1.
Pine
–
A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’. Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs, the genus is divided into three subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters, Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally harder wood. Ducampopinus, the foxtail or pinyon group Pinus subg, strobus, the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per fascicle Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S, in North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N. Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks, a number of such introduced species have become invasive and threaten native ecosystems. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous trees growing 3–80 m tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a 81.79 m tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregons Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, the bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular pseudo whorls, actually a very tight spiral, the spiral growth of branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called candles, they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then turn green. These candles offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil, pines are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, one individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, is one of the worlds oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California, an older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as Prometheus after the Greek immortal, pines have four types of leaf, Seed leaves on seedlings, born in a whorl of 4–24. Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green and these are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer. Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, needles, the adult leaves, are green and bundled in clusters called fascicles
2.
Cotton
–
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
3.
Coffee
–
Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried, dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and brewed with boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage. Coffee is slightly acidic and can have an effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served, the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former, yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, from there, it spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Coffee is an export commodity, it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and is among the worlds largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing countries, green coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding. The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua, equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and coffee both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè and it has also been proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, the expression coffee break was first attested in 1952. The term coffee pot dates from 1705, other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle, Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab
4.
Tea
–
Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world, Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century, during the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese monopoly. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile and these are sometimes called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant. The tea industry often uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas. The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with a stroke as 荼. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, there were other ancient words for tea, though ming is the only other one still in common use. Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha and these two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. Starting in the seventeen century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for tea from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish té and this pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation chá, and spread it to India, the Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history. A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay, both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. English has all three forms, cha or char, attested from the 16th century, tea, from the 17th, however, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English. Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the points of the lands of north Burma. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China. The earliest written records of tea come from China, in the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king
5.
Cocoa bean
–
The beans are the basis of chocolate, and of such Mesoamerican foods as mole and tejate. The word cocoa comes from the Spanish word cacao, which is derived from the Nahuatl word cacahuatl, the Nahuatl word, in turn, ultimately derives from the reconstructed Proto Mije-Sokean word *kakaw~*kakawa. It originated in Central America and parts of Mexico, more than 5,000 years ago, it was consumed by pre-Columbian cultures along the Yucatán, including the Mayans, and as far back as Olmeca civilization in spiritual ceremonies. It also grows in the foothills of the Andes in the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America and its range may have been larger in the past, evidence of its wild range may be obscured by cultivation of the tree in these areas since long before the Spanish arrived. The cocoa bean was a currency throughout Mesoamerica before the Spanish conquest. Cacao trees grow in a geographical zone, of about 20° to the north and south of the Equator. Nearly 70% of the world today is grown in West Africa. The cacao plant was first given its name by Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus in his original classification of the plant kingdom. Cocoa was an important commodity in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, flavored with vanilla or other spices, his chocolate was whipped into a froth that dissolved in the mouth. No fewer than 60 portions each day reportedly may have been consumed by Moctezuma II, chocolate was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by the mid-17th century. They also introduced the tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. It was also introduced into the rest of Asia and into West Africa by Europeans, in the Gold Coast, modern Ghana, cacao was introduced by an African, Tetteh Quarshie. Due to heat buildup in the process, cacao beans lose most of the purplish hue and become mostly brown in color. This skin is released easily after roasting by winnowing, white seeds are found in some rare varieties, usually mixed with purples, and are considered of higher value. The three main varieties of plant are Forastero, Criollo, and Trinitario. The first is the most widely used, comprising 80-90% of the production of cocoa. Cocoa beans of the Criollo variety are rarer and considered a delicacy, Criollo plantations have lower yields than those of Forastero, and also tend to be less resistant to several diseases that attack the cocoa plant, hence very few countries still produce it. One of the largest producers of Criollo beans is Venezuela, Trinitario is a hybrid between Criollo and Forastero varieties
6.
Sugarcane
–
It has stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in the sugar sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. The plant is two to six meters tall, all sugar cane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids. Sugarcane belongs to the grass family Poaceae, an important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum. Sucrose, extracted and purified in specialized factories, is used as raw material in the food industry or is fermented to produce ethanol. Ethanol is produced on a large scale by the Brazilian sugarcane industry, sugarcane is the worlds largest crop by production quantity. In 2012, The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates it was cultivated on about 26×106 hectares, in more than 90 countries, Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, the world demand for sugar is the primary driver of sugarcane agriculture. Cane accounts for 80% of sugar produced, most of the rest is made from sugar beets, sugarcane predominantly grows in the tropical and subtropical regions. Other than sugar, products derived from sugarcane include falernum, molasses, rum, cachaça, bagasse, in some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded inflorescence of tebu telor is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the famous reeds that produce honey without bees in India between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture, merchants began to trade in sugar from India, which was considered a luxury and an expensive spice. Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, the stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, the average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation, sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea. It is theorized that sugarcane was first domesticated as a crop in New Guinea around 6000 BC, New Guinean farmers and other early cultivators of sugarcane chewed the plant for its sweet juice. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear, the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
7.
Sisal
–
Sisal, with the botanical name Agave sisalana, is a species of Agave native to southern Mexico but widely cultivated and naturalized in many other countries. It yields a fibre used in making various products. The term sisal may refer either to the common name or the fibre. It is sometimes referred to as sisal hemp, because for centuries hemp was a source for fibre. The sisal fibre is used for rope and twine, and has many other uses, including paper, cloth, footwear, hats, bags, carpets. The native origin of Agave sisalana is uncertain, traditionally it was deemed to be a native of the Yucatán Peninsula, but there are no records of botanical collections from there. They were originally shipped from the Spanish colonial port of Sisal in Yucatán, the Yucatán plantations now cultivate henequen. Gentry hypothesized a Chiapas origin, on the strength of local usage. Evidence of a cottage industry there suggests it as the original habitat location, possibly as a cross of Agave angustifolia. Sisal plants, Agave sisalana, consist of a rosette of sword-shaped leaves about 1. 5–2 metres tall, young leaves may have a few minute teeth along their margins, but lose them as they mature. The sisal plant has a 7–10 year life-span and typically produces 200–250 commercially usable leaves, each leaf contains an average of around 1000 fibres. The fibres account for only about 4% of the plant by weight, Sisal is considered a plant of the tropics and subtropics, since production benefits from temperatures above 25 degrees Celsius and sunshine. Sisal was used by the Aztecs and the Mayans to make crude fabrics, in the 19th century, sisal cultivation spread to Florida, the Caribbean islands, and Brazil, as well as to countries in Africa, notably Tanzania and Kenya, and Asia. The first commercial plantings in Brazil were made in the late 1930s and it was not until the 1960s that Brazilian production accelerated and the first of many spinning mills was established. Today Brazil is the major producer of sisal. There are both positive and negative impacts from sisal growing. These methods offer no potential for genetic improvement, in vitro multiplication of selected genetic material using meristematic tissue culture offers considerable potential for the development of improved genetic material. Fibre is extracted by a known as decortication, where leaves are crushed, beaten
8.
Vegetable oil
–
A vegetable oil is a triglyceride extracted from a plant. For this reason, vegetable oils that are solid at room temperature are sometimes called vegetable fats, in contrast to these triglycerides, vegetable waxes lack glycerin in their structure. Although many plant parts may yield oil, in commercial practice, Oils extracted from plants have been used since ancient times and in many cultures. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Israel. Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, the oils serve a number of purposes in this role, Shortening – to give pastry a crumbly texture. Texture – oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less, flavor – while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, some oils, such as olive, sesame, or almond oil, may be chosen specifically for the flavor they impart. Flavor base – oils can also carry flavors of other ingredients, secondly, oils can be heated and used to cook other foods. Oils suitable for this objective must have a flash point. Such oils include the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. Tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran oils, are valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking. Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, the hydrogenation process involves sparging the oil at high temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound. As each carbon–carbon double-bond is chemically reduced to a single bond, the elimination of double bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called saturation, as the degree of saturation increases, the oil progresses toward being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity or to change its physical characteristics, as the degree of saturation increases, the oils viscosity and melting point increase. The use of hydrogenated oils in foods has never completely satisfactory. Because the center arm of the triglyceride is shielded somewhat by the end fatty acids, most of the hydrogenation occurs on the end fatty acids, a margarine made from naturally more saturated oils will be more plastic than a margarine made from hydrogenated soy oil. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to a risk of mortality from coronary heart disease. In the US, the Standard of Identity for a product labeled as vegetable oil margarine specifies only canola, safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean, products not labeled vegetable oil margarine do not have that restriction. Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products, many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products
9.
Elaeis
–
Elaeis is a genus of palms containing two species, called oil palms. They are used in agriculture in the production of palm oil. The African oil palm Elaeis guineensis is the source of palm oil, it is native to west and southwest Africa. The American oil palm Elaeis oleifera is native to tropical Central and South America, mature palms are single-stemmed, and can grow well over 20 m tall. The leaves are pinnate, and reach between 3–5 m long, the flowers are produced in dense clusters, each individual flower is small, with three sepals and three petals. The palm fruit is reddish, about the size of a large plum, each fruit is made up of an oily, fleshy outer layer, with a single seed, also rich in oil. The two species, E. guineensis and E. oleifera can produce fertile hybrids, the genome of E. guineensis has been sequenced, which has important implications for breeding improved strains of the crop plants. Since palm oil contains more saturated fats than oils made from canola, corn, linseed, soybeans, safflower and it contains no trans fat, and its use in food has increased as food-labelling laws have changed to specify trans fat content. Oil from Elaeis guineensis is also used as biofuel, human use of oil palms may date back about 5,000 years in coastal west Africa. Palm oil was discovered in the late 19th century by archaeologists in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3000 BCE. It is thought that Arab traders brought the oil palm to Egypt, Elaeis guineensis is now extensively cultivated in tropical countries outside Africa, particularly Malaysia and Indonesia which together produce most of the world supply. Especially in Indonesia, there is growing pressure for palm oil producers to prove that they are not harming rare animals in the cultivation process. Attalea maripa, another oil-producing palm Journal of Oil Palm Research Energy and the environment List of Arecaceae genera Social and environmental impact of palm oil
10.
Hevea brasiliensis
–
Hevea brasiliensis, the Pará rubber tree, sharinga tree, seringueira, or, most commonly, the rubber tree or rubber plant, is a tree belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is the most economically important member of the genus Hevea because the milky latex extracted from the tree is the source of natural rubber. H. brasiliensis is a deciduous tree growing to a height of up to 40 m in the wild. The trunk is cylindrical and may have a swollen, bottle-shaped base, the bark is some shade of brown, and the inner bark oozes latex when damaged. The leaves have three leaflets and are spirally arranged, the inflorescence include separate male and female flowers. The flowers are pungent, creamy-yellow and have no petals, the fruit is a capsule that contains three large seeds, it opens explosively when ripe. In the wild, the tree can reach a height of up to 100 feet, the white or yellow latex occurs in latex vessels in the bark, mostly outside the phloem. These vessels spiral up the tree in a helix which forms an angle of about 30 degrees with the horizontal. The tree requires a tropical or subtropical climate with a minimum of about 1,200 mm per year of rainfall, if frost does occur, the results can be disastrous for production. One frost can cause the rubber from a plantation to become brittle. Harvesters make incisions across the vessels, just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the trees growth. This process is known as rubber tapping, latex production is highly variable from tree to tree and across clone types. As latex production declines with age, rubber trees are generally felled when they reach the age of 25 to 30 years, the earlier practice was to burn the trees, but in recent decades, the wood has been harvested for furniture making. The Pará rubber tree initially grew only in the Amazon rainforest, increasing demand and the discovery of the vulcanization procedure in 1839 led to the rubber boom in that region, enriching the cities of Belém and Manaus. The name of the tree derives from Pará, the second-largest Brazilian state and these trees were used to obtain rubber by the natives who inhabited its geographical distribution. The Olmec people of Mesoamerica extracted and produced similar forms of primitive rubber from analogous latex-producing trees such as Castilla elastica as early as 3,600 years ago, the rubber was used, among other things, to make the balls used in the Mesoamerican ballgame. Early attempts were made in 1873 to grow H. brasilensis outside Brazil, after some effort,12 seedlings were germinated at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. These were sent to India for cultivation, but died, a second attempt was then made, some 70,000 seeds being smuggled to Kew in 1875, by Henry Wickham, in the service of the British Empire
11.
Protectionism
–
Protectionist policies protect the producers, businesses and workers of the import-competing sector in a country from foreign competitors. According to proponents, these policies can counteract unfair trade practices, protectionists may favor the policy in order to decrease the trade deficit, maintain employment in certain sectors, or favor the growth of certain industries. In recent years, protectionism has become closely aligned with the anti-globalization movement, There is a broad consensus among economists that the impact of protectionism on economic growth is largely negative, although the impact on specific industries and groups of people may be positive. The doctrine of protectionism contrasts with the doctrine of free trade, a variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. Tariff rates usually vary according to the type of goods imported, import tariffs will increase the cost to importers, and increase the price of imported goods in the local markets, thus lowering the quantity of goods imported, to favour local producers. Tariffs may also be imposed on exports, and in an economy with floating exchange rates, however, since export tariffs are often perceived as hurting local industries, while import tariffs are perceived as helping local industries, export tariffs are seldom implemented. Import quotas, To reduce the quantity and therefore increase the price of imported goods. The economic effects of a quota is similar to that of a tariff. Economists often suggest that import licenses be auctioned to the highest bidder, administrative barriers, Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules as a way to introduce barriers to imports. Anti-dumping legislation, Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent dumping of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down, however, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters. Direct subsidies, Government subsidies are given to local firms that cannot compete well against imports. These subsidies are purported to protect jobs, and to help local firms adjust to the world markets. Export subsidies, Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports, Export subsidies have the opposite effect of export tariffs because exporters get payment, which is a percentage or proportion of the value of exported. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have similar to import subsidies. Exchange rate control, A government may intervene in the exchange market to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, international patent systems, There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Peter Drahos explains that States realized that patent systems could be used to cloak protectionist strategies, There were also reputational advantages for states to be seen to be sticking to intellectual property systems. In the modern trade arena many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist, for example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati, see developed countries efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism
12.
Comparative advantage
–
One does not compare the monetary costs of production or even the resource costs of production. Instead, one must compare the opportunity costs of producing goods across countries, the closely related law or principle of comparative advantage holds that under free trade, an agent will produce more of and consume less of a good for which they have a comparative advantage. The general industry of the country, being always in proportion to the capital which employs it, but only left to find out the way in which it can be employed with the greatest advantage. The lace that remains, beyond what the labour and capital employed on the cloth, in 1817, David Ricardo published what has since become known as the theory of comparative advantage in his book On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. In a famous example, Ricardo considers a world consisting of two countries, Portugal and England, which produce two goods of identical quality. In Portugal, the a more efficient country, it is possible to produce wine. However, the costs of producing those two goods differ between the countries. In this illustration, England could commit 100 hours of labor to produce one unit of cloth, meanwhile, in comparison, Portugal could commit 90 hours of labor to produce one unit of cloth, or produce 98 units of wine. So, Portugal possesses an absolute advantage in producing cloth due to fewer labor hours, England is more efficient at producing cloth than wine, and Portugal is more efficient at producing wine than cloth. Consequently, both England and Portugal can consume more wine and cloth under free trade than in autarky, the Ricardian model is a general equilibrium mathematical model of international trade. The earliest test of Ricardian model was performed by G. D. A MacDougall, in Ricardian model, trade patterns depend on productivity differences. The following is a modern interpretation of the classical Ricardian model. In the interest of simplicity, it uses notation and definitions, such as opportunity cost, the world economy consists of two countries, Home and Foreign, which produce wine and cloth. Labor, the factor of production, is mobile domestically but not internationally. The total amount of wine and cloth produced in Home are Q W and Q C respectively and we denote the same variables for Foreign by appending a prime. For instance, a L W ′ is the amount of labor needed to produce a unit of wine in Foreign and we dont know if Home is more productive than Foreign in making cloth. That is, if a L C < a L C ′, similarly, we dont know if Home has an absolute advantage in wine. However, we assume that Home is more relatively productive in cloth than Foreign
13.
Farmhouse
–
A farmhouse is a building that serves as the primary residence in a rural or agricultural setting. Historically, farmhouses were often combined with space for animals called a housebarn, other farmhouses may be connected to one or more barns, built to form a courtyard, or with each farm building separate from each other. Types of farmhouses in Europe include the following, A Bresse house is a type of farmhouse found in the Bresse region that is characterized by its length, brick walls. A Mas is a traditional farmhouse unique to Provence and Southern France, historically there were three main types of German farmhouses, many of which survive today. The Low German house or Niedersachsenhaus is found mainly on the North German Plain and it is a large structure with a sweeping roof supported by two to four rows of internal posts. The large barn door at the gable end opens into a hall, or Deele, with cattle stalls and barns on either side. The Middle German house may also be a unit, but access is from the side. Later this type of mitteldeutsches Haus was expanded to two or more buildings around a farmyard, often with a second story. The South German house is found in southern Germany and has two variants, the Swabian or Black Forest house and the Bavarian farmstead. A Cascina a corte is a building whose arrangement is based on the Roman villa found in the Po Valley of northern Italy. A house called Casa colonica in Italy is a type of farmhouse where the work the land. Ta Tabibu farmhouse and Ta Xindi Farmhouse are two typical Maltese farmhouses built in the times with the use of Limestone material. In Maltese a farmhouse is called Razzett, other examples of Maltese farmhouses are the Ta Cisju Farmhouse and The Devils Farmhouse. Norwegian farmhouses used timber or logs and built using Scandinavian vernacular architecture, the first examples are traced back to the 13th century. In some cases farmhouses are built on steep hillsides of the such as the Me-Åkernes farm. An Alqueria is a complex named from the historical, Muslim region of Al-Andalus. The Baserri is found in the Basque Country in Northern Spain, the Cabaña pasiega is a two-level dwelling for farmers and livestock found in Cantabria. The Masia originates from the Catalan Countries, and the Palloza is a primitive, a Hacienda also occasionally functioned as a farmhouse
14.
Roman Empire
–
Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
15.
Globalisation
–
Globalization or globalisation is the action or procedure of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. Advances in transportation and in telecommunications infrastructure have been factors in globalization, generating further interdependence of economic. Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s, in the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectivity of the worlds economies and cultures grew very quickly. The term globalization is recent, only establishing its current meaning in the 1970s, further, environmental challenges such as global warming, cross-boundary water and air pollution, and overfishing of the ocean are linked with globalization. Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas, economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization. The term globalization is derived from the word globalize, which refers to the emergence of a network of economic systems. One of the earliest known usages of the term as a noun was in a 1930 publication entitled Towards New Education, a related term, corporate giants, was coined by Charles Taze Russell in 1897 to refer to the largely national trusts and other large enterprises of the time. By the 1960s, both began to be used as synonyms by economists and other social scientists. Economist Theodore Levitt is widely credited with coining the term in an article entitled Globalization of Markets, However, the term globalization was in use well before this and had been used by other scholars as early as 1981. Levitt can be credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream audience in the later half of the 1980s. Due to the complexity of the concept, research projects, articles, sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society. Globalization can be located on a continuum with the local, national and regional, without reference to such expansive spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. A satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements, extensity, intensity, velocity and it pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world. The ideological dimension, according to Steger, is filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs and they have also argued that four different forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions. According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, a second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and polities, including imperial agents. Object-extended globalization, a form, is the movement of commodities. He calls the transmission of ideas, images, knowledge, and information across world-space disembodied globalization and he asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to grow. Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined economic globalization as the opening and deregulation of commodity, capital and he used political globalization to refer to the emergence of a transnational elite and a phasing out of the nation-state
16.
Colonialism
–
Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony. The term is used to describe a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples. The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa. At first the countries followed a policy of mercantilism, designed to strengthen the economy at the expense of rivals. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including something characteristic of a colony, in the book, Osterhammel asks, How can colonialism be defined independently from colony. He settles on a definition, Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the people are made. Rejecting cultural compromises with the population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority. Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism, Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state, as colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies the vast majority of Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, the Other, or othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics. Othering is the creation from those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the other as an epistemological concept in social theory. For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonizing powers explained an ‘other’ who were there to dominate, civilize, political geographers explain how colonial/ imperial powers othered places they wanted to dominate to legalize their exploitation of the land. During the rise of colonialism and after, post colonialism, the Western powers perspectives of the East as the other, different and this viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/ subordinate dynamic, both being the other towards themselves. The word metropole comes from the Greek metropolis —mother city, the word colony comes from the Latin colonia—a place for agriculture
17.
Indentured servitude
–
An indentured servant or indentured labor is an employee within a system of unfree labor who is bound by a contract to work for a particular employer for a fixed period of time. The employer is permitted to assign the labor of an indenturee to a third party. Indenturees usually enter into an indenture for a payment or other benefit or to meet a legal obligation. Upon completion of the contract, indentured servants were granted freedom or occasionally plots of land, in many countries, systems of indentured labor have been outlawed. Until the late 18th century, indentured servitude was very common in British North America and it was often a way for poor Europeans to emigrate to the American colonies, they signed an indenture in return for a costly passage. After their indenture expired, the immigrants were free to work for themselves or another employer, the consensus view among economic historians and economists is that indentured servitude occurred largely as an institutional response to a capital market imperfection. In some cases, the indenture was made with a ships master, most indentured servants worked as farm laborers or domestic servants, although some were apprenticed to craftsmen. The terms of an indenture were not always enforced by American courts, although runaways were usually sought out, between one-half and two-thirds of white immigrants to the American colonies between the 1630s and American Revolution had come under indentures. Indentured people were numerically important mostly in the region from Virginia north to New Jersey, other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was about 500,000, of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48% were indentured. About 75% of these were under the age of 25, the age of adulthood for men was 24 years, those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about 3 years. Not all European servants were sent willingly, several instances of kidnapping for transportation to the Americas are recorded. An illustrative example is that of Peter Williamson, one spirit named William Thiene was known to have spirited away 840 people from Britain to the colonies in a single year. Historian Lerone Bennett, Jr. notes that Masters given to flogging often did not care whether their victims were black or white. Indentured servants could not marry without the permission of their master, were subject to physical punishment, to ensure uninterrupted work by the female servants, the law lengthened the term of their indenture if they became pregnant. But unlike slaves, servants were guaranteed to be released from bondage. At the end of their term they received a payment known as freedom dues, one could buy and sell indentured servants contracts, and the right to their labor would change hands, but not the person as a piece of property. The American Revolution severely limited immigration to the United States, but economic historians differ on the long-term impact of the Revolution
18.
Slavery
–
A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
19.
Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii
–
In Oregon and Washington its range is continuous from the Cascades crest west to the Pacific Coast Ranges and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the Klamath and California Coast Ranges as far south as the Santa Lucia Mountains with a stand as far south as the Purisima Hills. In the Sierra Nevada it ranges as far south as the Yosemite region and it occurs from near sea level along the coast to 1,800 metres in the California Mountains. Further inland, coast Douglas-fir is replaced by Rocky Mountain or interior Douglas-fir, interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia. Coast Douglas-fir is the second-tallest conifer in the world, and the third-tallest of all trees, Coast Douglas-fir commonly lives more than 500 years and occasionally more than 1,000 years. The bark on trees is thin, smooth, gray. On mature trees, it is thick and corky, the shoots are brown to olive-green, turning gray-brown with age, smooth, though not as smooth as fir shoots, and finely pubescent with short dark hairs. The buds are a distinctive narrow conic shape, 4–8 mm long. Unlike the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, coast Douglas-fir foliage has a noticeable sweet fruity-resinous scent, the mature female seed cones are pendent, 5–8 centimetres long, 2–3 cm broad when closed, opening to 4 cm broad. They are produced in spring, green at first, maturing orange-brown in the autumn 6–7 months later, the seeds are 5–6 mm long and 3–4 mm broad, with a 12–15 mm wing. The male cones are 2–3 cm long, dispersing yellow pollen in spring, in forest conditions, old individuals typically have a narrow, cylindric crown beginning 20–40 metres above a branch-free trunk. Self-pruning is generally slow and trees retain their lower limbs for a long period, young, open-grown trees typically have branches down to near ground level. It often takes 70–80 years for the trunk to be clear to a height of 5 metres and 100 years to be clear to a height of 10 metres, appreciable seed production begins at 20–30 years in open-grown coast Douglas-fir. Seed production is irregular, over a 5-7 year period, stands usually produce one crop, a few light or medium crops. Even during heavy seed crop years, only about 25 percent of trees in closed stands produce a number of cones. Each cone contains around 25 to 50 seeds, seed size varies, average number of cleaned seeds varies from 70-88/g. Seeds from the portion of coast Douglas-firs range tend to be larger than seed from the south. Some roots are found in organic soil layers or near the mineral soil surface
20.
Washington (state)
–
It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, the Washington Territory was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The area was part of a region called the Columbia District after the Columbia River. The area was renamed Washington in order to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia, Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president. To distinguish it from the U. S. capital, which is named for George Washington, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, or, in more formal contexts. Washingtonians and other residents of the Pacific Northwest refer to the state simply as Washington, calling the nations capital Washington, D. C. or, often, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
21.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
22.
Forestry Commission
–
The Forestry Commission is a non-ministerial government department responsible for forestry in England and Scotland. It was set up in 1919 to expand Britains forests and woodland after depletion during the First World War, to do this, the commission bought large amounts of former agricultural land, eventually becoming the largest land owner in Britain. The Commission is divided into three divisions, Forestry Commission England, Forestry Commission Scotland, and Forest Research, Forestry Commission Scotland reports to the Scottish Government. Over time the purpose of the Commission broadened to include other activities beyond timber production. One major activity is scientific research, some of which is carried out in research forests across Britain, recreation is also important, with several outdoor activities being actively promoted. Protecting and improving biodiversity across Britains forests are part of the Forestry Commissions remit. The Commission received criticism for its reliance on conifers, particularly the appearance of conifer forests. Protests from the public and conservation groups accompanied attempts to privatise the organisation in 1993 and 2010. The Forestry Commission manages almost 700,000 hectares of land in England and Scotland, the majority of the land is in Scotland, 30% of the landholding is in England. Afforestation was the reason for the creation of the commission in 1919. Britain had only 5% of its original forest cover left and the government at that time wanted to create a resource of timber. Since then forest coverage has doubled and the commissions remit expanded to include greater focus on sustainable forest management, the Forestry Commission is also the government body responsible for the regulation of private forestry, felling is generally illegal without first obtaining a licence from the Commission. The Commission is also responsible for encouraging new private forest growth, part of this role is carried out by providing grants in support of private forests and woodlands. The Forestry Commission was established as part of the Forestry Act 1919, the board was initially made up of eight forestry commissioners and was chaired by Simon Fraser, 14th Lord Lovat from 1919 to 1927. The commission was set up to increase the amount of woodland in Britain by buying land for afforestation and reforestation, the commission was also tasked with promoting forestry and the production of timber for trade. During the 1920s the Commission focused on acquiring land to begin planting out new forests, during the Great Depression the Forestry Commissions estate continued to grow so that it was just over 360,000 hectares of land by 1934. The low cost of land, and the need to increase timber production meant that by 1939 the Forestry Commission was the largest landowner in Britain and this division lasted until 1941, when the Timber Supply Department was absorbed by the Ministry of Supply. Much of the timber supplied for the war came from the New Forest, the war also saw the Commission introduce the licensing system for tree felling
23.
Weyerhaeuser
–
Weyerhaeuser is one of the worlds largest private owners of timberlands. It owns more than 13 million acres of timberlands, primarily in the U. S. the company also manufactures wood and cellulose fiber products. Weyerhaeuser is a real estate investment trust, fifteen partners and 900,000 acres of Washington timberland were involved in the founding, and the land was purchased from James J. Hill of the Great Northern Railway. In 1929, the company built what was then the worlds largest sawmill in Longview, Weyerhaeusers pulp mill in Longview, which began production in 1931, sustained the company financially during the Great Depression. In 1959, the company eliminated the word Timber from its name to reflect its operations. In 1965, Weyerhaeuser built its first bleached kraft pulp mill in Canada, Weyerhaeuser implemented its High Yield Forestry Plan in 1967 which drew upon 30 years of forestry research and field experience. It called for the planting of seedlings within one year of a harvest, soil fertilization, thinning, rehabilitation of brushlands, Weyerhaeuser consolidated its core businesses in the late 1990s and ended its services in mortgage banking, personal care products, financial services, and information systems consulting. Weyerhaeuser also expanded into South America, Australia, and Asia, in 1999, Weyerhaeuser purchased MacMillan Bloedel Limited, a large Canadian forestry company. Then in 2002 after a hostile buyout, the company acquired Willamette Industries, Inc. of Portland. In March 2008, Weyerhaeuser Company announced the sale of its Containerboard Packaging and Recycling business to International Paper for $6 billion in cash, the transaction included nine containerboard mills,72 packaging locations,10 specialty-packaging plants, four kraft bag and sack locations and 19 recycling facilities. The transaction affected approximately 14,300 employees, Weyerhaeuser converted into a real estate investment trust when it filed its 2010 tax return. In 2013, Weyerhaeuser purchased Longview Timber for $2.65 billion including debt from Brookfield Asset Management, the acquisition added 645,000 acres of timberland to Weyerhaeusers holdings in Oregon and Washington. In 2014, Weyerhaeuser spun off its home building unit to TRI Pointe Homes in a $2.8 billion transaction, the company also announced its intention to sell its Federal Way headquarters and relocate to Seattles Pioneer Square in 2016. The sale and move were completed in 2016, on November 8,2015, it was announced that Weyerhaeuser would buy Plum Creek Timber for $8.4 billion, forming the largest private owner of timberland in the United States. The companys operations are divided into three business segments, Timberlands — Growing and harvesting trees in renewable cycles. Wood products — Manufacturing and distribution of building materials for homes, cellulose fiber — Research and development, manufacturing and distribution of pulp products. Doyle Simons is the CEO and president of Weyerhaeuser Company, the Weyerhaeuser board of directors consists of, Debra A. Cafaro, Mark Emmert, John I. Kieckhefer, Wayne W. Murdy, Nicole Piasecki, Doyle R. Simons, Richard Sinkfield, D. Michael Steuert, Kim Williams, hidy, Ralph W, Hill, Frank Ernest, Nevins, Allan
24.
Rayonier
–
Its core businesses segments are timber and real estate. As of September 30,2016, the company owned or leased approximately 2.3 million acres of timberlands located in the U. S. The company also has a 77% ownership interest in Matariki Forestry Group, a joint venture, Rayonier was founded in 1926 as the Rainier Pulp and Paper Company in Shelton, Washington with an office in San Francisco, California. Its name was inspired by Mount Rainier in Washington state and its first mill opened the next year in Shelton, Washington, and Port Angeles, Washington on the Olympic Peninsula. The mill used Tsuga heterophylla trees to create a premium bleached paper pulp, in 1931, Rainier Pulp and Paper began working with the DuPont chemical company to produce hemlock pulp for the manufacture of rayon. Two additional pulp mills were constructed and began operation in the state of Washington, Rainier Pulp and Paper changed its name to Rayonier, a portmanteau of the words, rayon and Rainier, in 1937, when it became a publicly traded company. The following year, the company acquired timber stands in the southeastern United States and began construction of a Fernandina Beach, Florida, pulp mill, in 1944, the company moved its offices to New York City. As World War II ended, Rayonier began making large purchases in the Pacific Northwest. The Rayonier Foundation was created in 1952 to provide assistance to charitable, civic, Rayonier opened international sales offices in Europe and Asia during 1954. That same year, another mill in the southeast was constructed at Jesup. High demand prompted the facility to double its capacity by 1957, ITT purchased the company in 1968 and the name changed to ITT Rayonier. The Jesup mill grew larger in 1974, becoming the largest pulp mill on earth, Company headquarters were moved again in 1978, this time to Stamford, Connecticut. Diplomatic relations with China were restored in 1979, the following year, Rayonier received orders for pulp and logs. It took almost five years to receive permission to open an office in Beijing in 1985, a log-trading office was opened in New Zealand during 1988. The New Zealand government sold Rayonier 250,000 acres of timberland in 1992, the company was spun off from ITT in 1994 with the company name reverting to Rayonier and shares again traded on the New York Stock Exchange. Rayonier purchased 969,000 acres of timberland in Florida, Georgia and Alabama in 1999, then relocated the offices to Jacksonville. Rayonier converted to a real estate investment trust on January 1,2004, terraPointe LLC was established in 2005 to manage properties with development potential. The 2006 purchase of 228,000 acres in six states brought the total of land owned, leased or managed to 2,600,000 acres in the U. S
25.
Christmas tree
–
A Christmas tree is a decorated tree, usually an evergreen conifer such as spruce, pine, or fir or an artificial tree of similar appearance, associated with the celebration of Christmas. The modern Christmas tree was developed in early modern Germany, in which devout Christians brought decorated trees into their homes and it acquired popularity beyond the Lutheran areas of Germany, during the second half of the 19th century, at first among the upper classes. The tree was decorated with roses made of colored paper, apples, wafers, tinsel. In the 18th century, it began to be illuminated by candles which were replaced by Christmas lights after the advent of electrification. Today, there is a variety of traditional ornaments, such as garlands, baubles, tinsel. An angel or star might be placed at the top of the tree to represent the archangel Gabriel or the Star of Bethlehem from the Nativity. Edible items such as gingerbread, chocolate and other sweets are also popular, the Christmas tree is sometimes compared with the Yule-tree, especially in discussions of its folkloric origins. The relevance of ancient pre-Christian customs to the 16th Century German initiation of the Christmas tree custom is disputed, resistance to the custom was often because of its confirmed Lutheran origins. Other sources have tried to make a connection between the first documented Christmas trees in Alsace around 1600 and pre-Christian traditions. For example, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, The use of trees, wreaths, and garlands to symbolize eternal life was a custom of the ancient Egyptians, Chinese. During the Roman mid-winter festival of Saturnalia, houses were decorated with wreaths of evergreen plants, the modern Christmas tree is frequently traced to the symbolism of trees in pre-Christian winter rites, wherein Viking and Saxon worshiped trees. The story of Saint Boniface cutting down Donars Oak illustrates the pagan practices in 8th century among the Germans. Alternatively, it is identified with the tree of paradise of medieval mystery plays that were given on 24 December, in such plays, a tree decorated with apples and wafers was used as a setting for the play. Like the Christmas crib, the Paradise tree was placed in homes. The apples were replaced by objects such as shiny red balls. Modern Christmas trees originated during the Renaissance of early modern Germany and its 16th-century origins are sometimes associated with Protestant Christian reformer Martin Luther who is said to have first added lighted candles to an evergreen tree. The first recorded Christmas tree can be found on the sculpture of a private home in Turckheim, Alsace. The Georgians have their own traditional Christmas tree called Chichilaki, made from dried up hazelnut or walnut branches that are shaped to form a small coniferous tree and these pale-colored ornaments differ in height from 20 cm to 3 meters
26.
Teak
–
Teak is a tropical hardwood tree species placed in the flowering plant family Lamiaceae. Tectona grandis is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests and it has small, fragrant white flowers and large papery leaves that are often hairy on the lower surface. It is sometimes known as the Burmese teak, Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is freshly milled. It is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance, and is used for building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, turnings. Myanmars teak forests account for half of the worlds naturally occurring teak. Molecular studies show there are two centres of genetic origin of teak, one in India and the other in Myanmar. CP teak is a description of teak from the states of India. Nagpur teak is another regional Indian teak and it produces small, white flowers arranged in dense clusters at the end of the branches. Flowers contain both types of reproductive organs The word teak comes from, Tamil tekku, Malayalam word thekku, the plant is known as Thekka in Sinhala by Sri Lankan people. Teak is a large, deciduous tree up to 40 m tall with gray to grayish brown branches, leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovate, 15–45 cm long by 8–23 cm wide, and are held on robust petioles that are 2–4 cm long. Fragrant white flowers are borne on 25–40 cm long by 30 cm wide panicles from June to August, the corolla tube is 2. 5–3 mm long with 2 mm wide obtuse lobes. Tectona grandis sets fruit from September to December, fruits are globose and 1. 2-1.8 cm in diameter, flowers are weakly protandrous in that the anthers precede the stigma in maturity and pollen is shed within a few hours of the flower opening. The flowers are entomophilous, but can occasionally be anemophilous. A1996 study found that in its range in Thailand. Heartwood is brownish red in colour, sometimes there are dark patches on it. There is a scent in newly cut wood. Sapwood is whitish to yellowish brown in colour. It can easily separate from heartwood, wood texture is hard and ring porous
27.
Seed orchard
–
A seed orchard is often composed of grafts of selected genotypes, but seedling seed orchards also occur mainly to combine orchard with progeny testing. Seed orchards are the link between breeding programs and plantation establishment. They are designed and managed to produce seeds of superior quality compared to those obtained from seed production areas, seed stands. In first generation seed orchards, the parents usually are phenotypically-selected trees, in advanced generation seed orchards, the seed orchards are harvesting the benefits generated by tree breeding and the parents may be selected among the tested clones or families. It is efficient to synchronise the productive live cycle of the orchards with the cycle time of the breeding population. In the seed orchard, the trees can be arranged in a design to keep the related individuals or cloned copies apart from each other, Seed orchards are the delivery vehicle for genetic improvement programs where the trade-off between genetic gain and diversity is the most important concern. Seed production and gene diversity is an important aspect when using improved materials like seed orchard crops, Seed orchards crops derive generally from a limited number of trees. But if it is a common wind-pollinated species much pollen will come from outside the seed orchard, the genetic gain of the first generation seed orchards is not great and the seed orchard progenies overlap with unimproved material. Gene diversity of the crops is greatly influenced by the relatedness among orchard parents, the parental fertility variation. Seed orchards are usually managed to obtain sustainable and large crops of seeds of good quality, the genetic quality of seed orchards can be improved by genetic thinning and selective harvesting. Recent conference proceedings about seed orchards is available on the net, the optimal balance between the effective number of clones and genetic gain is achieved by making clonal contributions proportional to the genetic value. This is dependent on assumptions, one of them that the contribution to the seed orchard crop is proportional to the number of ramets. But the more ramets the larger the share of the pollen is lost depending on ineffective self-pollination, but even considering this, the linear deployment is a very good approximation. Note that relatedness among clones is more critical for diversity than inbreeding, the clonal variation in expected seed set has been compiled for 12 adult clonal seed orchards of Scots pine. The seed set ability is not that drastic among clones as has been shown in other investigations which are less relevant for actual seed production of Scots pine. The correlations of cone set for Scots pine in an archive was not well correlated with that of the same clones in seed orchards. Thus it does not seem meaningful to increase seed set by choosing clones with a good seed set, as supporting tree breeding make advances, new seed orchards will be genetically better than old ones. This is a relevant factor for the lifetime of a seed orchard
28.
Abies grandis
–
Abies grandis is a fir native to the Pacific Northwest and Northern California of North America, occurring at altitudes of sea level to 1,800 m. It is a constituent of the Grand Fir/Douglas Fir Ecoregion of the Cascade Range. The tree typically grows to 40–70 m in height, there are two varieties, the taller coast grand fir, found west of the Cascade Mountains, and the shorter interior grand fir, found east of the Cascades. It was first described in 1831 by David Douglas and it is closely related to white fir. The bark has historical medicinal properties, and it is popular in the United States as a Christmas tree and its lumber is a softwood, and it is harvested as a hem fir. It is used in paper-making, as well as construction for framing and flooring, the grand fir was first described by Scotch botanical explorer David Douglas, who in 1831 collected specimens of the tree along the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest. Abies grandis is an evergreen coniferous tree growing to 40–70 m tall. The leaves are needle-like, flattened, 3–6 cm long and 2 mm wide by 0.5 mm thick, glossy green above. The leaf arrangement is spiral on the shoot, but with each leaf variably twisted at the base so they all lie in two flat ranks on either side of the shoot. On the lower surface, two green-white bands of stomata are prominent. The base of leaf is twisted a variable amount so that the leaves are nearly coplanar. Different length leaves, but all lined up in a plane, is a useful way to quickly distinguish this species. The cones are 6–12 cm long and 3. 5–4.5 cm broad, with about 100-150 scales, the bracts are short. The winged seeds are released when the cones disintegrate at maturity about 6 months after pollination, there are two varieties, probably better treated at subspecies rank though not yet formally published as such, Abies grandis var. grandis. Coastal lowland forests, at sea level to 900 m altitude, from Vancouver Island and coastal British Columbia, Canada, south to Sonoma County, California, a large, very fast-growing tree to 70 m tall. Foliage strongly flattened on all shoots, cones slightly narrower, with thinner, fairly flexible scales. Tolerates winter temperatures down to about -25° to -30 °C, growth on good sites may exceed 1.5 m per year when young, a smaller, slow-growing tree to 40–45 m tall. Foliage not strongly flattened on all shoots, the leaves often raised above the shoot, cones slightly stouter, with thicker, slightly woody scales
29.
Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
30.
Pinus radiata
–
Pinus radiata, family Pinaceae, the Monterey pine, insignis pine or radiata pine, is a species of pine native to the Central Coast of California and Mexico. Pinus radiata is a versatile, fast-growing, medium-density softwood, suitable for a range of uses. Its silviculture is highly developed, and is built on a foundation of over a century of research, observation. Radiata pine is considered a model for growers of other plantation species. It is the most widely planted pine in the world, valued for rapid growth and desirable lumber, although Pinus radiata is extensively cultivated as a plantation timber in many temperate parts of the world, it faces serious threats in its natural range. It is native to three very limited areas located in Santa Cruz, Monterey Peninsula, and San Luis Obispo Counties and it is also found as the variety Pinus radiata var. binata or Guadalupe pine on Guadalupe Island, and a possibly separable P. radiata var. /subsp. Cedrosensis on Cedros Island, both in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of the northern Baja California Peninsula in Mexico. In Australia, New Zealand, and Spain it is the introduced tree and in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Kenya. It is also a tree on the worlds most remote inhabited island. Pinus radiata is a evergreen tree growing to between 15–30 m in height in the wild, but up to 60 m in cultivation in optimum conditions, with upward pointing branches. The leaves are green, in clusters of three, slender, 8–15 cm long and with a blunt tip. The cones are 7–17 cm long, brown, ovoid, and usually set asymmetrically on a branch, the bark is fissured and dark grey to brown. The modern tree is different from the native tree of Monterey. In plantations the tree is planted at 4m x 4m spacing on a wide variety of landscapes from flat to moderately steep hills. The trees are pruned in 3 lifts so that the lower 2/3 of a tree is branch- free. In its natural state, the wood is poor quality, twisted, knotty and full of sap/resin only really suitable for firewood, Monterey pine is a species adapted to cope with stand-killing fire disturbance. Its cones are serotinous, i. e. they remain closed until opened by the heat of a forest fire, the cones may also burst open in hot weather. In its native range, Monterey pine is associated with a characteristic flora and it is the co-dominant canopy tree together with Cupressus macrocarpa which naturally occurs only in coastal Monterey County
31.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
32.
Tillage
–
Tillage is the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical agitation of various types, such as digging, stirring, and overturning. Examples of human-powered tilling methods using hand tools include shovelling, picking, mattock work, hoeing, examples of draft-animal-powered or mechanized work include ploughing, rototilling, rolling with cultipackers or other rollers, harrowing, and cultivating with cultivator shanks. There is a continuum, however. Any type of gardening or farming, but especially larger-scale commercial types, Tillage is often classified into two types, primary and secondary. There is no boundary between them so much as a loose distinction between tillage that is deeper and more thorough and tillage that is shallower and sometimes more selective of location. Harrowing and rototilling often combine primary and secondary tillage into one operation, Tillage can also mean the land that is tilled. The word cultivation has several senses that overlap substantially with those of tillage, in a general context, both can refer to agriculture. Within agriculture, both can refer to any kind of soil agitation, additionally, cultivation or cultivating may refer to an even narrower sense of shallow, selective secondary tillage of row crop fields that kills weeds while sparing the crop plants. Reduced tillage leaves between 15 and 30% residue cover on the soil or 500 to 1000 pounds per acre of small grain residue during the critical erosion period and this may involve the use of a chisel plow, field cultivators, or other implements. See the general comments below to see how they can affect the amount of residue, intensive tillage leaves less than 15% crop residue cover or less than 500 pounds per acre of small grain residue. Intensive tillage often involves multiple operations with such as a mold board, disk. Then a finisher with a harrow, rolling basket, and cutter can be used to prepare the seed bed. Conservation tillage leaves at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface and this slows water movement, which reduces the amount of soil erosion. Conservation tillage also benefits farmers by reducing consumption and soil compaction. By reducing the number of times the farmer travels over the field, farmers realize significant savings in fuel, in most years since 1997, conservation tillage was used in US cropland more than intensive or reduced tillage. However, conservation tillage delays warming of the due to the reduction of dark earth exposure to the warmth of the spring sun. No-till - Never use a plow, disk, etc. ever again, strip-Till - Narrow strips are tilled where seeds will be planted, leaving the soil in between the rows untilled. Mulch-till Rotational Tillage - Tilling the soil every two years or less often, ridge-Till Zone tillage Zone tillage is a form of modified deep tillage in which only narrow strips are tilled, leaving soil in between the rows untilled
33.
Thinning
–
Thinning is a term used in agricultural sciences to mean the removal of some plants, or parts of plants, to make room for the growth of others. Selective removal of parts of a plant such as branches, buds, in forestry, thinning is the selective removal of trees, primarily undertaken to improve the growth rate or health of the remaining trees. Overcrowded trees are under stress from their neighbors. Thinning may be done to increase the resistance of the stand to environmental stress such as drought, insect infestation, extreme temperature, early thinning, say after 20 years rather than late thinning, say after 50 years has different effects on the trees thinned. An early thinning would encourage trees to get wider crowns, increase diameter, too much too early would lead to a site overgrowing with shrubs and prevent an understory regenerating effectively. Doing it too late would mean that trees would grow tall and slender and though some increment would come to the trees, too early and epicormic shooting is a risk, and this can lead to tree branchiness and knots in the resultant timber harvest, again reducing value. Traditionally thinning has been done to create a balance between individual tree attributes and per area attributes such as volume. It has been, and often still is, applied with the desire to create uniform stands, thinning treatments are often described in terms of number of trees per area to remain or average spacing between trees. The intent is to create and manage uniform stands and it is also more needed when too many trees were initially planted or survived from the seedling phase. Planting less and thinning less saves money in commercial forestry, so a balance is required and is dependent on site qualities as well as planting régimes. There is no sure result from thinning and no timing or other aspect. Individual site conditions and species responses or species mixes on sites may vary considerably, norway spruce on a suitable site have responded well in terms of growth increment, to late thinnings whereas other species have not for example slash pine. Due to such variability it is better to talk about a thinning régime rather than one method of thinning taking place in a stand. Thinning from below - this low thinning can be split into 4 Grades, A Grade is a very light thinning, thinning from above - this crown thinning removes all of the trees that impact crown wise on other trees. Smaller trees, Kraft crown class 5 for example would just be ignored and left in the stand and it is also called the French method. Diameter-limit thinning this selection thinning is related to the Borggreve silvicultural system, large trees over a certain diameter are removed for smaller trees in good condition to grow. These iin turn after some growth are thinned. Eventually the stand is exhausted after several cycles and the remnant is clear cut and it is used with shade tolerant species like Western hemlock. Geometrical thinning - mechanical thinning like this is used in plantations where one row is taken out, a different grid might be used for natural stands sometimes called strip thinning
34.
Harvester (forestry)
–
A harvester is a type of heavy forestry vehicle employed in cut-to-length logging operations for felling, delimbing and bucking trees. A forest harvester is typically employed together with a forwarder that hauls the logs to a roadside landing, Forest harvesters were mainly developed in Sweden and Finland and today do practically all of the commercial felling in these countries. The first fully mobile timber harvester, the PIKA model 75, was introduced in 1973 by Finnish systems engineer Sakari Pinomäki, the first single grip harvester head was introduced in the early 1980s by Swedish company SP Maskiner. Their use has become widespread throughout the rest of Northern Europe, after shearing off the tree, the operator could use his controls to cause the tree to fall either to the right or left. Unlike a harvester, it did not delimb the tree after felling it, Harvesters are employed effectively in level to moderately steep terrain for clearcutting areas of forest. For very steep hills or for removing trees, humans working with chain saws are still preferred in some countries. The principle aimed for in mechanised logging is no feet on the forest floor, keeping humans inside the driving cab of the machine provides a safer and more comfortable working environment for industrial scale logging. Harvesters are built on a robust all terrain vehicle, either wheeled, tracked or on Walking Excavator, the vehicle may be articulated to provide tight turning capability around obstacles. A diesel engine power for both the vehicle and the harvesting mechanism through hydraulic drive. An extensible, articulated boom, similar to that on an excavator, some harvesters are adaptations of excavators with a new harvester head, while others are purpose-built vehicles. These novel type of vehicles are only competitive in operations with short distances to the landing, a typical harvester head consists of a chain saw to cut the tree at its base, and also cut it to length. The saw is hydraulically powered, rather using the 2-stroke engine of a portable version. It has a more robust chain, and a power output than any saw that can be carried by a human. Two or more curved delimbing knives which reach around the trunk to remove branches, two feed rollers to grasp the tree. The wheels pivot apart to allow the tree to be embraced by the harvester head, the wheels are driven in rotation to force the cut tree stem through the delimbing knives. Diameter sensors to calculate the volume of timber harvested in conjunction with a wheel which measures the length of the stem as it is fed through the head. All of this can be controlled by one operator sitting in the cab of the vehicle, a control computer can simplify mechanical movements and can keep records of the length and diameter of trees cut. Length is computed by either counting the rotations of the wheels or, more commonly
35.
Limbing
–
Limbing in logging is the process of removing branches from the trunk of a fallen tree. Options for cutting off the branches include chain saws, harvesters, limbing can happen at the stump in log/tree length systems and cut-to-length systems or at the landing in whole-tree logging. Different definitions for it include, One of the limbs of a tree. An extension or projecting part of a tree, when the tree is lying on the ground, branches may be storing enormous potential energy through mechanical strain. When a branch is cut, often with a saw, this energy can be released suddenly. In addition, a branch may be supporting the tree, for these reasons, delimbing is a skilled operation requiring careful safety planning. In British English, limbing can be synonymous with snedding, alternatively, limbing can be used to describe the operation on larger branches, and snedding on smaller. Axe Chain saw Felling Hewing Logging Log bucking
36.
Diameter at breast height
–
Diameter at breast height, or DBH, is a standard method of expressing the diameter of the trunk or bole of a standing tree. DBH is one of the most common dendrometric measurements, Tree trunks are measured at the height of an adults breast. However, this is defined differently in different countries and situations, in continental Europe, the UK, and Canada the diameter is measured at 1.3 metres above ground. In the US, Australia, New Zealand, Burma, India, Malaysia, in many cases the height makes little difference to the measured diameter. Ornamental trees are usually measured at 1.5 metres above ground, instead Dx was proposed whereby the x denotes the exact height above the floor at which the diameter is measured. For instance D130 denotes a diameter measured at 130 cm above the floor, on sloping ground, the above ground reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching the trunk, but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground. If the DBH point falls on a swelling in the trunk it is customary to measure the girth below the swelling at the point where the diameter is smallest, other ambiguous settings for determining the exact place where to measure the diameter is given in Dahdouh-Guebas & Koedam. Treetec, a company based in Melbourne, has created an online calculator to determine the DBH for multi-stemmed trees as per AS 4970-2009 Protection of Trees on Development Sites. The two most common used to measure DBH are a girthing tape and calipers. A girthing tape actually measures the girth of the tree, the tape is calibrated in divisions of π centimetres. The measure assumes the trunk has a circular cross-section and gives a directly converted reading of the diameter and it is accurate for most plantation trees. Calipers consist of two parallel arms one of which is fixed and the able to slide along a scale. Calipers are held at right-angles to the trunk with the arms on either side of the trunk, precision can be improved on non-circular stems by averaging two caliper measurements taken at right-angles. Electronic calipers are also available enabling highly accurate measurements to be taken, DBH is used in estimating the amount of timber volume in a single tree or stand of trees utilising the allometric correlation between stem diameter, tree height and timber volume. It can also be used in the estimation of the age of trees, given that diameter increment is the only. Biltmore stick Crown Tree crown measurement Forest inventory Site index Site tree Brokaw, N. and Thompson, Forest Ecology and Management 129, 89-91. Hamilton, G. J. Forest Mensuration Handbook, mackie, E. D. and Matthews, R. W. Forest Mensuration, a handbook for practitioners. ISBN 0-85538-621-5 White, J. Estimating the Age of Large and Veteran Trees in Britain
37.
Lumber
–
Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
38.
Particleboard
–
Oriented strand board, also known as flakeboard, waferboard, or chipboard, is similar but uses machined wood flakes offering more strength. All of these are composite materials that belong to the spectrum of fiberboard products, particle board is cheaper, denser and more uniform than conventional wood and plywood and is substituted for them when cost is more important than strength and appearance. However, particleboard can be more attractive by painting or the use of wood veneers onto surfaces that will be visible. Though it is denser than conventional wood, it is the lightest and weakest type of fiberboard, medium-density fibreboard and hardboard, also called high-density fiberboard, are stronger and denser than particleboard. Different grades of particleboard have different densities, with higher density connoting greater strength, a major disadvantage of particleboard is that it is very prone to expansion and discoloration due to moisture, particularly when it is not covered with paint or another sealer. The advantages of using particleboard over veneer core plywood is it is stable, much cheaper to buy. Firstly produced particleboard is dated back to 1887, when Hubbard made so-called artificial wood made from flour and albumin based adhesive. The first commercial piece was produced during World War II at a factory in Bremen, for its production, waste material was used - such as planer shavings, offcuts or sawdust - hammer-milled into chips and bound together with a phenolic resin. Hammer-milling involves smashing material into smaller and smaller pieces until they can pass through a screen, most other early particleboard manufacturers used similar processes, though often with slightly different resins. It was found that better strength, appearance and resin economy could be achieved by using more uniform and this type of board is known as three-layer particleboard. More recently, graded-density particleboard has also evolved, the raw material to be used for the particles is fed into a disc chipper with between four and sixteen radially arranged blades. The particles are then dried, after which any oversized or undersized particles are screened out, resin is then mist-sprayed through fine nozzles onto the particles. There are several types of resins that are commonly used, amino-formaldehyde based resins are the best performing when considering cost and ease of use. Urea Melamine resins are used to water resistance with increased melamine offering enhanced resistance. It is typically used where the panel is used in external applications due to the water resistance offered by phenolic resins. Melamine Urea phenolic formaldehyde resins exist as a compromise, the particles then pass through a mist of resin sufficient to coat all surfaces and are then layered, first into a continuous carpet. This carpet is then separated into discrete, rectangular blankets which will then be compacted in a cold press, a weighing device notes the weight of flakes, and they are distributed into position by rotating rakes. In graded-density particleboard, the flakes are spread by an air jet that throws finer particles further than coarse ones, two such jets, reversed, allow the particles to build up from fine to coarse and back to fine
39.
Oriented strand board
–
It was invented by Armin Elmendorf in California in 1963. OSB may have a rough and variegated surface with the strips of around 2.5 cm ×15 cm, lying unevenly across each other. OSB is a material with favorable properties that make it particularly suitable for load-bearing applications in construction. The most common uses are as sheathing in walls, flooring, for exterior wall applications, panels are available with a radiant-barrier layer pre-laminated to one side, this eases installation and increases energy performance of the building envelope. OSB also sees use in furniture production. Oriented strand board is manufactured in wide mats from cross-oriented layers of thin, rectangular wooden strips compressed and bonded together with wax, the resin types typically used include Phenol formaldehyde, melamine fortified Urea Formaldehyde or isocyanate, all of which are moisture resistant binders. The layers are created by shredding the wood strips, which are sifted. The mat is made in a forming line, wood strips on the external layers are aligned to the panels strength axis, while internal layers are perpendicular. The number of layers placed is determined partly by the thickness of the panel but is limited by the equipment installed at the manufacturing site, individual layers can also vary in thickness to give different finished panel thicknesses. The mat is placed in a press to compress the flakes and bond them by heat activation. Individual panels are cut from the mats into finished sizes. Most of the worlds OSB is made in the United States, the largest production facilities can make over 1,000,000 square feet of OSB per day. Materials other than wood have been used to produce products similar to oriented strand board, oriented structural straw board is an engineered board that is made by splitting straw and formed by adding P-MDI adhesives and then hot compressing layers of straw in specific orientations. Strand board can also be made from bagasse, in 2005, Canadian production was 10,500,000 m2 of which 8,780,000 m2 was exported, almost entirely to the United States. In 2014, Romania became the largest OSB exporting country in Europe, adjustments to the manufacturing process can impart differences in thickness, panel size, strength, and rigidity. OSB panels have no gaps or voids, and are water-resistant. The finished product has properties similar to plywood, but is uniform, when tested to failure, OSB has a greater load-bearing capacity than milled wood panels. It has replaced plywood in many environments, especially the North American structural panel market, while OSB does not have a continuous grain like a natural wood, it does have an axis along which its strength is greatest
40.
Prescribed burn
–
Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Hazard reduction or controlled burning is conducted during the months to reduce fuel buildup. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, and reveals soil mineral layers which increases seedling vitality, thus renewing the forest. Some cones, such as those of Lodgepole Pine and Sequoia, are serotinous, as well as many chaparral shrubs, in industrialized countries, controlled burning is usually overseen by fire control authorities for regulations and permits. The party responsible must delineate the intended time and place, obtaining a permit may not limit liability if the fire burns out of control. There are two causes of wildfires. One is natural and the other is people, controlled burns have a long history in wildland management. Pre-agricultural societies used fire to both plant and animal life. Fire history studies have documented periodic wildland fires ignited by indigenous peoples in North America, fires, both naturally caused and prescribed, were once part of natural landscapes in many areas. Studies have shown that between the mid Holocene and the 17th century AD, wildland fires annually burned between 45. 0% and 87. 5% of present-day Californias total land, for example. These practices ended in the early 20th century when US fire policies were enacted with the goals of suppressing all fires, since 1995, the US Forest Service has slowly incorporated burning practices into its forest management policies. Back burning involves starting small fires along a man made or natural firebreak in front of a fire front. Back burning reduces the amount of fuel available to the main fire by the time that it reaches the burnt area. Back burning is utilized in controlled burning and during wildfire events, while controlled burns utilize back burning during planned fire events to create a black line, back burning or backfiring is also done to stop a wildfire that is already in progress. Firebreaks are also used as an anchor point to start a line of fires along natural or manmade features such as a river. It is called back burning because the fires are designed to burn back towards the main fire front and are usually burning and traveling against ground level winds. Another consideration is the issue of fire prevention, in Florida, during the drought in 1995, catastrophic wildfires burned numerous homes. But forestry managers in the Florida Division of Forestry noted that the problem was previous cessation of controlled burning, resulting from complaints by homeowners
41.
Kyoto Protocol
–
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 parties to the Protocol, the Protocols first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into force the Amendment with second round targets. Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyotos first-round but have not taken on new targets in the commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada and the United States, as of July 2016,66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states. Of the 37 countries with binding commitments,7 have ratified, negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is an instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol. The view that human activities are responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking. Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be. The IPCCs projections are baseline projections, meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to reduce gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. The likely range is a increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C. The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of greenhouse gas emissions. Different projections contain different assumptions of social and economic development. The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the system to past. 1992 The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro and it results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change among other agreements. 1995 Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin to outline specific targets on emissions,1997 In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets. 2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005,2011 Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol
42.
Bandung
–
It is nations fourth largest city, and the third largest city by population, with over 2.4 million. Located 768 metres above sea level, approximately 140 kilometres south east of Jakarta, the city lies on a river basin surrounded by volcanic mountains. This topography provides a defense system, which was the primary reason for the Dutch East Indies governments plan to move the colony capital from Batavia to Bandung. The Dutch colonials first established tea plantations around the mountains in the century. The Dutch inhabitants of Bandung demanded establishment of a municipality, which was granted in 1906, luxurious hotels, restaurants, cafés and European boutiques were opened, hence the city was nicknamed Parijs van Java.5 million people. New skycrapers, high-rise buildings, bridges, gardens have been constructed, Bandung will be supporting as one of the host cities of 2018 Asian Games. Current international airport redevelopment is completed in 2016, to improve infrastructure, the construction of Jakarta-Bandung High Speed Rail and Bandung Metro Kapsul, a type of indigenous Automated People Mover will start in 2017. The new Bandung Kertajati International Airport also will be completed as early as 2018, Bandung, the capital of West Java province, located about 180 kilometres southeast of Jakarta, is the third largest city in Indonesia. Its elevation is 768 metres above sea level and is surrounded by up to 2,400 metres high Late Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic terrain. The basins main river is the Citarum, one of its branches, the Bandung Basin is an important source of water for potable water, irrigation and fisheries, with its 6,147 million m³ of groundwater being a major reservoir for the city. The northern section of Bandung is hillier than other parts of the city, long-term volcanic activity has created fertile andisol soil in the north, suitable for intensive rice, fruit, tea, tobacco and coffee plantations. In the south and east, alluvial soils deposited by the Cikapundung river predominate, Geological data shows that the Bandung Basin is located on an ancient volcano, known as Mount Sunda, erected up to 3, 000–4,000 metres during the Pleistocene age. Two large-scale eruptions took place, the first formed the basin, the lake drained away, for reasons which are the subject of ongoing debate among geologists. Bandung experiences tropical climate according to Köppen climate classification as the driest month precipitation total is below 60 millimetres. The wettest month is February with precipitation total 255.0 millimetres, the average temperature throughout the year tends to be cooler than most cities in Indonesia due to the altitude influence. The average temperature throughout the year only has little variation due to its location near the equator, the official name of the city during the colonial Dutch East Indies period was Bandoeng. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Dutch East Indies Company established plantations in the Bandung area, in 1786, a supply road connecting Batavia, Bogor, Cianjur, Bandung, Sumedang and Cirebon was constructed. Daendels built a road, stretching approximately 1,000 km from the west to the east coast of Java, in 1810, the road was laid down in Bandung and was named De Groote Postweg, the present-day location of Asia-Afrika Street
