March 7,1943, Kirsch received his PhD in psychology from the University of Southern California in 1975. The album was nominated for a Grammy award as Best Comedy Recording in 1974, in 1975, Kirsch joined the psychology department at the University of Connecticut, where he worked until 2004, when he became a professor of psychology at the University of Plymouth. He moved to the University of Hull in 2007 and joined the faculty of the Harvard Medical School in 2011, Kirsch has authored or edited 10 books and more than 200 scientific journal articles and book chapters. Kirsch’s response expectancy theory is based on the idea that people experience depends partly on what they expect to experience. According to Kirsch, this is the process that lies behind the placebo effect, the theory is supported by research showing that both subjective and physiological responses can be altered by changing people’s expectancies. The theory has been applied to understanding pain, depression, anxiety disorders, asthma, addictions, kirsch’s analysis of the effectiveness of antidepressants was an outgrowth of his interest in the placebo effect. His studies in this area are primarily meta-analyses, in which the results of previously conducted clinical trials are aggregated and analyzed statistically and his first meta-analysis was aimed at assessing the size of the placebo effect in the treatment of depression. The results not only showed a sizable placebo effect, but also indicated that the effect was surprisingly small. This led Kirsch to shift his interest to evaluating the antidepressant drug effect, kirsch’s first meta-analysis was limited to published clinical trials. Kirsch challenges the theory of depression, writing It now seems beyond question that the traditional account of depression as a chemical imbalance in the brain is simply wrong. Kirsch has focused some of his research on the topic of hypnosis, the basis of his hypnosis theory is that placebo effects and hypnosis share a common mechanism, response expectancy. Kirschs idea on this topic is that the effects of hypnosis and placebos are based upon the beliefs of the participant. He has characterized clinical hypnosis as a nondeceptive placebo, the Emperors New Drugs, Exploding the Antidepressant Myth. Deacon, B. J. Huedo-Medina, T. B, Scoboria, A. Moore, T. J. & Johnson, B. T. Initial severity and antidepressant benefits, A meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food, & Moncrieff, J. Clinical trials and the response rate illusion
17.
Effect size
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In statistics, an effect size is a quantitative measure of the strength of a phenomenon. For each type of size, a larger absolute value always indicates a stronger effect. Effect sizes complement statistical hypothesis testing, and play an important role in power analyses, sample size planning and they are the first item in the MAGIC criteria for evaluating the strength of a statistical claim. H Especially in meta-analysis, where the purpose is to combine multiple effect sizes, the S. E. of the effect size is used to weigh effect sizes when combining studies, so that large studies are considered more important than small studies in the analysis. The S. E. of the size is calculated differently for each type of effect size. Reporting effect sizes is considered good practice when presenting empirical research findings in many fields, the reporting of effect sizes facilitates the interpretation of the substantive, as opposed to the statistical, significance of a research result. Effect sizes are particularly prominent in social and medical research, relative and absolute measures of effect size convey different information, and can be used complementarily. g. With ρ ^ being the estimate of the parameter ρ, an example of this is publication bias, which occurs when scientists only report results when the estimated effect sizes are large or are statistically significant. As a result, if many researchers carry out studies with low statistical power, another example where effect sizes may be distorted is in a multiple trial experiment, where the effect size calculation is based on the averaged or aggregated response across the trials. The effect size does not directly determine the level, or vice versa. Given a sufficiently large size, a non-null statistical comparison will always show a statistically significant results unless the population effect size is exactly zero. For example, a sample Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.01 is statistically significant if the size is 1000. Reporting only the significant p-value from this analysis could be misleading if a correlation of 0.01 is too small to be of interest in a particular application, the term effect size can refer to a standardized measure of effect, or to an unstandardized measure. In meta-analyses, standardized effect sizes are used as a measure that can be calculated for different studies. About 50 to 100 different measures of size are known. These effect sizes estimate the amount of the variance within an experiment that is explained or accounted for by the experiments model, the correlation coefficient can also be used when the data are binary. Cohen gives the guidelines for the social sciences, A related effect size is r2. In the case of paired data, this is a measure of the proportion of shared by the two variables, and varies from 0 to 1
18.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
19.
Women's Health Initiative
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The Womens Health Initiative was initiated by the U. S. National Institutes of Health in 1991. In particular, randomized controlled trials were designed and funded that addressed cardiovascular disease, cancer, in 1986, the NIH issued recommendations that women be included in all research studies. To further promote the study of women, in 1990, the NIH created the Office of Research on Womens Health. As a consequence, beginning in 1991, NIH strengthened the policy to require, rather than recommend, among postmenopausal women, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and osteoporosis are the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, as well as impaired quality of life. Among women in all age groups, cancer and cardiovascular disease are the causes of mortality. As the incidence of these diseases increases according to age, women over the age of 50 bear much of the disease burden. It had been accepted that postmenopausal estrogen deficiency may play a role in these morbidities, and that dietary, behavioral. However, these findings were identified on the basis of observational studies alone. In 1987, the NIH funded the Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Intervention, many of the operational procedures from PEPI, including the study drug dosing, were retained in the larger WHI-HT clinical trial. In 1984, the NIH provided funding for a feasibility study pertaining to diet adherence, on April 19,1991, Dr. Bernadine Healy, newly appointed as the first female director of the NIH, announced her plan for the Womens Health Initiative. Planning for the WHI CT/OS study began that year, the NIH awarded the role of Clinical Coordinating Center to the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, located in Seattle, Washington. In 1991, working groups were formed to determine the plan for both the clinical trials and the observational study. These groups included experts from diverse arenas of medicine, public health, the launch of the study was undertaken in two stages. At first,16 vanguard study centers entered active operation, to evaluate the study protocol, Study centers were subdivided into four regions, each under the supervision of a regional center, to further facilitate communication and information exchange among study centers. The WHI study recruited postmenopausal women in the 50-79 age range, the wide nature of the age range balanced the need to observe the effects of hormone therapy on younger women, while also attempting to capture physical and cognitive outcomes in older populations. In addition, a 20% minority enrollment rate was set for all components, to achieve this,10 of the 40 WHI clinical centers were designated as minority recruitment centers, with enhanced minority recruitment goals. Eligibility and exclusion criteria also were defined, both study-wide and component-specific, for the CT, a partial factorial study design was utilized for the investigation of three overlapping interventions, as this would provide considerable cost efficiencies. Willing study-eligible women were asked to either the hormone therapy
20.
Medical ethics
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Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of clinical medicine and in scientific research. Medical ethics allow for people, regardless of race, gender, or religion to be guaranteed quality and it creates an obvious guideline to follow. Medical Ethics is based on a set of values that professionals can refer to in the case of any confusion or conflict and these values include the respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice. With the help of these values it allows doctors, care providers and it is important to note that these four values are of equal worth. The Code of Ethics was then adapted in 1847, relying heavily on Percival’s words, over the years in 1903,1912, and 1947 revisions have been made to the original document. The practice of Medical Ethics is widely accepted and practiced throughout the world, both The Declaration of Helsinki and The Nuremberg Code are two well-known and well respected documents contributing to medical ethics. Other important markings in the history of Medical Ethics include Roe v. Wade in 1973, Medical Ethics continues to develop and change throughout history, yet always keeping the focus on fair, balanced, and moral thinking. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, and sociology. Historically, Western medical ethics may be traced to guidelines on the duty of physicians in antiquity, such as the Hippocratic Oath, and early Christian teachings. The first code of ethics, Formula Comitis Archiatrorum, was published in the 5th century. These intellectual traditions continue in Catholic, Islamic and Jewish medical ethics, by the 18th and 19th centuries, medical ethics emerged as a more self-conscious discourse. In England, Thomas Percival, a physician and author, crafted the first modern code of medical ethics and he drew up a pamphlet with the code in 1794 and wrote an expanded version in 1803, in which he coined the expressions medical ethics and medical jurisprudence. However, there are some who see Percivals guidelines that relate to physician consultations as being protective of the home physicians reputation. Jeffrey Berlant is one critic who considers Percivals codes of physician consultations as being an early example of the anti-competitive. In 1815, the Apothecaries Act was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom and it introduced compulsory apprenticeship and formal qualifications for the apothecaries of the day under the license of the Society of Apothecaries. This was the beginning of regulation of the profession in the UK. In 1847, the American Medical Association adopted its first code of ethics, while the secularized field borrowed largely from Catholic medical ethics, in the 20th century a distinctively liberal Protestant approach was articulated by thinkers such as Joseph Fletcher. In the 1960s and 1970s, building upon liberal theory and procedural justice, much of the discourse of medical ethics went through a dramatic shift and largely reconfigured itself into bioethics
21.
House of Commons of the United Kingdom
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The House of Commons of the United Kingdom is the lower house of the countrys parliament. Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. The House is a body consisting of 650 members known as Members of Parliament. Members are elected to represent constituencies by first-past-the-post and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved, under the Parliament Act 1911, the Lords power to reject legislation was reduced to a delaying power. The Government is primarily responsible to the House of Commons and the prime minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains the support of a majority of its members. Although it does not formally elect the prime minister, the position of the parties in the House of Commons is of overriding importance, by convention, the prime minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Since 1963, by convention, the minister is always a member of the House of Commons. The Commons may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a motion of confidence or by passing a motion of no confidence, confidence and no confidence motions are sometimes phrased explicitly, for instance, That this House has no confidence in Her Majestys Government. Many other motions were considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such, in particular, important bills that form a part of the Governments agenda were formerly considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. Parliament normally sits for a term of five years. Subject to that limit, the minister could formerly choose the timing of the dissolution of parliament. By this second mechanism, the government of the United Kingdom can change without a general election. In such circumstances there may not even have been a party leadership election, as the new leader may be chosen by acclaim. A prime minister may resign if he or she is not defeated at the polls. In such a case, the premiership goes to whoever can command a majority in the House of Commons, in practice this is usually the new leader of the outgoing prime ministers party. Until 1965, the Conservative Party had no mechanism for electing a new leader, when Anthony Eden resigned as PM in 1957 without recommending a successor and it fell to the Queen to appoint Harold Macmillan as the new prime minister, after taking the advice of ministers. By convention, all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or of the House of Lords, a handful have been appointed who were outside Parliament, but in most cases they then entered Parliament either in a by-election or by receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all ministers have been members of the Commons
22.
Classical conditioning
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Classical conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus is paired with a previously neutral stimulus. These basic facts, which require many qualifications, were first studied in detail by Ivan Pavlov through experiments with dogs, Classical conditioning is the basic learning process, and its neural substrates are now beginning to be understood. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. After pairing is repeated, the organism exhibits a conditioned response to the stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. The conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response, but unlike the unconditioned response. Robert A. Rescorla provided a summary of this change in thinking. Despite its widespread acceptance, Rescorlas thesis may not be defensible, the best-known and most thorough early work on classical conditioning was done by Ivan Pavlov, although Edwin Twitmyer published some related findings a year earlier. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov developed a procedure that enabled him to study the processes of animals over long periods of time. He redirected the animal’s digestive fluids outside the body, where they could be measured, Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food. Pavlov called the dogs anticipatory salivation psychic secretion, putting these informal observations to an experimental test, Pavlov presented a stimulus and then gave the dog food, after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus. Pavlov concluded that if a stimulus in the dogs surroundings was present when the dog was given food then that stimulus could become associated with food. He called the stimulus the conditioned stimulus because its effects depend on its association with food and he called the food the unconditioned stimulus because its effects did not depend on previous experience. Likewise, the response to the CS was the conditioned response, Pavlov reported many basic facts about conditioning, for example, he found that learning occurred most rapidly when the interval between the CS and the appearance of the US was relatively short. In fact, the CR may be any new response to the previously neutral CS that can be linked to experience with the conditional relationship of CS. It was also thought that repeated pairings are necessary for conditioning to emerge, learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning, the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US in order to signal that the US will follow, two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning. Delay conditioning, In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the US, trace conditioning, During trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS begins and ends before the US is presented, the stimulus-free period is called the trace interval
23.
Stimulant
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Stimulants is an overarching term that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the body, drugs that are pleasurable and invigorating, or drugs that have sympathomimetic effects. Due to their rendering a characteristic up feeling, stimulants are also referred to as uppers. Depressants or downers, which decrease mental and/or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be the functionally opposite drug class, Stimulants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines as well as without a prescription as performance-enhancing or recreational drugs. The most frequently prescribed stimulants as of 2013 were lisdexamfetamine, methylphenidate and it is estimated that the percent of the population that has abused amphetamines, cocaine and MDMA combined is between. 8% and 2. 1%. Stimulants in therapeutic doses, such as given to patients with ADHD, increases ability to focus, vigor, sociability, libido. However, in higher doses stimulants may actually decrease the ability to focus, in higher doses stimulants may also produce euphoria, vigor, and decrease need for sleep. Many, but not all, stimulants have ergogenic effects, Drugs such as ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, amphetamine and methylphenidate have well documented ergogenic effects, while drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine have the opposite effect. In some cases psychiatric phenomenon may emerge such as stimulant psychosis, paranoia, acute toxicity has been reportedly associated with a homicide, paranoia, aggressive behavior, motor dysfunction, and punding. The violent and aggressive behavior associated with acute stimulant toxicity may partially be driven by paranoia, most drugs classified as stimulants are sympathomimetics, that is they stimulate the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. This leads to such as mydriasis, increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate. When these changes become pathological, they are called arrhythmia, hypertension, and hyperthermia, however given the complexity of the mechanisms that underly these potentially fatal outcomes of acute stimulant toxicity, it is impossible to determine what dose may be lethal. Assessment of the effects of stimulants is relevant given the large population currently taking stimulants. A systematic review of cardiovascular effects of prescription stimulants found no association in children, a review over a four-year period found that there were few negative effects of stimulant treatment, but stressed the need for longer term studies. A review of a long period of prescription stimulate use in those with ADHD found that cardiovascular side effects were limited to transient increases in blood pressure only. Initiation of stimulant treatment in those with ADHD in early childhood appears to carry benefits into adulthood with regard to social and cognitive functioning, Abuse of prescription stimulants or of illicit stimulants carries many negative health risks. Abuse of cocaine, depending upon route of administration, increases risk of disease, stroke. Cocaine may also increase risk for disease, as well as damage nasal cartilage. Abuse of methamphetamine produces similar effects as well as marked degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, Drugs used to treat sleep disorders such as excessive daytime sleepiness are called eugeroics, and include notable stimulants such as modafinil
24.
Sinus rhythm
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A sinus rhythm is any cardiac rhythm where depolarisation of the cardiac muscle begins at the sinus node. It is characterised by the presence of correctly oriented P waves on the electrocardiogram, sinus rhythm is necessary, but not sufficient, for normal electrical activity within the heart. However, other sinus rhythms can be normal in particular patient groups and clinical contexts, so the term is sometimes considered a misnomer. Other types of sinus rhythm include sinus tachycardia, sinus bradycardia, sinus rhythm may be present together with other cardiac arrhythmias on the same ECG. By convention, the normal sinus rhythm is taken to imply that not only are the P waves normal in morphology. Criteria therefore include, Normal heart rate, regular rhythm, with less than 0.16 second variation in the shortest and longest durations between successive P waves. The sinus node should pace the heart – therefore, P waves must be round, all the same shape, Normal P wave axis Normal PR interval, QRS complex and QT interval. QRS complex positive in leads I, II, aVF and V3-V6, archived from the original on 15 December 2012
25.
Depressant
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A depressant, or central depressant, is a drug that lowers neurotransmission levels, which is to depress or reduce arousal or stimulation, in various areas of the brain. Depressants are also referred to as downers as they lower the level of arousal when taken. Stimulants or uppers increase mental and/or physical function, hence the opposite drug class of depressants is stimulants, Depressants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines and as illicit substances. Alcohol is a very prominent depressant, alcohol can be and is more likely to be a large problem between teenagers and young adults. Other examples are chemicals that modify the electrical signaling inside the body, the most prominent of these being bromides and channel blockers. Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans, ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three classes for taxation and regulation of production, beers, wines, and spirits. They are legally consumed in most countries around the world, more than 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption. The most common way to measure intoxication for legal or medical purposes is through blood alcohol content. It is usually expressed as a percentage of alcohol in the blood in units of mass of alcohol per volume of blood, or mass of alcohol per mass of blood, depending on the country. For instance, in North America a blood alcohol content of 0.10 means that there are 0.10 g of alcohol for every dL of blood, barbiturates are effective in relieving the conditions that they are designed to address. They are also used for unapproved purposes, physically addictive. When, in the late 1950s, many thought that the social cost of barbiturates was beginning to outweigh the medical benefits, most people still using barbiturates today do so in the prevention of seizures or in mild form for relief from the symptoms of migraines. A benzodiazepine is a drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring. These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal, benzodiazepines are categorized as either short-, intermediate-, or long-acting. Short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia, in general, benzodiazepines are safe and effective in the short term, although cognitive impairments and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur. A minority react reverse and contrary to what would normally be expected, for example, a state of panic may worsen considerably following intake of a benzodiazepine. Due to adverse effects associated with the use of benzodiazepines, withdrawal from benzodiazepines, in general
26.
Motivation
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Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behaviour. It gives the reason for actions, desires, and needs. Motivation can also be defined as ones direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior, a motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior. According to Maehr and Meyer, Motivation is a word that is part of the culture as few other psychological concepts are. Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases, Natural vs. Rational, content vs. Process, based on whether the focus is on the content motivates vs process motivation takes place. This type of motivation has neurobiological roots in the basal ganglia, activated seeking behavior, such as locomotor activity is influenced by dopaminergic drugs, and in micro dialysis reveals dopamine release during anticipation of a reward. The wanting behavior associated with a stimulus can be increased by microinjections of dopamine and dopaminergic drugs in the dorsorostral nucleus accumbens. Opioid injections in this area produce pleasure, however outside of these hedonic hotspots they create an increased desire, furthermore, depletion or inhibition of DA in neurons of the nucleus accumbens decreases appetitive but not consummatory behavior. Dopamine is further implicated in motivation as administration of amphetamine increased the break point in a progressive ratio self-reinforcement schedule and that is, subjects were willing to go to greater lengths to obtain a reward. Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviors, behaviors drive performance, performance affects thoughts, and the cycle begins again. Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, the idea that human beings are rational and human behavior is guided by reason is an old one. However, recent research has significantly undermined the idea of homo economicus or of perfect rationality in favour of a more bounded rationality, the field of behavioural economics is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents. Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze ones capacity, to observe and it is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior, in these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is an element in cognitive, social. Students who are motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills. The employee has the motivation to gain more knowledge
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