1.
Craniofacial surgery
–
Although craniofacial treatment often involves manipulation of bone, craniofacial surgery is not tissue-specific, i. e. craniofacial surgeons deal with bone, skin, nerve, muscle, teeth, etc. Training in craniofacial surgery requires completion of a Craniofacial surgery fellowship, such fellowships are available to individuals who have completed residency in oral and maxillofacial surgery, plastic and reconstructive surgery, or ENT surgery. Those who have completed residency in oral and maxillofacial surgery may be either single degree or dual-degree surgeons with no differences, there is no specific board for Craniofacial surgery. In the US, cleft and Craniofacial centers are found in major academic centers with a few exceptions, the bones of the human skull are joined together by cranial sutures. The anterior fontanelle is where the metopic, saggital and coronal sutures meet, normally the sutures gradually fuse within the first few years after birth. In infants where one or more of the sutures fuses too early the growth of the skull is restricted, growth in the skull is perpendicular to the sutures. When a suture fuses too early, the perpendicular to that suture will be restricted. The expanding brain is the stimulus for the rapid growth of the skull in the first years of life. Inhibited growth potential of the skull can restrict the volume, needed by the brain, in cases in which the compensation does not effectively provide enough space for the growing brain, craniosynostosis results in increased intracranial pressure. Craniosynostosis is called simple when one suture is involved, and complex when two or more sutures are involved and it can occur as part of a syndrome or as an isolated defect. There are several classifications of deformities of the skull, we will discuss them in order of prevalence. In scaphocephaly the saggital suture is prematurely fused, the saggital suture runs from the front to the back of the head. The shape of this deformity is a narrow head, formed like a boat. The incidence of scaphocephaly is 2.8 per 10000 births in the Netherlands and is therefore the most common form of craniosynostosis, in trigonocephaly the metopic suture is prematurely fused. The metopic suture is situated in the line of the forehead. Premature fusion of this causes the forehead to become pointed. The incidence of trigonocephaly is 1 -1.9 per 10000 births in the Netherlands, in plagiocephaly one of the coronal sutures is prematurely fused. The coronal sutures run over the top of the head, just in front of the ears, the shape of this deformity is an asymmetrical distortion as you can see in figure 2
Craniofacial surgery
–
Fig. 3 Locations of the incisions used in fronto-supraorbital advancement.
Craniofacial surgery
–
Fig. 1 Cranial sutures viewed from top of head
2.
Tissue (biology)
–
In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells from the origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the grouping together of multiple tissues. The study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, the classical tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in microscopy, immunofluorescence. With these tools, the appearances of tissues can be examined in health and disease. Animal tissues are grouped into four types, connective, muscle, nervous. Collections of tissues joined in structural units to serve a common function compose organs, while all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular type may differ developmentally for different classifications of animals. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions. This tissue covers all surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina and they are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid, for example, blood contains plasma as its matrix and bones matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place, blood, bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of classifying tissues is to divide them into three types, fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue. Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Cells comprising the nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous tissue
Tissue (biology)
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Microscopic view of a histologic specimen of human
lung tissue stained with
hematoxylin and
eosin.
Tissue (biology)
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Cross section of sclerenchyma fibers in plant
ground tissue
Tissue (biology)
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PAS diastase showing the fungus
Histoplasma.
Tissue (biology)
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Diving medicine:
3.
Leo Baekeland
–
Leo Henricus Arthur Baekeland FRSE was a Belgian-American chemist. He is best known for the inventions of Velox photographic paper in 1893 and he has been called The Father of the Plastics Industry for his invention of Bakelite, an inexpensive, nonflammable and versatile plastic, which marked the beginning of the modern plastics industry. Leo Baekeland was born in Ghent, Belgium on November 14,1863, the son of a cobbler and he told The Literary Digest, The name is a Flemish word meaning Land of Beacons. He spent much of his life in Ghent, Belgium. He graduated with honours from the Ghent Municipal Technical School and was awarded a scholarship by the City of Ghent to study chemistry at the University of Ghent and he acquired a PhD maxima cum laude at the age of 21. After a brief appointment as Professor of Physics and Chemistry at the Government Higher Normal School in Bruges he was appointed professor of chemistry at Ghent in 1889. Baekeland married Céline Swarts, the daughter of his professor Theodore Swarts and Celine Swarts and they had three children, George, Nina, and Jenny. In 1889 Baekeland and his wife took advantage of a scholarship to visit universities in England. They visited New York City, where he met Professor Charles F. Chandler of Columbia University and Richard Anthony, Professor Charles F. Chandler of Columbia University was influential in convincing Baekeland to stay in the United States. Baekeland worked for the Anthony company for two years, and in 1891 set up in business for himself as a consulting chemist. After two years of intensive effort he perfected the process to produce the paper, which he named Velox, in 1899, Jacobi, Baekeland, and Albert Hahn, a further associate, sold Nepera to George Eastman of the Eastman Kodak Co. for $750,000. Baekeland earned circa $215,000 net through the transaction, with a portion of the money he purchased Snug Rock, a house in Yonkers, New York, where he set up his own well-equipped laboratory. There, he said, in comfortable financial circumstances, a free man. I enjoyed for years that great blessing, the luxury of not being interrupted in ones favorite work. One of the requirements of the Nepera sale was, in effect and he would have to find a new area of research. His first step was to return to Germany in 1900, for a refresher in electrochemistry at the Technical Institute at Charlottenburg, upon returning to the United States, Baekeland was involved briefly but successfully in helping Clinton Paul Townsend and Elon Huntington Hooker to develop a production-quality electrolytic cell. Baekeland was hired as an independent consultant, with the responsibility of constructing and operating a pilot plant, Baekeland developed a stronger diaphragm cell for the chloralkali process, using woven asbestos cloth filled with a mixture of iron oxide, asbestos fibre and iron hydroxide. Baekelands improvements were important to the founding of Hooker Chemical Company, having been successful with Velox, Baekeland set out to find another promising area for chemical development
Leo Baekeland
–
Portrait of Leo Baekeland in 1916.
Leo Baekeland
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Baekeland's Yonkers Laboratory
Leo Baekeland
–
The first semi-commercial Bakelizer, from Baekeland's laboratory
Leo Baekeland
–
Colorful buttons made from
Catalin, another variety of phenolic resin.
4.
History of surgery
–
Surgery is the branch of medicine that deals with the physical manipulation of a bodily structure to diagnose, prevent, or cure an ailment. Advances in these fields have transformed surgery from an art into a scientific discipline capable of treating many diseases. The first surgical techniques were developed to treat injuries and traumas, evidence has been found in prehistoric human remains from Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic times, in cave paintings, and the procedure continued in use well into recorded history. Out of 120 prehistoric skulls found at one site in France dated to 6500 BCE,40 had trepanation holes. The remains suggest a belief that trepanning could cure epileptic seizures, migraines, there is significant evidence of healing of the bones of the skull in prehistoric skeletons, suggesting that many of those that proceeded with the surgery survived their operation. In some studies, the rate of survival surpassed 50%, examples of healed fractures in prehistoric human bones, suggesting setting and splinting have been found in the archeological record. Modern medicine developed a similar to this in the 20th century known as medullary fixation. Bloodletting is one of the oldest medical practices, having been practiced among diverse ancient peoples, including the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Mayans, and the Aztecs. In Greece, bloodletting was in use around the time of Hippocrates, archagathus, one of the first Greek physicians to practice in Rome, practiced bloodletting extensively. The Sumerians saw sickness as a punishment imposed by different demons when an individual broke a rule. For this reason, to be a physician, one had to learn to identify approximately 6,000 possible demons that might cause health problems. To do this, the Sumerians employed divining techniques based on the flight of birds, position of the stars, in this way, medicine was intimately linked to priests, relegating surgery to a second-class medical specialty. Just as cuneiform tablets preserved the knowledge of the ancient Sumerians, in the first monarchic age the first treaty on surgery was written by Imhotep, the vizier of Pharaoh Djoser, priest, astronomer, physician and first notable architect. So much was he famed for his skill that he was deified. Other famous physicians from the Ancient Empire were Sachmet, the physician of Pharaoh Sahure and Nesmenau, whose office resembled that of a medical director. On one of the doorjambs of the entrance to the Temple of Memphis there is the oldest recorded engraving of a procedure, circumcision and engravings in Kom Ombo. Still of all the discoveries made in ancient Egypt, the most important discovery relating to ancient Egyptian knowledge of medicine is the Ebers Papyrus, named after its discoverer Georg Ebers. The Ebers Papyrus, conserved at the University of Leipzig, is considered one of the oldest treaties on medicine, the text is dated to about 1550 BCE and measures 20 meters in length
History of surgery
–
The Extraction of the Stone of Madness (The Cure of Folly) by Hieronymous Bosch
History of surgery
–
Pictures of surgery tools at
Kom Ombo, Egypt
History of surgery
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Plates vi and vii of the
Edwin Smith Papyrus (around the 17th century BC), among the earliest medical texts
History of surgery
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Engraving of Hippocrates by
Peter Paul Rubens, 1638.
5.
New York Academy of Medicine
–
The early leaders of the academy were invested in the reform movements of the day and worked to improve public health by focusing on the living conditions of the poor. In recent years the academy has functioned as an advocate in public health reform. As of 2016, the academy will celebrate its 169th year, the academys work now focuses on advancing urban health in New York City and around the world. Today, the academy has over three-thousand fellows, that include doctors, nurses, health care administrators, the New York Academy of Medicine was founded on January 6,1847. It began on December 8,1846 with a notice being published in newspapers, John Stearns, later first president of the academy, was made chairman for the first meeting. In 1854, the academy was divided into sections by medical specialty or scientific discipline, early sections included Theory and Practice, Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children, Anatomy, Surgery, and Chemistry. In 1939, the academy prepared Mayor Fiorello LaGuardias LaGuardia Commission report, during World War I, the academy made plans to sell its building at 10 West 44th Street in order to build an addition to its building on 15 West 43rd Street. A man named Louis Sherry made an offer on the property, sherrys offer included renting the building for $5,000 per year for ten years with the option to purchase the property outright for $100,000 within five years. While the academy originally paid $120,000 for the property, a peripheral fallout of this agreement was that the academys live-in janitor, Felix Wesstrom, lost his living quarters. To compensate him for the loss, the academy increased his salary by $30. In 1926, the Academy moved to a new building designed by York and Sawyer in an eclectic style, including touches of the Byzantine Revival. The building is at East 103rd Street at the corner of Fifth Avenue, across from Central Park in the East Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, the buildings exterior uses a combination of varieties of limestone and sandstone. The main entrance, at 103rd Street, uses a series columns with Romanesque caps, the doors are ornate bronze with floral designs and small figures of Asclepius, god of medicine and physicians, and Hygieia, daughter of Asclepius and goddess of health. The two gods are also carved into the tympanum, attended by dogs, symbolizing vigilance and keeping death. The exterior also features many Latin inscriptions from notable authors, including Cicero, Hippocrates, Juvenal, Seneca the Younger, the first floor windows have exterior ornamental bronze grills, decorated in a Romanesque design. Those windows lintels have figures of gods and fauna symbolic of medicine, the buildings design includes many decorative elements that evoke health and the history of the medicine. In addition to the designs, other animals feature as bronze insets of the Levanto marble main lobby floor such as the goat, snakes, rooster, goose. The lobby floor also has a marble mosaic pattern and white Traniville marble border
New York Academy of Medicine
–
The Academy's building was built in 1926 in an eclectic style (2015)
New York Academy of Medicine
–
The building's entrance
6.
Edwin Smith Papyrus
–
The Edwin Smith Papyrus is an ancient Egyptian medical text, named after the dealer who bought it in 1862, and the oldest known surgical treatise on trauma. This document, which may have been a manual of surgery, describes 48 cases of injuries, fractures, wounds, dislocations. It dates to Dynasties 16–17 of the Second Intermediate Period in ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith papyrus is unique among the four principal medical papyri in existence that survive today. Magic would be more prevalent had the cases of illness been mysterious, the Edwin Smith papyrus is a scroll 4.68 meters or 15.3 feet in length. The recto has 377 lines in 17 columns, while the verso has 92 lines in five columns, aside from the fragmentary outer column of the scroll, the remainder of the papyrus is intact, although it was cut into one-column pages some time in the 20th century. It is written right-to-left in hieratic, the Egyptian cursive form of hieroglyphs, the vast majority of the papyrus is concerned with trauma and surgery, with short sections on gynaecology and cosmetics on the verso. On the recto side, there are 48 cases of injury, each case details the type of the injury, examination of the patient, diagnosis and prognosis, and treatment. The verso side consists of eight magic spells and five prescriptions, the spells of the verso side and two incidents in Case 8 and Case 9 are the exceptions to the practical nature of this medical text. Generic spells and incantations may have used as a last resort in terminal cases. Authorship of the Edwin Smith Papyrus is debated, the majority of the papyrus was written by one scribe, with only small sections copied by a second scribe. The papyrus ends abruptly in the middle of a line, without any inclusion of an author and it is believed that the papyrus is an incomplete copy of an older reference manuscript from the Old Kingdom, evidenced by archaic grammar, terminology, form and commentary. The text is attributed by some to Imhotep, an architect, high priest, the rational and practical nature of the papyrus is illustrated in 48 case histories, which are listed according to each organ. Presented cases are typical, not individual, the title of each case details the nature of trauma, such as “Practices for a gaping wound in his head, which has penetrated to the bone and split the skull”. The objective examination process included visual and olfactory clues, palpation, in many of the cases, explanations of trauma are included to provide further clarity. Among the treatments are closing wounds with sutures, bandaging, splints, poultices, preventing and curing infection with honey, immobilization is advised for head and spinal cord injuries, as well as other lower body fractures. The papyrus also describes realistic anatomical, physiological and pathological observations and it contains the first known descriptions of the cranial structures, the meninges, the external surface of the brain, the cerebrospinal fluid, and the intracranial pulsations. Here, the word ‘brain’ appears for the first time in any language, the procedures of this papyrus demonstrate an Egyptian level of knowledge of medicines that surpassed that of Hippocrates, who lived 1000 years later. The influence of brain injuries on parts of the body is recognized, the relationship between the location of a cranial injury and the side of the body affected is also recorded, while crushing injuries of vertebrae were noted to impair motor and sensory functions
Edwin Smith Papyrus
–
Plates vi & vii of the Edwin Smith Papyrus at the Rare Book Room,
New York Academy of Medicine
7.
Old Kingdom
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The term itself was coined by eighteenth-century historians and the distinction between the Old Kingdom and the Early Dynastic Period is not one which would have been recognized by Ancient Egyptians. The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty, many Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration centralized at Memphis. During the Old Kingdom, the king of Egypt became a god who ruled absolutely and could demand the services. Under King Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis. A new era of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign, King Djosers architect, Imhotep is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form—the Step Pyramid. Indeed, the Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for the number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for Egypts kings. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as the Age of the Pyramids, the first king of the Old Kingdom was Djoser of the third dynasty, who ordered the construction of a pyramid in Memphis necropolis, Saqqara. An important person during the reign of Djoser was his vizier and it was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes, under the rule of the king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection, Egyptians in this era worshipped their king as a god, believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops. Egyptian views on the nature of time during this period held that the worked in cycles. They also perceived themselves as a specially selected people, the Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the Fourth Dynasty, which began with Sneferu. Using more stones than any king, he built three pyramids, a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur. However, the development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara. Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu who built the Great Pyramid of Giza, after Khufus death, his sons Djedefra and Khafra may have quarrelled. The latter built the pyramid and the Sphinx in Giza. Recent reexamination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the Sphinx had been built by Djedefra as a monument to his father Khufu, alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafra and Khufu himself. There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia, with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today the Sudan, the later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were king Menkaure, who built the smallest pyramid in Giza, Shepseskaf and, perhaps, Djedefptah. The Fifth Dynasty began with Userkaf and was marked by the importance of the cult of sun god Ra
Old Kingdom
–
During the Old Kingdom of Egypt (circa 2686 B.C.E. — circa 2181 B.C.E.), Egypt consisted of the
Nile River region and the area along the river south to
Elephantine.
Old Kingdom
–
The
Pyramid of Djoser at
Saqqara.
Old Kingdom
–
Temple of Djoser at
Saqqara
8.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
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Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
9.
Sushruta
–
Sushruta, or Suśruta was an ancient Indian physician, known as the main author of the treatise The Compendium of Suśruta. The Mahabharata, an ancient Indian epic text, represents him as a son of Rishi Vishvamitra, kunjalal Bhisagratna opined that it is safe to assume that Sushruta was of the clan of Vishvamitra. The Suśruta-saṃhitā is one of the most important surviving ancient treatises on medicine and is considered a text of Ayurveda. He has also called the first plastic surgeon. It is likely that the Suśruta-saṃhitā was known to the scholar Dṛḍhabala and it has also become clear through historical research that there are several ancient authors called Suśruta and that they should not be conflated. The Mahābhārata lists Suśruta amongst the sons of Viśvāmitra, the legendary sage, the same connection with Viśvāmitra is also made in the Suśruta-saṃhitā itself. The name Suśruta appears in literature in the Bower Manuscript. Traction, manipulation, apposition and stabilization including some measures of rehabilitation and fitting of prosthetic
Sushruta
–
A statue dedicated to Sushruta at
Haridwar
10.
Charaka
–
Charaka was one of the principal contributors to the ancient art and science of Ayurveda, a system of medicine and lifestyle developed in Ancient India. He is famous for authoring the medical treatise, the Charaka Samhita, Charaka has been identified as a native of Kashmir. He is well known as the father of medicine, the term Charaka is a label said to apply to wandering scholars or wandering physicians. According to Charakas translations, health and disease are not predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort, Charaka seems to have been an early proponent of prevention is better than cure doctrine. The following statement is attributed to Acharya Charaka, A physician who fails to enter the body of a patient with the lamp of knowledge and he should first study all the factors, including environment, which influence a patients disease, and then prescribe treatment. It is more important to prevent the occurrence of disease than to seek a cure, Charaka contributions to the fields of physiology, etiology and embryology have been recognised. Charaka is generally considered as the first physician to present the concept of digestion, metabolism, immunity, a body functions because it contains three dosha or principles, namely movement, transformation and lubrication and stability. The doshas correspond to the Western classification of humors, bile, phlegm and these doshas are produced when dhatus act upon the food eaten. For the same quantity of food eaten, one body, however and that is why one body is different from another. Further, he stressed, illness is caused when the balance among the three doshas in a body are disturbed. To restore the balance he prescribed medicinal drugs, although he was aware of germs in the body, he did not give them primary importance. Charaka studied the anatomy of the body and various organs. He gave 360 as the number of bones, including teeth. He was right when he considered heart to be a controlling centre and he claimed that the heart was connected to the entire body through 13 main channels. Apart from these channels, there were countless other ones of varying sizes which supplied not only nutrients to various tissues and he also claimed that any obstruction in the main channels led to a disease or deformity in the body. Agnivesa, under the guidance of the ancient physician Atreya, had written a treatise in the 8th century B. C. However, it was only when Charaka revised this treatise that it gained popularity, for two millennia it remained a standard work on the subject and was translated into many foreign languages, including Arabic and Latin. He is the author of the Charaka Samhita, which has survived in the Bower Manuscript dated to around 4th century, however, the manuscript is believed to be an edition by Dridhabala, the original work by Charaka is a few centuries older
Charaka
–
Charaka Monument in the Pantanjali Yogpeeth Campus, Haridwar, India
11.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
Sanskrit
–
Rigveda (
padapatha) manuscript in
Devanagari, early 19th century
Sanskrit
–
Devi Mahatmya palm-leaf manuscript in an early
Bhujimol script,
Bihar or
Nepal, 11th century
Sanskrit
–
A poem by the ancient Indian poet Vallana (ca. 900 – 1100 CE) on the side wall of a building at the Haagweg 14 in Leiden, Netherlands
Sanskrit
–
Kashmir Shaiva manuscript in the
Śāradā script (c. 17th century)
12.
Arabic language
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
–
al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
13.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
–
Reconstruction of
Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
–
A medieval
T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah — Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham)
Europe
–
Early modern depiction of
Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical
Europa of the 8th century BC.
14.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
15.
Sicily
–
Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
Sicily
–
Mount Etna rising over suburbs of Catania
Sicily
–
Sicily Sicilia
Sicily
–
Sicilian landscape
Sicily
–
Location of the
Salso
16.
Gasparo Tagliacozzi
–
Gaspare Tagliacozzi was an Italian surgeon, pioneer of plastic and reconstructive surgery. Tagliacozzi began his studies in 1565. He studied at the University of Bologna under Gerolamo Cardano for medicine, Ulisse Aldrovandi for natural sciences, at the age of twenty-four, earned his degree in philosophy and medicine. He was then appointed professor of surgery and later was appointed professor of anatomy and he taught at the Archiginnasio of Bologna. The amphitheater in which Tagliacozzi taught was severely damaged by American bombing during World War II, the theater was rebuilt and currently houses a wooden statue of Tagliacozzi. It is in this room that Tagliacozzi taught until 1595, in 1568, two years before graduating, Tagliacozzi began practicing in the Hospital of Death, which was a sort of clinic for students since it was near the Archiginnasio. The hospital was run by a Brotherhood of Death whose job was to visit prisons, through this brotherhood Tagliacozzi procured the bodies of executed prisoners for use in dissections. In his will, Tagliacozzi gave the responsibility of his burial to the brotherhood and he improved on the work of the Sicilian Surgeon Gustavo Branca and his son Antonio and developed the so-called Italian method of nasal reconstruction. His principal work is entitled De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem, in this book, he described in great detail the procedures that were being carried out empirically by the Branca and Vianeo families of Sicily since the 15th century AD. The work has bestowed upon him the honor of being one of the first plastic surgeons and we restore, rebuild, and make whole those parts which nature hath given, but which fortune has taken away. Not so much that it may delight the eye, but that it might buoy up the spirit, Tagliacozzi died at Bologna on 7 November 1599 and was buried in the church of the nuns of St. John the Baptist as he had ordered in his will. On the 26th of the month a solemn mass was held in the same church in his honor which was attended by all doctors collegiate. The invention of the method is believed to be about surgeons Gustavo Branca and his son Antonio, Branca de Branca used a skin flap from the cheek and years later, his son Antonio Branca used a flap raised from the arm. The technique was taken up in Calabria during the sixteenth century by the brothers surgeons Peter. This process was described by the great anatomist Andreas Vesalius but, incredibly wrong, advised to use the muscle, Tagliacozzi probably knew the method of Boiano through the description of Leonardo Fioravanti. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Tagliacozzi. XV al secolo XVIII, volume 1, Istituto nazionale medico farmacologico Serono,1926 Alfonso Corradi, Dellantica autoplastica Italiana in Memorie del Regio Istituto lombardo di scienze e lettere
Gasparo Tagliacozzi
–
Gasparo Tagliacozzi.
Gasparo Tagliacozzi
–
Original illustration of the now-called “Italian method”.
17.
Bologna
–
Bologna is the largest city of the Emilia-Romagna Region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, located in the heart of an area of about one million. The first settlements back to at least 1000 BC. The city has been a centre, first under the Etruscans. Home to the oldest university in the world, University of Bologna, founded in 1088, Bologna is also an important transportation crossroad for the roads and trains of Northern Italy, where many important mechanical, electronic and nutritional industries have their headquarters. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city, Bologna is home to numerous prestigious cultural, economic and political institutions as well as one of the most impressive trade fair districts in Europe. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, the city of Bologna was selected to participate in the Universal Exposition of Shanghai 2010 together with 45 other cities from around the world. Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country, after a long decline, Bologna was reborn in the 5th century under Bishop Petronius. According to legend, St. Petronius built the church of S. Stefano. After the fall of Rome, Bologna was a stronghold of the Exarchate of Ravenna in the Po plain. In 728, the city was captured by the Lombard king Liutprand, the Germanic conquerors formed a district called addizione longobarda near the complex of S. Stefano. Charlemagne stayed in this district in 786, traditionally said to be founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered to be the first university. The university originated as a centre of study of medieval Roman law under major glossators. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca among its students, the medical school is especially famous. In the 12th century, the families engaged in continual internecine fighting. Troops of Pope Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace, in 1530, in front of Saint Petronio Church, Charles V was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII. Then a plague at the end of the 16th century reduced the population from 72,000 to 59,000, the population later recovered to a stable 60, 000–65,000. However, there was also great progress during this era, in 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the centre of the University
Bologna
–
A collage of the city, showing
Fountain of Neptune,
Piazza Maggiore,
Basilica of San Petronio,
Two towers (Due Torri),
Tagliatelle al
ragù bolognese (dish of Bologna origin), and endless city arcades typical for Bologna
Bologna
–
Porta Maggiore, one of the twelve medieval city gates of Bologna.
Bologna
–
Depiction of a 14th-century fight between the militias of the Guelf and Ghibelline factions in Bologna, from the Croniche of Giovanni Sercambi of Lucca.
Bologna
–
Bologna in 1640.
18.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
19.
Kumhar
–
Kumhar is a caste or community in India and Pakistan. Kumhar literally means potter in Indian languages and it is also known by the names Kumbhara, Kubhara, Kumar, Kumor, Kubar and Khubar. The Kumhar community is found throughout India, in both Hindu and Muslim religions, depending upon the subgroup or region they are classified as both Other Backward Class and the Scheduled Caste. The Kumhars derive their name from the Sanskrit word Kumbhakar meaning earthen-pot maker, dravidian languages conform to the same meaning of the term Kumbhakar. The term Bhande, used to designate the Kumhar caste, also means pot, the potters of Amritsar are called Kulal or Kalal, the term used in Yajurveda to denote the potter class. A section of Hindu Kumhars honorifically call themselves Prajapati after Vedic Prajapati, the Lord, who created the universe. According to a legend prevalent among Kumhars Once Brahma divided sugarcane among his sons and each of them ate his share, the piece which he had kept near his clay lump struck root and soon grew into a sugarcane plant. A few days later, when Brahma asked his sons for sugarcane, none of them could give it to him, Brahma was pleased by the devotion of the potter to his work and awarded him the title Prajapati. There is an opinion that this is because of their creative skills of pottery. The Potters are classified into Hindu and Muslim cultural groups, among Hindus, inclusion of Artisan castes in Shudra Varna is indisputable. The potters belong to the Shudra group of artisans of Hindu society and they are further divided into two groups-clean caste and unclean caste. Among the Kumhars are groups such as the Gujrati Kumhar, Rana Kumhar, Lad and they all, bear these names after different cultural linguistic zones or caste groups but are termed as one caste cluster. The Kumhars of Chamba are expert in making pitchers, Surahis, vessels, grain jars, toys for entertainment, some of these pots bear paintings and designs also. Kumhars are found in Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Sholapur and they speak in Marathi among themselves but in Marathi as well as Hindi with outsiders. They use Devnagari script for communication, there are Kumbhars who do not belong to Maratha clan lives in Maharashtra and have occupation of making idols and pots. They are aware of the Hindu Varna hierarchy and consider themselves to be the Shudra, hathretie and Chakretie Kumhars are found in Madhya Pradesh. Hathretie Kumhars are called so because they moved the chak by hands. In Rajasthan, Kumhars have six sub-groups namely Mathera, Kumavat, Kheteri, Marwara, in the social hierarchy of Rajasthan, they are placed in the middle of the higher castes and the Harijans
Kumhar
–
Kumhar
20.
Western world
–
The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
Western world
–
The
Parthenon (
Athens).
Western world
–
Division of the
Roman Empire after 395 into western and eastern part. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire.
Western world
–
The
Roman Forum (
Rome).
Western world
–
The
Supreme Court of the United States (
Washington, D.C.).
21.
Aulus Cornelius Celsus
–
Aulus Cornelius Celsus was a Roman encyclopaedist, known for his extant medical work, De Medicina, which is believed to be the only surviving section of a much larger encyclopedia. The De Medicina is a source on diet, pharmacy, surgery and related fields. The lost portions of his encyclopedia likely included volumes on agriculture, law, rhetoric, and military arts. He made contributions to the classification of skin disorders in dermatology, such as Myrmecia. Nothing is known about the life of Celsus, even his praenomen is uncertain, he has been called both Aurelius and Aulus, with the latter being more plausible. Some incidental expressions in his De Medicina suggest that he lived under the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius and it is not known with any certainty where he lived. Of the numerous volumes of his encyclopedia, only one remains intact, the work’s encyclopedic arrangement follows the tripartite division of medicine at the time as established by Hippocrates and Asclepiades — diet, pharmacology, and surgery. It is divided into eight books and he goes into great detail regarding the preparation of numerous ancient medicinal remedies including the preparation of opioids. In addition, he describes many 1st century Roman surgical procedures which included removal of a cataract, treatment for bladder stones, during the twentieth century, many historians claimed that Celsus believed that the crystalline lens is in the exact center of the eye. In fact, Celsus made no statement about the position of the crystalline lens. Hippocrates used the Greek word carcinos, meaning crab or crayfish and it was Celsus who translated the Greek term into the Latin cancer, also meaning crab. The first printed edition of Celsus work was published in 1478 and his style has been much admired as being equal in purity and elegance to that of the best writers of the Augustan age. Also, Celsus wrote a work on agriculture, on which Columella partly based his De Re Rustica. In hoc volvmine haec continentvr Avrelii Cornelii Celsi medicinae libri VIII, qvam emendatissimi, beigefügte Werke, Qvinti Sereni Liber de medicina et ipse castigatiss. Accedit index in Celsvm et Serenvm sane qvam copiosvs, venetiis, in aedibvs Aldi et Andreae Asvlani soceri,1528. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf, aurelii Cornelij Celsi de arte Medica libri octo, multis in Locis iam emendatiores longè, quàm unquam antea, editi. Beigefügte Werke, Accessit quoque Rerum & Verborum in hisce omnibus memorabilium locupletissimus Index, basileae, Oporinus,1552 Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf. Celsi De medicina, libri octo, cum notis integris Joannis Caesarii, Roberti Constantini, Josehi Scaligeri, Isaaci Casauboni, Joannis Baptistae Morgagni, Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Aulus Cornelius Celsus
–
Aulus Cornelius Celsus
Aulus Cornelius Celsus
–
De medicina
22.
Ancient Romans
–
In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Romans
–
Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Romans
–
According to legend,
Rome was founded in 753 BC by
Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Romans
–
This bust from the
Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of
Lucius Junius Brutus.
Ancient Romans
–
Gaius Marius, a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the
Roman military
23.
Ancient Greece
–
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
Ancient Greece
–
The
Parthenon, a temple dedicated to
Athena, located on the
Acropolis in
Athens, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.
Ancient Greece
–
Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period, or the beginning of the Archaic period,
c. 750 BC.
Ancient Greece
–
Political geography of ancient Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods
24.
Sulfonamide (medicine)
–
Sulfonamide is the basis of several groups of drugs. The original antibacterial sulfonamides are synthetic agents that contain the sulfonamide group. Some sulfonamides are also devoid of activity, e. g. the anticonvulsant sultiame. The sulfonylureas and thiazide diuretics are newer drug groups based on the antibacterial sulfonamides, according to data the overall incidence of adverse drug reactions to sulfa antibiotics is approximately 3%, close to penicillin, hence medications containing sulfonamides are prescribed carefully. Because sulfonamides displace bilirubin from albumin, kernicterus, brain damage is an important potential side effect of sulfonamide use, in bacteria, antibacterial sulfonamides act as competitive inhibitors of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthase, an enzyme involved in folate synthesis. Sulfonamides are therefore bacteriostatic and inhibit growth and multiplication of bacteria, humans, in contrast to bacteria, acquire folate through the diet. Sulfonamides are used to treat allergies and cough, as well as antifungal and antimalarial functions, the moiety is also present in other medications that are not antimicrobials, including thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, acetazolamide, sulfonylureas, and some COX-2 inhibitors. Sulfasalazine, in addition to its use as an antibiotic, is used in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Sulfonamide drugs were the first antibiotics to be used systemically, the first sulfonamide, trade-named Prontosil, was a prodrug. Experiments with Prontosil began in 1932 in the laboratories of Bayer AG, the Bayer team believed that coal-tar dyes which are able to bind preferentially to bacteria and parasites might be used to attack harmful organisms in the body. The first official communication about the discovery was not published until 1935. Prontosil, as Bayer named the new drug, was the first medicine ever discovered that could treat a range of bacterial infections inside the body. It had a strong action against infections caused by streptococci, including blood infections, childbed fever, and erysipelas. However, it had no effect at all in the test tube, later, it was discovered by Bovet, Federico Nitti and J. and Th. The result was a sulfa craze, for several years in the late 1930s, hundreds of manufacturers produced tens of thousands of tons of myriad forms of sulfa. This and nonexistent testing requirements led to the elixir sulfanilamide disaster in the fall of 1937 and this led to the passage of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act in 1938 in the United States. As the first and only effective antibiotic available in the years before penicillin and they are credited with saving the lives of tens of thousands of patients, including Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr. and Winston Churchill. Sulfa had a role in preventing wound infections during the war
Sulfonamide (medicine)
–
Patient suffering from
Stevens–Johnson syndrome
Sulfonamide (medicine)
–
Sulfonamide functional group
Sulfonamide (medicine)
–
Allergic urticaria on the skin induced by an antibiotic
25.
Penicillin
–
Penicillin is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin G, penicillin V, procaine penicillin, and benzathine penicillin. Penicillin antibiotics were among the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci, penicillins are still widely used today, though many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use. About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin, however, serious allergies only occur in about 0. 03%. Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming, people began using it to treat infections in 1942. There are several enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria, these include the penicillins, aminopenicillins. They are derived from Penicillium fungi, the term penicillin is often used generically to refer to benzylpenicillin, procaine benzylpenicillin, benzathine benzylpenicillin, and phenoxymethylpenicillin. Procaine penicillin and benzathine penicillin have the same activity as benzylpenicillin. Phenoxymethylpenicillin is less active against gram-negative bacteria than benzylpenicillin, infrequent adverse effects include fever, vomiting, erythema, dermatitis, angioedema, seizures, and pseudomembranous colitis. About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin, however, serious allergies only occur in about 0. 03%. Penicillin can also induce serum sickness or a serum sickness-like reaction in some individuals, serum sickness is a type III hypersensitivity reaction that occurs one to three weeks after exposure to drugs including penicillin. It is not a drug allergy, because allergies are type I hypersensitivity reactions. Pain and inflammation at the site is also common for parenterally administered benzathine benzylpenicillin, benzylpenicillin. Significantly, there is a reaction to Streptolysin S, a toxin released by certain killed bacteria and associated with Penicillin injection. Allergic reactions to any β-lactam antibiotic may occur in up to 1% of patients receiving that agent, the allergic reaction is a Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Anaphylaxis will occur in approximately 0. 01% of patients and it has previously been accepted that there was up to a 10% cross-sensitivity between penicillin-derivatives, cephalosporins, and carbapenems, due to the sharing of the β-lactam ring. Assessments in 2006 found no risk for cross-allergy for second-generation or later cephalosporins than the first generation. However, as a risk, research shows that all beta lactams have the intrinsic hazard of very serious hazardous reactions in susceptible patients. Only the frequency of these reactions vary, based on the structure, bacteria constantly remodel their peptidoglycan cell walls, simultaneously building and breaking down portions of the cell wall as they grow and divide
Penicillin
–
Alexander Fleming, who is credited with discovering penicillin in 1928.
Penicillin
–
Penicillin core structure, where "R" is the variable group.
Penicillin
–
Sample of penicillium mould presented by Alexander Fleming to Douglas Macleod, 1935
Penicillin
–
Florey (pictured), Fleming and Chain shared a Nobel Prize in 1945 for their work on penicillin.
26.
Mercury (element)
–
Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum, Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar. The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide, likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury sphygmomanometers. Mercury remains in use in research applications and in amalgam for dental restoration in some locales. It is used in fluorescent lighting, electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible light. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury, Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a conductor of heat. It has a point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C. Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3. 59%, the coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10−6 at 0 °C,181.71 × 10−6 at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10−6 at 100 °C. Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife, because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gases, which form weak bonds and hence melt at low temperatures. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell, an f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus. Like silver, mercury reacts with hydrogen sulfide. Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury, Mercury dissolves many other metals such as gold and silver to form amalgams. Iron is an exception, and iron flasks have traditionally used to trade mercury. Several other first row transition metals with the exception of manganese, copper, other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum. Sodium amalgam is a reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact, since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth, even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft, Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement
Mercury (element)
–
Mercury, 80 Hg
Mercury (element)
–
Spectral lines of mercury (UV not seen)
Mercury (element)
–
A
pound coin (density ~7.6 g/cm 3) floats in mercury due to the combination of the
buoyant force and
surface tension.
Mercury (element)
–
Mercury-discharge spectral calibration lamp
27.
Carl Ferdinand von Graefe
–
Karl Ferdinand von Gräfe, was a German surgeon from Warsaw. He was the father of ophthalmologist Albrecht von Graefe and grandfather of politician Albrecht von Graefe, Gräfe studied medicine at Halle and Leipzig, and after obtaining his licence from Leipzig, he was in 1807 appointed a private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg. In 1811, he became a professor of surgery and director of the institute at the University of Berlin. His lectures at the University of Berlin attracted students from all parts of Europe, during the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon, he was a superintendent of military hospitals. When peace was concluded in 1815, Gräfe resumed his professorial duties and he was also appointed physician to the general staff of the Prussian army, and he became a director of the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-Chirurgical Academy. Gräfe died suddenly at Hanover, where he had called to operate on the eyes of the crown prince. His grave is preserved in the Protestant Friedhof II der Jerusalems- und Neuen Kirchengemeinde in Berlin-Kreuzberg and he was a pioneer of plastic and reconstructive surgery, and a founder of German rhinoplastic surgery. He developed his own techniques in regards to rhinoplasty, being modifications of the Italian methods of Gasparo Tagliacozzi as well as Indian surgical practices from long ago. He also made contributions towards the development of cleft palate repair and he is also reputed to have carried out the first reported clitoridectomy in the Western Europe, which was done on a teenage girl regarded as an imbecile who was masturbating. The following are his works, Normen für die Ablösung größerer Gliedmaßen – Standards for the removal of larger limbs. Neue Beiträge zur Kunst, Teile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen, die epidemisch-kontagiose Augenblennorrhoe Ägyptens in den europäischen Befreiungsheeren – The epidemic involving ophthalmic blennorrhea in Egypt affecting the European liberation armies. Jahresberichte ber das klinisch-chirurgisch-augenarztliche Institut der Universität zu Berlin – Annual reports on the institute at the University of Berlin. With Philipp Franz von Walther, he edited the Journal für Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde, michaelis, E. Karl Ferdinand von Gräfe in seiner 30 jahrigen Wirken für Staat und Wissenschaft. Ritualistic Female Genital Mutilation, Current Status and Future Outlook, from Paralysis to Fatigue, A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era. Attribution, This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Gráfe. Making the Body Beautiful, A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, carl Ferdinand Von Graefe Institute for the History of Plastic Surgery. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014, -Online Research Guide and Journal on the History of Plastic Surgery
Carl Ferdinand von Graefe
–
Karl Ferdinand von Gräfe, lithography
28.
Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach
–
Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach was a German surgeon. He was born in Königsberg and died in Berlin, Dieffenbach specialized in skin transplantation and plastic surgery. His work in rhinoplastic and maxillofacial surgery established many modern techniques of reconstructive surgery and his endeavours comprehended subcutaneous operations such as tenotomy, the surgical division of a tendon. In 1839, Dieffenbach performed the first successful myotomy for the treatment of strabismus on a boy with esotropia. Originally, the student J. F. Dieffenbach studied theology at the universities at Rostock, from 1813 to 1815, he volunteered as a soldier in the Befreiungskriege as a Jäger. From 1816 to 1820 he studied medicine at the University of Königsberg, following visits to Paris and Montpellier, he received his doctorate at the University of Würzburg in 1822. Afterwards, he settled in Berlin, where he focused his attention on plastic, in 1824, he married Johanna Motherby. In 1832, he became a professor at the university of Berlin. After his death in 1847, Bernhard von Langenbeck replaced Dieffenbach as director of surgery, awarded by the Vereinigung der Deutschen Plastischen Chirurgen, the Dieffenbach Medal was created by artist Fritz Becker. It was awarded for the first time in 1989 during the 20th annual meeting, johann Friedrich Dieffenbach @ Who Named It
Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach
–
Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach, 1840
29.
James Israel
–
James Adolf Israel was a Jewish-German surgeon who was a native of Berlin. In 1870 he received his doctorate from Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin. During the Franco-Prussian War, he served as a military physician, during the following year he became an assistant physician at the hospital for the Jewish community. In 1894 he received the title of professor, among his students in Berlin was surgeon Ferdinand Karewski. Israel was a pioneer in modern urologic and renal surgery and his inaugural thesis involved Bright’s kidney disease, and his first report of an operation of the kidney was in 1882. He published over 100 articles during his career, largely on urologic medicine and he was co-founder of the journal Folia Urologica. Israel made significant contributions in the field of surgery, in particular. He was also an advocate of Joseph Listers antiseptic practices in the operating room. In addition, he is credited for design of a mobile hospital railcar known as a lazarett, in 1878 he provided the first description of actinomycosis in humans, caused by a pathogen that was later given the name Actinomyces israelii. Nicoladoni-Israel-Branham sign, A circulatory phenomenon seen in angioma racemosum of the extremities and it was first described in 1875 by Carl Nicoladoni. Angiectasie im Stromgebiete der A. tibialis antica, beobachtung einiger bemerkenswerther Phaenomene nach Unterbindung der A. femoralis. Klin Arch Chir 1877,21109, klinische Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Aktinomykose des Menschen. Ueber Reincultur des Actinomyces und seine Uebertragbarkeit auf Thiere, die Chirurgie der Niere und des Harnleiters. This article incorporates information based on a translation of an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia, james Adolf Israel @ Who Named It
James Israel
–
James Israel
30.
Walter Yeo
–
Walter Ernest ONeil Yeo was an English sailor in the First World War, who is thought to have been one of the first people to benefit from advanced plastic surgery, namely a skin flap. Yeo was born in Plymouth, Devon, to Petty Officer Francis Yeo and he had two elder sisters, Adelaide and Elsie. Three weeks after his birth, his father was killed aboard the HMS Serpent while en route to Sierra Leone, after hitting rocks off Cape Vilan, three of the 150 people on board survived the shipwreck. His mother was later an alemaker at the Royal William Victualling Yard, Yeo enlisted into the Royal Navy aged 12, serving as a Bugler until 1911. He was promoted to Leading Seaman in 1912, becoming a Petty Officer in 1915, Yeo was wounded on 31 May 1916, during the Battle of Jutland, while manning the guns aboard the battleship HMS Warspite. He sustained terrible injuries, including the loss of upper and lower eyelids. There is some uncertainty as to where he was first admitted to hospital, however, he is known to have been admitted to Plymouth Hospital while waiting for a place at Queen Marys Hospital in Sidcup, Kent, which was granted on 8 August 1917. He was treated by Sir Harold Gillies, the first man to transfer skin from undamaged areas on the body, Gillies notes on this case indicate that the main disfigurement was severe ectropion as well as waxy scar tissue of the forehead and nose. Gillies opened a specialist ward at Queen Marys Hospital for the treatment of the facially-wounded, walter Yeo is thought to have been one of the first patients to be treated with this newly developed technique, a form of skin transplantation called a tubed pedicle flap. During the long process of surgery, a mask of skin was transplanted across Yeos face and eyes, the operation to replace the skin of the midface and forehead took place in multiple stages. The first stage was the outlining of the graft as well as placement of a stent to contour for the nasal dorsum on 12 November 1917, on post-operative day five, a serious infection was noted as well as complications with the stent requiring surgical intervention. On 30 November, the stage of the surgery was performed which consisted of excision of the scar tissue of the face. Again, post-operative infection was a major complication, Gillies described the flap as floating in pus at one point which required extensive care to salvage most of the tissue. In January 1918, the pedicles were returned to the chest with the surgery deemed a success, minor revisions were performed in the following months to improve the aesthetics of the graft. By July 1919, he was found to be fit for service again and was recorded as having completed courses in September 1919. Walter later received treatment for a corneal ulcer at the Royal Naval Hospital in Plymouth in 1938. Walter married Ada Edwards in 1914, and had two daughters with her, Lilian Evelyn Yeo, born 21 October 1914, and Doreen Y. He died in his hometown, Plymouth, where he had spent the majority of his life, in 1960 at the age of seventy
Walter Yeo
–
A photograph of Walter Yeo, showing his face before (left) and after the tube pedicle
flap reconstruction of his face (right).
31.
Battle of Jutland
–
The battle unfolded in extensive maneuvering and three main engagements, from 31 May to 1 June 1916, off the North Sea coast of Denmarks Jutland Peninsula. It was the largest naval battle in that war and the only full-scale clash of battleships, Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the smaller but more decisive battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War. Jutland was the last major battle fought primarily by battleships in world history, germanys High Seas Fleet intended to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, as the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet. This formed part of a strategy to break the British blockade of Germany. Meanwhile, Great Britains Royal Navy pursued a strategy of engaging and destroying the High Seas Fleet, thereby keeping German naval forces contained and away from Britain and they stationed submarines in advance across the likely routes of the British ships. The German plan had been delayed, causing problems for their submarines. On the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty encountered Hippers battlecruiser force long before the Germans had expected, in a running battle, Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet. Fourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with loss of life. The British lost more ships and twice as many sailors but succeeded in containing the German fleet, however, the British press criticised the Grand Fleets failure to force a decisive outcome, while Scheers plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet also failed. Finally, the British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long-term goal, subsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning the two admirals performance in the battle. Debate over their performance and the significance of the battle continues to this day, with 16 dreadnought-type battleships, compared with the Royal Navys 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head-to-head clash. The Germans therefore adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy, in January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill. He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British. On 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarine on merchant shipping and this followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks. Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels and it was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations. If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, the hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it. A plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, the battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916. At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the battleship squadron
Battle of Jutland
–
Reinhard Scheer, German fleet commander
Battle of Jutland
–
The Battle of Jutland, 1916
Battle of Jutland
–
John Jellicoe, British fleet commander
Battle of Jutland
–
HMS Warspite and Malaya, seen from HMS Valiant at around 14:00 hrs
32.
Flap surgery
–
Flap surgery is a technique in plastic and reconstructive surgery where any type of tissue is lifted from a donor site and moved to a recipient site with an intact blood supply. This is similar to but different from a graft, which not have an intact blood supply. The skin can be divided into three layers including the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous tissue. Blood is supplied to the skin mainly by two networks of blood vessels, the deep network lies between the dermis and the subcutaneous tissue, while the shallow network lies within the papillary layer of the dermis. This redundant and robust blood supply is important in flap surgery because part of the supply will be cut off, the remaining blood supply must then keep the tissue alive until a more optimal supply can be restored through angiogenesis. An angiosome is a region of tissue that is supplied by a single artery and can include skin, soft tissue. Adjacent angiosomes are connected by narrower choke vessels and so multiple angiosomes can be supplied by a single artery, knowledge of these supply arteries and their associated angiosomes is useful in planning the location, size, and shape of a flap. Flaps can be classified by their level of complexity, the types of tissues present. Flaps can be classified according to level of complexity, the surgeon should choose the least complex type that will achieve the desired effect, a concept known as the reconstructive ladder. Local flaps are created by freeing a layer of tissue and then stretching the freed layer to fill a defect and this is the least complex type of flap and includes advancement flaps, rotation flaps, and transposition flaps, in order from least to most complex. With an advancement flap, incisions are extended out parallel from the wound and this rectangle is freed from the deeper tissues and then stretched forward to cover the wound. The flap is disconnected from the body except for the edge which contains the blood supply which feeds in horizontally. A rotation flap is similar except instead of being stretched in a straight line, the more complex transposition flap involves rotating an adjacent piece of tissue, resulting in the creation of a new defect which must then be closed. Regional or interpolation flaps are not immediately adjacent to the defect, instead, the freed tissue island is moved over or underneath normal tissue to reach the defect to be filled, with the blood supply still connected to the donor site via a pedicle. This pedicle can be removed later on after new blood supply has formed. ex, PMMC, DP flaps for head and neck defects, distant flaps are used when the donor site is far from the defect. These are the most complex class of flap, direct or tubed flaps involve having the flap connected to both the donor and recipient sites simultaneously, forming a bridge. This allows blood to be supplied by the site while a new blood supply from the recipient site is formed. Once this happens, the bridge can be disconnected from the site if necessary
Flap surgery
–
A flap used to cover an
amputation stump
33.
Harold Gillies
–
Sir Harold Delf Gillies was a New Zealand-born, and later London-based, otolaryngologist who is widely considered the father of plastic surgery. Gillies was born in Dunedin, New Zealand, following the outbreak of World War I he joined the Royal Army Medical Corps. Gillies, eager after seeing Valadier experimenting with nascent skin graft techniques, then decided to leave for Paris and he saw him remove a tumour on a patients face, and cover it with jaw skin taken from the patient. This rapidly proved inadequate and a new hospital devoted to facial repairs was developed at Sidcup, the Queens Hospital opened in June 1917 and with its convalescent units provided over 1,000 beds. There Gillies and his colleagues developed many techniques of plastic surgery, the hospital, later to become Queen Marys Hospital, was at Frognal House. For his war services Gillies was knighted in the Birthday Honours list of June 1930, william Arbuthnot-Lane commented, Better late than never. In 1930 Gillies invited his cousin, Archibald McIndoe to join the practice and this was the point at which McIndoe became committed to plastic surgery, in which he too became pre-eminent. During World War II Gillies acted as a consultant to the Ministry of Health, the RAF and his own work continued at Rooksdown House, part of the Park Prewett Hospital, Basingstoke. During this period, and after the war, he trained many doctors from Commonwealth nations in plastic surgery, instead of retiring at the end of the Second World War Gillies had to keep working as he had insufficient savings. In 1946, he and a colleague carried out one of the first sex reassignment surgeries from female to male on Michael Dillon. In 1951 he and colleagues carried out one of the first modern sex reassignment surgery from male to female using a technique on Roberta Cowell. Gillies made a visit to New Zealand in 1956 after an absence of 51 years, gilles suffered a slight cerebral thrombosis while undertaking a major operation at the age of 78 on the damaged leg of an 18-year-old girl on 3 August 1960. Gillies died on 10 September 1960 at The London Clinic, at 20 Devonshire Place, despite earning an estimated ₤30,000 a year between the First and Second World Wars he left an estate of only ₤21,161. Gillies married Kathleen Margaret Jackson on 9 November 1911, in London and his eldest son, John Gillies, flew Spitfires with No.92 Squadron RAF in World War II. John Gillies was shot down over France on 23 May 1940 and his youngest son Michael Thomas Gillies followed his father into medicine. In addition to his career as a surgeon, he was also a champion golfer, for many years his home was at 71 Frognal, in the heart of Londons Hampstead village. A blue plaque on the front of that house now commemorates his life, in 2015, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge built 12 houses and named their road Harold Gillies Close in his honour. Actor Daniel Gillies is his descendant, ISBN 0-906923-08-5 Gillies HD, Millard DR
Harold Gillies
–
Walter Yeo, a sailor injured at the
Battle of Jutland, is assumed to be the first person to receive
plastic surgery in 1917. The photograph shows him before (left) and after (right) receiving a
flap surgery performed by Gillies.
Harold Gillies
–
Frognal House, formerly Queen Mary's Hospital, in 2002
34.
First World War
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
First World War
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
First World War
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
First World War
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
First World War
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
35.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
36.
Royal Army Medical Corps
–
The Royal Army Medical Corps is a specialist corps in the British Army which provides medical services to all Army personnel and their families, in war and in peace. Together with the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, the Royal Army Dental Corps and Queen Alexandras Royal Army Nursing Corps, because it is not a fighting arm, under the Geneva Conventions, members of the RAMC may only use their weapons for self-defence. Other ranks do not fix bayonets, neither do they prefix Surgeon in front of their rank as medical officers of the Royal Navy do. The RAMC, like every other British regiment, has its own distinctive unit insignia, dark blue beret, the default Army colour worn by units without distinctive coloured berets. There is also a small attachment to Special Forces, the Medical Support Unit who wear the beret of the SAS. Cap badge depicting the Rod of Asclepius, surmounted by a crown, enclosed within a wreath, with the regimental motto In Arduis Fidelis. The cap badge is worn 1 inch above the eye on the beret. The cap badge of the ranks must also be backed by an oval patch of dull cherry-red coloured cloth measuring 3.81 cm wide and 6.35 cm high sewn directly to the beret. Officers do not use the backing, but have a cloth cap badge instead. Silver regimental collar badges, a miniature of the cap badge, stable belt comprising equal horizontal bands of dull cherry, royal blue, and old gold, reflecting the old uniform worn in the 1900s, the gold depicting the royal in the title. Silver belt buckle with engraved regimental badge, Medical services in the British armed services go as far back as the formation of the Standing Regular Army after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. This was the first time a career was provided for a Medical Officer, known as the Regimental Surgeon, both in peacetime and in war. The Army was formed entirely on a basis, and an MO with a Warrant Officer as his Assistant Surgeon was appointed to each regiment. The MO was also for the first time concerned in the health of his troops. This regimental basis of appointment for MOs continued until 1873, when an army medical service was set up. There was much unhappiness in the Army Medical Service in the following years, for medical officers did not actually have military rank but advantages corresponding to relative military rank. They had inferior pay in India, excessive amounts of Indian and colonial service and they did not have their own identity as did the Army Service Corps, whose officers did have military rank. A number of complaints were published, and the British Medical Journal campaigned loudly, for over two years after 27 July 1887 there were no recruits to the Army Medical Department
Royal Army Medical Corps
–
Tactical Recognition Flash
Royal Army Medical Corps
–
Cap Badge of the Royal Army Medical Corps
Royal Army Medical Corps
–
Army surgeons carry out an operation during the Second World War
Royal Army Medical Corps
–
RAMC World War I memorial in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh
37.
Hippolyte Morestin
–
Hippolyte Morestin was a French surgeon, and associate professor of anatomy at the University of Paris. He was one of the founders of cosmetic surgery and he was dubbed The Father of the Mouths after his breakthroughs in oral and maxillofacial surgery. Morestin was born at Basse-Pointe, a commune in the French overseas department of Martinique and his father Charles Amédée Morestin was a prominent doctor who influenced both Hippolyte and his younger brother Amédée to study medicine. Both Hippolyte and Amédée dedicated their doctoral theses, defended in Paris in 1894 and 1912, respectively, to their father, Morestin greatly influenced the British-New Zealand surgeon Harold Gillies, who met him on leave in Paris during the First World War. Gillies was attached to the British General Hospital in Rouen, Morestin died from a pulmonary illness during the influenza epidemic of 1918-1919. From 1892 and until his death in 1919 Morestin has published more than 600 scientific works including the following Des opérations qui se pratiquent par la voie sacrée, bouche, pharynx, oesophage, larynx, trachée, corps thyroïde, cou, poitrine. Chirurgie générale des articulations, Paris, Doin Chirurgie générale des articulations, traitement du Cancer de la peau. Nouveau traité de chirurgie clinique et opératoire, Affections chirurgicales de la face, Affections chirurgicales de la face, tumeurs et malformations
Hippolyte Morestin
–
Works [edit]
38.
William Arbuthnot-Lane
–
Sir William Arbuthnot Lane, Bt, CB, FRCS, Legion of Honour, was a British surgeon and physician. He mastered orthopaedic, abdominal, and ear, nose and throat surgery and he thus introduced the no-touch technique, and some of his designed instruments remain in use. During World War I, as an officer with the Royal Army Medical Corps, he organised and opened Queen Marys Hospital in Sidcup, the late-Victorian and Edwardian periods preeminent surgeon, Lane operated on socialites, politicians, and royalty. Lane thus attained baronetcy in 1913, tracing diverse diseases to modern civilization, he called for farmlands return to the people. For his New Health, Lane eventually became viewed as a crank, Lanes explanation of the association between constipation and illness as due to autointoxication is generally regarded by gastroenterologists as wholly fictitious. And Lanes earlier surgeries for chronic constipation have been depicted as baseless, William Arbuthnot Lane was born in 1856 in Fort George near Inverness, Scotland, as the eldest of the eight children of Benjamin Lane, a military surgeon enlisted to the British Empire. William attended schools in eight countries on four continents—Ireland, India, Corfu, Malta, Canada, South Africa, amid his mothers bearing seven children in rapid succession after him, William was often left in the care of military personnel. At age 12, he was sent to boarding school at Stanley House School, in 1872, his father arranged for him, age 16, to study medicine at Guys Hospital. Apparently shy and appearing young even for his age, William initially had some troubles with fellow students, soon, he was persuaded to switch to surgery, however, a surer career than medicine. Later, he received the degrees bachelor of medicine and master of surgery from the University of London. In 1877, at age 21, he qualified as a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, in 1883, Lane became a Fellow of Royal College of Surgeons and joined Great Ormond Street Hospital, where he was consultant until 1916. In 1888, at age 32, Lane returned to Guys Hospital as anatomy demonstrator and assistant surgeon, for his surgery on British royalty, he was awarded baronetcy in 1913. Lane became an officer in Royal Army Medical Corps, head of army surgery, in 1920, rather soon after returning from wartime service, Lane retired from Guys Hospital, yet continued private practice out his home office. He first published in 1883, seven years starting his surgery career. He wrote several books, including one on cleft palate, one on surgery for chronic intestinal stasis, not for print, his autobiography—manuscript dated March 1936, soon before his 80th birthday—was written for family at the urging of his children. Williams first wife, Charlotte Jane Briscoe—daughter of John Briscoe, himself son of Major Briscoe—bore Jane Elizabeth in 1890 and Eileen Caroline in 1893, at age 78, Jane died in 1935. Sir Lanes daughter Eileen was married to Nathan Mutch, whose sister was Jane Mutch, in 1935, Sir Lane married Jane Mutch. Lane was tall, rather thin, seemingly aged slowly, his reactions were often difficult to discern, yet the play was nearly surely about Sir Almroth Wright, whom Lane knew well
William Arbuthnot-Lane
–
Sir William Arbuthnot Lane, 1st Baronet
William Arbuthnot-Lane
39.
Cambridge Military Hospital
–
Cambridge Military Hospital was a hospital in Aldershot Garrison, Hampshire, England which served the various British Army camps there. The first military hospital in Aldershot was a wooden hutted structure, near the Garrison Church established for lunatics, secondly there was the Union Hospital at Wellington Lines. It was converted in the 1860s from a workhouse, the Union Poor House and it was small, but for the time, well-equipped. It closed shortly after the opening of the Cambridge Hospital, thirdly there was the Connaught Hospital at Marlborough Lines. Established in the half of the 19th century, it was named after Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught. It was later a dental facility before it closed on 29 September 1973, the Cambridge Military Hospital, built by Messrs Martin Wells and Co. of Aldershot, was located at Stanhope Lines. It was named after Prince George, Duke of Cambridge and opened on 18 July 1879, in the First World War, the Cambridge Hospital was the first base hospital to receive casualties directly from the Western Front. The Cambridge Hospital was also the first place where surgery was performed in the British Empire. Captain Gillies, met Hippolyte Morestin, while on leave in Paris in 1915, Morestin was reconstructing faces in the Val-de-Grace Hospital in Paris. Gillies fell in love with the work, and at the end of 1915 was sent back from France to start a Plastic Unit in the Cambridge Hospital, after the Second World War, with the decline in importance of Britains military commitments, civilians were admitted to the hospital. It pioneered the supply of portable operating theatres and supplies for frontline duties, the hospital also contained the Army Chest Unit. It was closed on 2 February 1996 due to the high cost of running the old building as well as the discovery of asbestos in the walls. Nearby at the top of Gun Hill is the RAMC Memorial which commemorates the 314 men of the Royal Army Medical Corps who lost their lives in the Boer War of 1899 to 1902
Cambridge Military Hospital
–
Cambridge Military Hospital
40.
Aldershot
–
Aldershot is a town in the English county of Hampshire, located on heathland about 37 mi southwest of London. The area is administered by Rushmoor Borough Council, the town has a population of 36,321, while the Farnborough/Aldershot Built-up Area, a loose conurbation has a population of 243,344, making it the thirtieth-largest urban area in the UK. Aldershot is known as the Home of the British Army, a connection led to its rapid growth from a small village to a Victorian town. Aldershot is twinned with Sulechów in Poland, Meudon in France, the name may have derived from alder trees found in the area. Aldershot was included as part of the Hundred of Crondall referred to in the Domesday Book of 1086, john Nordens map of Hampshire, published in the 1607 edition of William Camdens Britannia, indicates that Aldershot was a market town. Prior to 1850, Aldershott was little known, the area was a vast stretch of common land, a lonely wasteland unsuitable for most forms of agriculture with scant population. In the 18th century, the stretch of the London to Winchester turnpike that passed through Aldershot between Bagshot and Farnham was the scene of highway robberies, at one time it had almost as bad a reputation as Hounslow Heath. Dick Turpin is said to have operated in the area having his headquarters nearby in Farnborough, in 1854, at the time of the Crimean War, Aldershot Garrison was established as the first permanent training camp for the British Army. This led to an expansion of Aldershots population going from 875 in 1851. Mrs Louisa Daniell arrived in the town at this time and set up her Soldiers Home and Institute to cater for the needs of the soldiers. The Aldershot riot of July 1945 caused considerable damage to the centre when disgruntled Canadian troops rioted in the streets for two evenings. A substantial rebuilding of the barracks was carried out between 1961 and 1969, by the architecture and engineering firm Building Design Partnership, the work was sped up under government pressure, and various new building technologies were employed with mixed success. In 1974 Aldershot and Farnborough urban districts were merged to form the Borough of Rushmoor under the provisions of the Local Government Act 1972. After a 2009 campaign, the British Government allowed veteran Gurkha soldiers who had served for more four years. As many Gurkha soldiers had been based in and around Aldershot, between the 2001 Census and the 2011 Census, Rushmoors Nepalese population increased to approximately 6,000 people, making up 6. 5% of the overall population. Howarth was later criticised for suggesting that Nepalese migrants should be dispersed across the UK, the Aldershot Military Tattoo was an annual event dating back to 1894. In the 1920s and 30s, the Aldershot Command Searchlight Tattoo held at the Rushmoor Arena presented displays from all branches of the services, at one time the performances attracted crowds of up to 500,000 people. The Tattoo was organised to raise money for military charities, by the end of the 1930s the event was raising around £40,000 annually
Aldershot
–
Statue of the
Duke of Wellington
Aldershot
–
Church of St Michael the Archangel in Aldershot
Aldershot
–
Sign for Aldershot Military Town
Aldershot
–
1st Duke of Wellington astride Copenhagen
41.
Jimmy Edwards
–
James Keith ONeill Edwards, DFC was an English comedy writer and actor on radio and television, best known as Pa Glum in Take It From Here and as headmaster Professor James Edwards in Whack-O. Edwards was born in Barnes, Surrey, the son of a professor of mathematics and he was educated at St Pauls Cathedral School, at Kings College School in Wimbledon and at St Johns College, Cambridge. He served in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War and he served with No.271 Squadron RAF, based in Doncaster, which took part in the D-Day landings. His Dakota was shot down at Arnhem in 1944, resulting in injuries requiring plastic surgery—he disguised the traces with the huge handlebar moustache that became his trademark. He was a member of the Guinea Pig Club, Edwards was a feature of London theatre in post-war years, debuting at Londons Windmill Theatre in 1946 and on BBC radio the same year. He later did a season with Tony Hancock, having performed in the Cambridge Footlights review. He gained wider exposure as a performer in Take It From Here, co-starring Dick Bentley. Also on radio he featured in Jim the Great and My Wildest Dream and he appeared in Whack-O on television, also written by Muir and Norden, and the radio panel game Does the Team Think. In 1960 a film of Whack-O called Bottoms Up was written by Muir and he was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1958 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the BBCs Piccadilly 1 Studio. This was shown on Fridays at 8, 30pm on LWT, in April 1966, he played at the last night of Melbournes Tivoli Theatre. His final words closed a tradition of Australian music hall, I dont relish the distinction of being the man who closed the Tiv. Now this ones dead, theres nowhere to go, ill either become a character comedian or a pauper. The films were not silent but had no other than grunts. He also appeared in the The Bed Sitting Room as Nigel, Edwards and Sykes toured British theatres with their farce Big Bad Mouse which, while scripted, let them ad lib, involve the audience and break the fourth wall. The show initially had a run at the Palace Theatre, Manchester during which Edwards and Sykes had followed the script. However the new, more improvised version proved a success with audiences, Sykes was replaced by Roy Castle in later runs in its three-year residency at the Shaftesbury Theatre in Londons West End and in tours of the Middle East and Australia. Edwards also starred in the revival of Maid of the Mountains. Jimmy Edwards published his autobiography, Six of the Best, in 1984 and he was vice-president of the City of Oxford Silver Band, and an accomplished player of tuba and euphonium
Jimmy Edwards
–
Jimmy Edwards
42.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
43.
British armed forces
–
They also promote Britains wider interests, support international peacekeeping efforts, and provide humanitarian aid. Repeatedly emerging victorious from conflicts has allowed Britain to establish itself as one of the leading military. The Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces is the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the armed forces by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, as required by the Bill of Rights 1689. The armed forces are managed by the Defence Council of the Ministry of Defence, with the Acts of Union 1707, the armed forces of England and Scotland were merged into the armed forces of the Kingdom of Great Britain. Britain feared that Russian expansionism in the region would eventually threaten the Empire in India and this ultimately led to British involvement in the Crimean War against the Russian Empire. The beginning of the twentieth century served to reduce tensions between Britain and the Russian Empire, partly due to the emergence of a unified German Empire. Allied victory resulted in the defeat of the Central Powers, the end of the German Empire, the Treaty of Versailles, once again tensions accumulated in European relations, and following Germanys invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Second World War began. The conflict was the most widespread in British history, with British Empire and Commonwealth troops fighting in campaigns from Europe and North Africa, to the Middle East, approximately 390,000 British Empire and Commonwealth troops lost their lives. Allied victory resulted in the defeat of the Axis powers and the establishment of the United Nations, reflecting Britains new role in the world and the escalation of the Cold War, the country became a founding member of the NATO military alliance in 1949. By the mid-1970s, the forces had reconfigured to focus on the responsibilities allocated to them by NATO. While NATO obligations took increased prominence, Britain nonetheless found itself engaged in a number of low-intensity conflicts, however the Dhofar Rebellion and The Troubles emerged as the primary operational concerns of the armed forces. Perhaps the most important conflict during the Cold War, at least in the context of British defence policy, was the Falklands War. Since the end of the Cold War, an international role for the armed forces has been pursued, with re-structuring to deliver a greater focus on expeditionary warfare. In addition to the campaign, the British Army has trained and supplied allies on the ground. Figures released by the Ministry of Defence on 31 March 2016 show that 7,185 British Armed Forces personnel have lost their lives in medal earning theatres since the end of the Second World War. As Sovereign and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is Head of the Armed Forces, the Queen, however, remains the ultimate authority of the military, with officers and personnel swearing allegiance to the monarch. It has been claimed that this includes the power to prevent unconstitutional use of the armed forces, responsibility for the management of the forces is delegated to a number of committees, the Defence Council, Chiefs of Staff Committee, Defence Management Board and three single-service boards. The Defence Council, composed of representatives of the services
British armed forces
–
The
Vulcan Bomber was the backbone of the United Kingdom’s airborne nuclear deterrent during much of the Cold War.
British armed forces
–
Her Majesty's Armed Forces
British armed forces
–
David Cameron greets
Nicolas Sarkozy at Lancaster House, London, before signing the Defence and Security Co-operation Treaty.
British armed forces
–
Welsh Guards Trooping the Colour 2007
44.
Park Prewett
–
Park Prewett Hospital, also known as Park Prewett Mental Hospital, was a psychiatric hospital northwest of Basingstoke, in the county of Hampshire in England, which operated from 1917 until 1997. The hospital was designed by the noted asylum architect George T. Hine and it is the unnamed setting for the novel Poison in the Shade by the local author and sculptor Eric Benfield, who was working as an art therapist at the mental hospital. The land on which Park Prewett Hospital stands was part of the Park Prewett Farm. Park Prewett was an enclosure dating back to the time of Edward I, the Farm occupied a triangle bounded to the south by the A339, to the east by the A340 and on the north west by Rooksdown Lane, the old Roman road. Following a report by the Lunacy Commission into overcrowding at Knowle Hospital in the south of the county, Park Prewett Farm was then acquired in 1899 and plans drawn up by Hines firm, Hine and Pegg. The scheme was postponed as the number of patients at Knowle Hospital had declined. In 1910, it was agreed that building work would start at Park Prewett in 1912, work was well advanced by 1914 when war broke out. Due to the intervention of World War I, labour was short, the building was first used by the Canadians as a military convalescent hospital until 1919 - It was known as ‘Number Four Canadian General Hospital’. Park Prewett opened as a hospital in 1921 and by 1936 catered for 1,400 patients. The hospital returned to use again during World War II. Part of the hospital - Rooksdown House - was used by Sir Harold Gillies and it was originally the private wing of the Asylum but became a plastic surgery unit in 1940. The hospital was served by its own line from 1913 until 1954 from a junction on the South Western Main Line 1 mile west of Basingstoke railway station. The hospital boundary was planted with a row of trees forming a series of avenues with footpaths along the middle. This shelter belt is largely intact and shows the extent of the old hospital grounds, in the late 1990s, after the hospital was abandoned it was sometimes put to other uses, The hospitals hall was used as a rave venue. Park Prewett was bought by English Partnerships in 2005 and they have licensed developers Taylor Woodrow for most new building on the site, and Thomas Homes for conversion of many of the old hospital blocks into housing and community facilities. The new housing development was called Limes Park and formed the core of a new parish named Rooksdown. Photographic tour of an abandoned institution
Park Prewett
–
A view of the redeveloped Park Prewett Hospital buildings. Now used for housing in
Rooksdown.
Park Prewett
–
A nurse at Park Prewett Hospital in 1941
45.
Basingstoke
–
Basingstoke is the largest town in Hampshire. It is situated in south central England, and lies across a valley at the source of the River Loddon and it is located 30 miles northeast of Southampton,48 miles southwest of London, and 19 miles northeast of the county town and former capital Winchester. According to the 2011 census the town had a population of 107,355 and it is part of the borough of Basingstoke and Deane and part of the parliamentary constituency of Basingstoke. Basingstoke is often nicknamed Doughnut City or Roundabout City because of the number of large roundabouts, Basingstoke is an old market town expanded in the mid 1960s as a result of an agreement between London County Council and Hampshire County Council. Basingstoke market was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, at the start of World War II the population was little more than 13,000. It still has a market, but is now larger than Hampshire County Councils definition of a market town. It is also the location of the European headquarters of the TaylorMade-Adidas Golf Company, other industries include publishing, IT, telecommunications, insurance and electronics. The name Basingstoke is believed to have derived from the towns position as the outlying. The ending -stoke means outlying settlement or possibly refers to a stockade that surrounded the settlement in early medieval times. Basing, now Old Basing, a village 2 miles to the east, is thought to have the same etymology and it remained the main settlement until changes in the local church moved the religious base from St Marys Church, Basing, to the church in Basingstoke. The site of Winklebury camp is now home to Fort Hill Community School, nearby, to the west, Roman Road marks the course of a Roman road that ran from Winchester to Silchester. Further to the east, another Roman road ran from Chichester through the villages of Upton Grey. The Harrow Way is an Iron-age ancient route that runs to the south of the town, the first recorded historical event here was the victory gained by Æthelred of Wessex and Alfred the Great over the Danes in 871. Again, in 904, Basingstoke saw a battle between Edward the Elder, Alfreds only son, and his cousin Æthelwald. Basingstoke is recorded as being a site in the Domesday Book. During the Civil War, and the siege of Basing House between 1643 and 1645, the town played host to large numbers of Parliamentarians. During this time, St. Michaels Church was damaged whilst being used as a store and lead was stripped from the roof of the Chapel of the Holy Ghost. It had been incorporated in 1524, but was out of use after the Civil War
Basingstoke
–
Clockwise from top: Town centre viewed from Churchill Way at night, The Anvil theatre,
Basingstoke railway station,
St Michael's Church, high-rise flats in Churchill Plaza, and the AA Building (
Fanum House)
Basingstoke
–
The remains of the 16th-century
Chapel of the Holy Ghost, Basingstoke
Basingstoke
–
St Michael's Church
46.
Queen Victoria Hospital
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It has become world-famous for its pioneering burns and plastic surgery. The hospital was named after Queen Victoria, the Princess Royal is the current patron of the hospital. It also provides a range of routine services in its areas of expertise for local people. In July 2012, the hospital produced a film about its services. Most famously, it was where the Guinea Pig Club was formed in 1941, as a club then became a support network for the aircrew. The club continued to provide assistance for Guinea Pigs for many years after the war, the Queen Victoria Hospital remains at the forefront of specialist care today, and is renowned for its burns treatment facilities and expertise throughout England. In recent years a programme of site developments has been underway to replace the aging estate. In 2012, a new outpatients department opened, along with refurbished burns, work to replace all nine of the hospital’s old operating theatres with ten new theatres was completed in 2014. The QVH Burns Centre provides specialist burns care treatment for people living in the South East of England, the hospital was involved in controversy in August 2007 when it turned away an 8 month old burn victim arriving by air ambulance. The row was finally resolved with both agreeing to disagree over the issue. The Corneo Plastic Unit was established by Sir Benjamin Rycroft in the 1940s, the unit specialises in corneal transplantation surgery and oculoplastics. The Eye Bank, previously named the National Eye Bank at the Queen Victoria Hospital, was established formally in 1952, Sir Benjamin Rycroft was instrumental in the passage of the Tissue Procurement Act, a key piece of legislation with respect to all transplant surgery in the UK. Today, the Corneo Plastic and Ophthalmology unit performs corneal transplantation, lamellar grafts, raman Malhotra, consultant ophthalmologist at the hospital, discovered a method of treating Blepharospasm using filters. The hospital is a centre for patients undergoing either immediate or delayed breast reconstruction. There is an on site team containing consultant plastic surgeons and specialist breast care nurses, breast reduction and surgery to correct asymmetry are also offered. Hand surgery is performed at the hospital. Videos of complex hand operations have been shared on YouTube by Mr Harry Belcher, a man had his arm successfully reattached in a 14-hour operation by surgeons at Queen Victoria Hospital, after he accidentally cut it off with a chainsaw. After the operation he regained use of his fingers, the unit performed major reconstructive surgery on a Crawley woman who was savaged by her own dog
Queen Victoria Hospital
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Queen Victoria Hospital
47.
East Grinstead
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East Grinstead is a town and civil parish in the northeastern corner of Mid Sussex district of West Sussex in England near the East Sussex, Surrey, and Kent borders. It lies 27 miles south of London,21 miles north northeast of Brighton, the civil parish covers an area of 2,443.45 hectares and had a population of 23,942 persons in the 2001 census. The population of the town at the 2011 Census was 26,383, nearby towns include Crawley and Horley to the west, Tunbridge Wells to the east and Redhill and Reigate to the northwest. The town is contiguous with the village of Felbridge to the northwest, until 1974 East Grinstead was the centre for local government - East Grinstead Urban District Council - and was located in the county of East Sussex. The town has historic buildings and is located on the Greenwich Meridian. It is located in the Weald and Ashdown Forest lies to the south-east of the town, the High Street contains one of the longest continuous runs of 14th-century timber-framed buildings in England. Other notable buildings in the town include Sackville College, the sandstone built in 1609 where the Christmas carol Good King Wenceslas was written by John Mason Neale. The college has sweeping views towards Ashdown Forest, in the churchyard are commemorated the East Grinstead Martyrs, and in the south-east corner is the grave of John Mason Neale. The Greenwich Meridian runs through the grounds of the historic 1769 East Court mansion, home of the Town Council, the mansion stands in a parkland setting. In 1968 the East Grinstead Society was founded as an independent body both to protect the important buildings of East Grinstead and to improve the amenities for future generations. On the outskirts of the town is Standen, a house belonging to the National Trust, containing one of the best collections of arts and crafts movement furnishings. Off the A264 to Tunbridge Wells, there is a 1792 historic house called Hammerwood Park which is open to the twice a week in summer. East Grinstead House is the headquarters of the Caravan Club, local attractions include Ashdown Forest and the Bluebell Railway, a preserved heritage line with steam locomotives. The town is also the site of Queen Victoria Hospital, where famed plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe treated burns victims of World War II and formed the Guinea Pig Club. A statue of Sir Archibald McIndoe caring for an airman was erected in June 2014 outside Sackville College and was unveiled by HRH The Princess Anne. The town is located to visit Chartwell the country home of Sir Winston Churchill, Hever Castle home of Henry VIIIs second wife Anne Boleyn. Kidbrooke Park, a home of the Hambro family, was restored by the noted Sussex architect and antiquarian, Walter Godfrey, during the Second World War, the town became a secondary target for German bombers which failed to make their primary target elsewhere. On the afternoon of Friday 9 July 1943, a Luftwaffe bomber became separated from its squadron, followed the railway line and circled the town twice
East Grinstead
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High Street
East Grinstead
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Houses and shops in East Grinstead
East Grinstead
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St Swithun's Church
East Grinstead
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A long row of 14th century timber framed buildings in England located on East Grinstead High Street.
48.
Sussex
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Sussex, from the Old English Sūþsēaxe, is a historic county in South East England corresponding roughly in area to the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. Brighton and Hove was created as an authority in 1997. Until then, Chichester was Sussexs only city, Sussex has three main geographic sub-regions, each oriented approximately east to west. In the south-west is the fertile and densely populated coastal plain, North of this are the rolling chalk hills of the South Downs, beyond which is the well-wooded Sussex Weald. The name derives from the Kingdom of Sussex, which was founded, according to legend, in 825, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex and subsequently into the kingdom of England. It was the home of some of Europes earliest hominids, whose remains have been found at Boxgrove, in 1974, the Lord-Lieutenant of Sussex was replaced with one each for East and West Sussex, which became separate ceremonial counties. Sussex continues to be recognised as a territory and cultural region. It has had a police force since 1968 and its name is in common use in the media. In 2007, Sussex Day was created to celebrate the rich culture. Based on the emblem of Sussex, a blue shield with six gold martlets. In 2013, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles formally recognised and acknowledged the existence of Englands 39 historic counties. The name Sussex is derived from the Middle English Suth-sæxe, which is in turn derived from the Old English Suth-Seaxe which means of the South Saxons, the South Saxons were a Germanic tribe that settled in the region from the North German Plain during the 5th and 6th centuries. The earliest known usage of the term South Saxons is in a charter of 689 which names them and their king, Noðhelm. The monastic chronicler who wrote up the entry classifying the invasion seems to have got his dates wrong, the New Latin word Suthsexia was used for Sussex by Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu in his 1645 map. Three United States counties, and a former division of Western Australia, are named after Sussex. The flag of Sussex consists of six gold martlets, or heraldic swallows, on a background, blazoned as Azure. Officially recognised by the Flag Institute on 20 May 2011, its design is based on the shield of Sussex. The first known recording of this emblem being used to represent the county was in 1611 when cartographer John Speed deployed it to represent the Kingdom of the South Saxons
Sussex
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The round-headed rampion, or Pride of Sussex is Sussex's county flower
Sussex
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Flag of Sussex
Sussex
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The South Downs meets the sea at the
Seven Sisters
Sussex
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Reconstruction of Homo heidelbergensis
49.
Saline (medicine)
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Saline, also known as saline solution, is a mixture of sodium chloride in water and has a number of uses in medicine. Applied to the area it is used to clean wounds, help remove contact lenses. By injection into a vein it is used to treat such as from gastroenteritis. It is also used to other medications to be given by injection. Large amounts may result in fluid overload, swelling, acidosis, in those with long standing low blood sodium excessive use may result in osmotic demyelination syndrome. Saline is in the family of medications. It is most commonly used as a sterile 9 g of salt per litre solution, higher and lower concentrations may also occasionally be used. The medical use of saline began around 1831 and it is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the world is about 0.60 to 4.20 USD per liter of normal saline. Concentrations vary from low to normal to high, high concentrations are used rarely in medicine but frequently in molecular biology. Normal saline is the commonly used phrase for a solution of 0. 90% w/v of NaCl,308 mOsm/L or 9.0 g per litre. NS is used frequently in intravenous drips for patients who cannot take fluids orally and have developed or are in danger of developing dehydration or hypovolemia, NS is also used for aseptic purpose. However, it is now known that rapid infusion of NS can cause metabolic acidosis, the solution is 9 grams of sodium chloride dissolved in water, to a total volume of 1000 ml. The mass of 1 millilitre of normal saline is 1.0046 gram at 22 °C, the molecular weight of sodium chloride is approximately 58.5 grams per mole, so 58.5 grams of sodium chloride equals 1 mole. Since normal saline contains 9 grams of NaCl, the concentration is 9 grams per litre divided by 58.5 grams per mole, since NaCl dissociates into two ions – sodium and chloride –1 molar NaCl is 2 osmolar. Thus, NS contains 154 mEq/L of Na+ and Cl− and it has a slightly higher degree of osmolarity than blood Nonetheless, the osmolarity of normal saline is a close approximation to the osmolarity of NaCl in blood. One litre of 0. 9% Saline contains,154 mEq of sodium ion =154 mmol 154 mEq of chloride ion =154 mmol For medical purposes, saline is used to flush wounds. Normal saline will not burn or sting when applied, Saline is also used in I. V. therapy, intravenously supplying extra water to rehydrate patients or supplying the daily water and salt needs of a patient who is unable to take them by mouth
Saline (medicine)
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Saline solution for intravenous infusion. The white port at the base of the bag is where additives can be injected with a
hypodermic needle. The port with the blue cover is where the bag is spiked with an infusion set.
Saline (medicine)
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Saline solution for irrigation. This solution is used for irrigating wounds, tissues, body cavities, and bladders. Saline solution for irrigation should not be administered intravenously.
50.
Richard Hillary
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Flight Lieutenant Richard Hope Hillary was a Battle of Britain pilot who died during World War II. He is best known for his book The Last Enemy, based upon his experiences during the Battle of Britain, Hillary was the son of an Australian government official and was sent to England to be educated at Shrewsbury School and Trinity College, Oxford. Whilst at Oxford, he was secretary of the Oxford University Boat Club and he rowed in the successful Trinity College VIII of 1938. He joined the Oxford University Air Squadron and RAFVR in 1939, the Squadron moved south to RAF Hornchurch on 27 August 1940 and immediately saw combat. In one week of combat Hillary personally claimed five Bf 109s shot down, Hillary writes about his first experience in a Supermarine Spitfire in The Last Enemy, The Spitfires stood in two lines outside A Flight pilots room. The dull grey-brown of the camouflage could not conceal the clear-cut beauty, I hooked up my parachute and climbed awkwardly into the low cockpit. I noticed how small was my field of vision, kilmartin swung himself on to a wing and started to run through the instruments. I was conscious of his voice, but heard nothing of what he said and it was what I had most wanted through all the long dreary months of training. If I could fly a Spitfire, it would be worth it, well, I was about to achieve my ambition and felt nothing. I was numb, neither exhilarated nor scared, I noticed the white enamel undercarriage handle. Like a lavatory plug, I thought, kilmartin had said, See if you can make her talk. That meant the bag of tricks, and I wanted ample room for mistakes. With one or two very sharp movements on the stick I blacked myself out for a few seconds, I put it through every manoeuvre that I knew of and it responded beautifully. I ended with two flick rolls and turned back for home, I was filled with a sudden exhilarating confidence. I could fly a Spitfire, in any position I was its master and it remained to be seen whether I could fight in one. When we did first sight them, nobody shouted, as I think we all saw them at the same moment and they must have been 500 to 1,000 feet above us and coming straight on like a swarm of locusts. I remember cursing and going automatically into line astern, the moment we were in among them. As soon as they saw us they spread out and dived, then, just below me and to my left, I saw what I had been praying for – a Messerschmitt climbing and away from the sun
Richard Hillary
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Memorial to Richard Hillary and his crew near Charterhall
Media related to Plastic surgery at Wikimedia Commons
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