1.
Pocketwatch (album)
–
Pocketwatch is a cassette album by Dave Grohl, under the pseudonym Late. Released in 1992 on the now defunct indie label Simple Machines as part of their Tool Cassette Series, in the summer of 1991, Dave Grohl went into WGNS Studios and recorded four songs, playing all the instruments himself. The recording was combined with six songs from a previous Upland Studios session recorded in late 1990, although both sessions occurred after joining Nirvana, Grohl unobtrusively acknowledged their existence. A tape of the songs, given to Simple Machines co-founder Jenny Toomey by Grohl, the 1990 sessions emerged as Grohl, then the drummer of Scream, requested his producer friend Barrett Jones to record songs in his home 8-track tape recorder. Upon accepting Simple Machines request for a tape, Grohl decided to hide his identity under the pseudonym Late. Because I’m an idiot and I thought it would be funny to say to everybody, Sorry, with multiple cassette decks and a lot of volunteer help, this was a manageable project for the label. Shortly after Nirvana released Nevermind in the fall of 1991, its success was large enough that Pocketwatch eventually became noticed. It gained more attention when the Foo Fighters early material was released in 1995, some of the songs appeared on subsequent releases, creating even higher demand for the cassette. Suddenly, Pocketwatch was being mentioned frequently in interviews, and the label became flooded with orders, Grohl claimed that the big number of requests led Toomey to literally dub them on a double cassette deck in her bedroom. With minimal help and deteriorating master cassettes, Simple Machines got in touch with Grohl about releasing the Late, album as a CD, to keep up with demand. However, Grohl preferred to keep it as a cassette only release, as cassettes became a less popular format, and with no official CD release in sight, Pocketwatch fell victim to countless bootleg CD releases, ranging from a single song to the entire album. Color Pictures of a Marigold appeared on the rarities collection Outcesticide III, The Final Solution, the song also appeared on Fighting the N Factor, an unauthorized Foo Fighters release that included the track as a bonus, with Nirvanas Saturday Night Live rehearsals and Tunnel TV Show performance. Album appeared in its entirety on the Foo Fighters bootleg album Pocketwatch Demos on Primadonna, album made appearances on official releases as well. The only song released on CD was a remixed version of Just Another Story About Skeeter Thompson, included on The Melvins 1992 King Buzzo EP. Although constantly coupled with Nirvana and Foo Fighters collections, Late, should be considered its own separate project. This would become complicated, taking into account that both bands would go on to new versions of songs from the Pocketwatch album. Color Pictures of a Marigold was re-recorded with Krist Novoselic on bass in 1993 and released as a b-side of Nirvanas Heart-Shaped Box single and this version would also appear on the 2004 With the Lights Out box set. Another version of the song appeared on the Foo Fighters live album, Skin, winnebago was re-recorded during the sessions for the first Foo Fighters album in 1994
Pocketwatch (album)
–
Pocketwatch
2.
Crassula muscosa
–
It is a houseplant grown worldwide and commonly known as Rattail Crassula, Watch Chain, Lizards Tail, Zipper Plant and Princess Pine. Crassula muscosa has very small, light green leaves that are packed around a thin stem. It grows as a bush with very small yellow-green flowers. It is a species and easily propagated from stem cuttings. When in flower, the plant can produce a pungent, acrid smell not unlike cat urine, the scientific and the common names refer to its appearance, muscosa derives from the Latin word muscosus, meaning mossy. Lycopodioides, referred to the clubmoss Lycopodium, derives from the Greek words Λύκος, πόδι, Crassula muscosa is native to South Africa and Namibia
Crassula muscosa
–
Crassula muscosa
Crassula muscosa
–
Detail of leaves
Crassula muscosa
–
An exemplar at
Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens (
Buffalo,
NY)
Crassula muscosa
–
An exemplar at
Chanticleer Garden (
Wayne,
PA)
3.
Nuremberg egg
–
A Nuremberg egg is a type of small ornamental spring-driven clock made to be worn around the neck, produced in Nuremberg in the mid-to-late 16th century. Their production was possible by the miniaturisation of the torsion pendulum. These portable watches were a novelty, and their accuracy was limited, so that they only had a single hand. Although they are associated with Henlein, and are a development of the tradition of Henleins time. The German name Eierlein little egg is a corruption of a diminutive of Uhr clock, the association with eggs may arise with a 1571 translation of Rabelais by Johann Fischart in 1571, Fischart translated as Eierlein an instance of Ueurlein in Rabelais. This form of the name may have played a part in inspiring the oval shape becoming popular in the 1580s and it is known that Henlein first succeeded in producing a portable clock in 1510, and his contributions were clearly instrumental in giving rise to the later Nuremberg neck-watch industry. He is recorded to have sold a gilded Pomander for all purposes with a clock-mechanism for 15 gulden to the city on 11 January 1524. Of the pomander watch type, only two specimens are known to survive, one dated to 1505 and attributed to Henlein, the other dated 1530, pictures of early watches of Nuremberg Egg style
Nuremberg egg
–
A Nuremberg egg watch of the late 16th century
Nuremberg egg
–
The oldest Nuremberg "clock-watch" preserved dates to c. 1550, after Henlein's death. Kept in
Germanisches Nationalmuseum, this is the so-called "Henlein-Uhr", and its association with Henlein's workshop, and even its authenticity, has long been controversial.
4.
Peter Henlein
–
Peter Henlein, a locksmith and clockmaker of Nuremberg, Germany, is often considered the inventor of the watch. He was one of the first craftsmen to make small ornamental Taschenuhren, portable clocks which were worn as pendants or attached to clothing. Many sources also credit him as the inventor of the mainspring. Little is known about Henleins life and he apparently apprenticed in his youth as a locksmith. At the time, locksmiths were among the few craftsmen with the skills and tools to enter the new field of clockmaking, on September 7,1504, he was involved in a brawl in which a fellow locksmith, George Glaser, was killed. He sought asylum at a local Franciscan monastery, where he stayed for four years, in 1509 he became a master in the citys locksmith guild. He became known as a maker of small portable ornamental spring-powered brass clocks, very rare and expensive and he is mentioned in the citys records as the supplier of small spring-driven clocks, which were given as gifts to important people. He was supposedly the first craftsman to build clockworks into Bisamköpfe, for example a Nuremberg paper records that in 1524 he was paid 15 florins for a gilt musk-ball watch. He also built a clock for Lichtenau castle in 1541. This was made into a 1939 film, and his likeness appeared on a 1942 German stamp. However, although he was a notable and talented clockmaker, there were other clockmakers making small clocks at the time, the mainspring which made portable clocks possible, often attributed to him, actually appeared in the early 15th century, almost a century before his work. Perhaps the most that was said of him by his peers comes from Johann Neudorfer in 1547 shortly after his death, Henlein was very nearly the first of those who invented how to put small clocks into little boxes. History of watches Jürgen Abeler In Sachen Peter Henlein, wuppertaler Uhrenmuseum, Wuppertal 1980 Maren Winter Der Stundensammler. A scholarly Essay in, Jahresschrift 2015 - Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Chronometrie -Band 54, published by Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Chronometrie, Nuernberg, ISBN 978-3-923422-23-4 Pictures of watches from Peter Henleins time Peter Henlein, Pomander Watch Anno 1505
Peter Henlein
–
Monument to Henlein by Max Meißner, in Hefnersplatz, Nuremberg
Peter Henlein
–
An early "clock-watch", 2nd half of the 16th century (Taschenuhr).
5.
Watch
–
A watch is a small timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep working despite the motions caused by the persons activities, a wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery, by the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Today most inexpensive and medium-priced watches, used mainly for timekeeping, have quartz movements, various extra features, called complications, such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Modern watches often display the day, date, month and year, time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions are common. Some modern designs incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, some watches use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time. Developments in the 2010s include smartwatches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist and they generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only small fractions of what the smartwatch can do. The study of timekeeping is known as horology, watches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th century Europe. Watches werent widely worn in pockets until the 17th century, one account says that the word watch came from the Old English word woecce which meant watchman, because it was used by town watchmen to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches, the increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement, the verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. The British had predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 it was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company. The concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century, elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch from Robert Dudley in 1571, described as an arm watch. The oldest surviving wristwatch is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais, from the beginning, wrist watches were almost exclusively worn by women, while men used pocket-watches up until the early 20th century. The Garstin Company of London patented a Watch Wristlet design in 1893, officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. In continental Europe Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watch makers began supplying German naval officers with wrist watches in about 1880 and these early models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap but, by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches
Watch
–
Early wrist watch by
Waltham, worn by soldiers in World War I (
German Clock Museum).
Watch
–
A modern wristwatch.
Watch
–
The earliest dated watch known, from 1530
Watch
–
Diagram of the balance spring of
Christiaan Huygens, published in 1675.
6.
Pocket
–
A pocket is a bag- or envelope-like receptacle either fastened to or inserted in an article of clothing to hold small items. Pockets may also be attached to luggage, backpacks, and similar items, in older usage, a pocket was a separate small bag or pouch. Ancient people used leather or cloth pouches to hold valuables. Ötzi, who lived around 3,300 BCE, had a belt with a pouch sewn to it that contained a cache of items, a scraper, drill, flint flake, bone awl. In European clothing, fitchets, resembling modern day pockets, appeared in the 13th century, vertical slits were cut in the super tunic, which did not have any side openings, to allow access to purse or keys slung from the girdle of the tunic. The word appears in Middle English as pocket, and is taken from a Norman diminutive of Old French poke, pouque, modern poche, the form poke is now only used in dialect, or in such proverbial sayings as a pig in a poke. Historically, the term referred to a pouch worn around the waist by women in the 17th to 19th centuries. A watch pocket or fob pocket is a small pocket designed to hold a watch, sometimes found in mens trousers and waistcoats. However, due to the decline in popularity of pocket watches, a besom pocket or slit pocket is a pocket cut into a garment instead of being sewn on. These pockets often have reinforced piping along the slit of the pocket, besom pockets are found on a tuxedo jacket or trousers and may be accented with a flap or button closure. Camp pockets are pockets which have been sewn to the outside of the garment and they are usually squared off and are characterized by seaming. A beer pocket is a pocket within a jacket or vest sized specifically for transporting a bottle of beer. In some of the illustrations, a folded blue handkerchief is included for illustration purposes, Handbag Wallet Picken. Archived from the original on 2007-10-27, different Types of Pocket BBC - h2g2 - A Very Brief History of the Pocket 18th Century Womens Pockets Pockets at the V&A Pockets of History
Pocket
–
Patch pocket with topstitching on the back of a pair of blue jeans.
Pocket
–
Pockets hang from belts as 15th-century peasants thresh
siligo wheat in a
Tacuinum Sanitatis
Pocket
–
Parts of a tailored pocket.
Pocket
–
18th-century woman's hanging pocket.
7.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
8.
Trench watch
–
The Trench watch was a type of watch that came into use by the military during World War I, as pocket watches were not practical in combat. It was a design between pocket watches and wrist watches, incorporating features of both. The very first watch that somebody adapted to wear on a wrist is unknown, the first series of purpose-made wrist watches was produced by Girard-Perregaux in 1880 for the German Navy. During World War I numerous companies, including Omega, Longines and these watches were of virtually identical style with an enamel dial, wide white numerals, and a luminescent radium hour hand. Often they did not bear the name of the manufacturer, though the movement, from pocket watches those trench watches inherited hinged front and back covers. The lugs for a strap looked like a thick wire attachment to the round shape of pocket watches rather than an integrated part of the body of the later. The name wristlet was used until the early 1930s and was replaced by the modern name wrist watch. The history and evolution of the wristwatch, Rolex, Quality Time
Trench watch
–
Gold trench watch, 1916
Trench watch
–
Advertisement, 1918
9.
Waistcoat
–
A waistcoat is a sleeveless upper-body garment. It is usually worn over a shirt and necktie and below a coat as a part of most mens formal wear. It is also sported as the piece in the traditional three-piece male business suit. A waistcoat has a vertical opening in the front, which fastens with buttons or snaps. Both single-breasted and double-breasted waistcoats exist, regardless of the formality of dress, in a three piece suit, the cloth used matches the jacket and trousers. Waistcoats can also have lapels or revers depending on the style, before wristwatches became popular, gentlemen kept their pocket watches in the front waistcoat pocket, with the watch on a watch chain threaded through a buttonhole. Sometimes an extra hole was made in line with the buttonholes for this use, a bar on the end of the chain held it in place to catch the chain if it were dropped or pulled. Waistcoats are now worn less, so the pocket watch may more likely be stored in a trouser pocket, wearing a belt with a waistcoat, and indeed any suit, is not traditional. To give a more comfortable hang to the trousers, the waistcoat instead covers a pair of braces underneath it, a custom still sometimes practised is to leave the bottom button undone. This is said to have started by King Edward VII. Variations on this include that he forgot to fasten the lower button when dressing and it has also been suggested that the practice originated to prevent the waistcoat riding up when on horseback. This convention only applies to single-breasted day waistcoats and not double breasted, evening, waistcoats worn with lounge suits normally match the suit in cloth, and have four to six buttons. Double breasted waistcoats are rare compared to single, as formalwear, it used to be common to wear a contrastingly coloured waistcoat, such as in buff or dove linen. This is still seen in morning dress, which requires a waistcoat, the waistcoats worn with white- and black- tie are different from standard daytime single-breasted waistcoats, being much lower in cut. The variant of the clergy cassock may be cut as a vest and it differs in style from other waistcoats in that the garment buttons to the neck and has an opening that displays the clerical collar. In the Church of England, a particular High Church clerical vest introduced in the 1830s was nicknamed the M. B, waistcoat with M. B. standing for the Mark of the Beast. In the Girl Scouts of the USA, vests are used as an alternative to the sash for the display of badges, in many stock exchanges, traders who engage in open outcry may wear colored sleeveless waistcoats, or trading jackets, with insignia on the back. The waistcoat is one of the few articles of clothing whose origin historians can date precisely, King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland introduced the waistcoat as a part of correct dress after the Restoration of the British monarchy in 1660
Waistcoat
–
A traditional waistcoat, to be worn with a two-piece suit or separate jacket and trousers.
Waistcoat
–
A young man wearing a modern waistcoat.
Waistcoat
–
Woman in a modern
denim waistcoat.
Waistcoat
–
Cardinal
Tarcisio Bertone wearing a
cassock vest with a
clerical collar.
10.
Lapel
–
Lapels are the folded flaps of cloth on the front of a jacket or coat, and are most commonly found on formal clothing and suit jackets. Usually they are formed by folding over the front edges of the jacket or coat and sewing them to the collar, there are three basic forms of lapels, notched, peaked and shawl. Notched lapels, the most common, are seen on business suits. Peaked lapels are more formal, and nearly always used on double breasted jackets, shawl lapels are usually carried by dinner jackets, mess jackets and tuxedos. The notched lapel, step lapel or step collar is sewn to the collar at an angle and this is the standard on single-breasted suits, and is used on nearly all suit jackets, blazers, and sports jackets. The notched lapel double-breasted jacket is a rare setting, the size of the notch can vary, and a small notch is called fishmouth. This was the first type of lapel to appear, in the late 1920s and 1930s, the single breasted peaked lapel jacket was considered a very stylish design. The feature was carried into day clothing by the popularity of the peaked dinner jacket. The ability to cut peak lapels properly on a suit is one of the most challenging tailoring tasks. The shawl lapel, roll collar, or shawl collar is a continuous curve, originally seen on the Victorian smoking jacket, it is now most common on the dinner jacket or tuxedo. This similarly began as informal eveningwear, and was made in both more and less formal versions, depending on the situation in which it was to be used. It is also used on the mess jackets. Lapels have a buttonhole on the left, which is intended to hold a boutonnière and these are now only commonly seen at more formal events. To hold the flower properly, a loop is fixed to the back of the lapel, for symmetry, double breasted suits often have a button hole on each lapel. A lapel pin is sometimes worn. The width of the lapel is a varying aspect of suits. Some designers maintain however that most stylish lapel width does not change, the upper points are derived from the end corners of the collar. This can be duplicated by similarly turning back the closure in a modern button-to-the-neck garment such as a coat or a boilersuit
Lapel
–
A peaked lapel
Lapel
–
Lord Nelson in a Captain's tailcoat (1781), exhibiting a long, loosely-folded lapel with many buttons
11.
Belt (clothing)
–
A belt is a flexible band or strap, typically made of leather or heavy cloth, and worn around the waist. A belt supports trousers or other articles of clothing and it is an item of accessory. Belts have been documented as male clothing since the Bronze Age, both genders have used them off and on, depending on the current fashion. In the western world, belts have been common for men, with the exception of the early Middle Ages, late 17th century Mantua. Art Nouveau belt buckles are now collectors items, in the latter half of the 19th century and until the First World War, the belt was a decorative as well as utilitarian part of military uniform, particularly among officers. These tightly cinched belts served to draw in the waist and give the wearer a trim physique, emphasizing wide shoulders, in modern times, men started wearing belts in the 1920s, as trouser waists fell to a lower line. Before the 1920s, belts served mostly a decorative purpose, and were associated with the military, moreover, prior to that trousers did not even have belt loops. As sportswear, trousers with belt loops were already present in the 19th century, today it is common for men to wear a belt with their trousers. In some countries, especially the United States, a belt can be associated with corporal punishment. Moreover, belts are convenient disciplinary tools, as they are immediately available for use. The belt can symbolize fatherly authority and paternal responsibility for childrens behavior. Since the mid-1990s, the practice of sagging has been practised at times among young men and this practice is sometimes incorrectly believed to have originated with prison gangs and the prohibition of belts in prison. One specialized type of belt is the utility belt or Police duty belt, Police officers, soldiers, and repair personnel are typical roles which use this kind of belt. Duty belts are generally wider than dress belts, and are stiffer to provide for the carry of heavy items such as pistols. It is common practice for such a belt to be a symbol of authority or to indicate that the wearer is on duty. Such belts are worn even if no equipment is carried on them, a notable fictional example is Batmans utility belt. The obi is traditionally part of a Japanese kimono, a common sight in fantasy and role playing characters is the excessive use of belts in all different sizes on the characters person. Usually they are used for securing clothing or armor, but others just have several belts around the arms, legs, neck, waist, hips, sometimes they are used in place of eye patches or to decorate weapons
Belt (clothing)
–
A common, black leather leg belt.
Belt (clothing)
–
Pattern on a cloth belt that is part of one
Estonian national costume.
Belt (clothing)
–
A police officer's duty belt (not a leg belt).
12.
Leather
–
Leather is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry, people use leather to make various goods—including clothing, bookbinding, leather wallpaper, and as a furniture covering. It is produced in a variety of types and styles. Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather, Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and it is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium, more exotic colors are possible when using chrome tanning. The chrome tanning method usually only takes a day to finish, and it is reported that chrome-tanned leather adds up to 80% of the global leather supply. Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannins and other found in different vegetable matter, such as tree bark prepared in bark mills, wood, leaves, fruits. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and it is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water, it tends to discolor, so if left to soak and then dried it shrinks, in hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals—becoming rigid, and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, historically, it was occasionally used as armour after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding. Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds and this is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the type of chrome-free leather, often seen in shoes for infants. Formaldehyde tanning is another aldehyde tanning method, brain-tanned leathers fall into this category, and are exceptionally water absorbent. Brain tanned leathers are made by a process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle. They are known for their softness and washability. Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning, and like brain tanning, produces a porous, chamois leather is made using marine oils that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to color it. Rose-tanned leather is a variation of oil tanning and brain tanning. Rose-tanned leather tanned leaves a powerful rose fragrance even years from when it is manufactured and it has been called the most valuable leather on earth, but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose otto and its labor-intensive tanning process
Leather
–
A variety of leather products and a few leather-working tools
Leather
–
Drying of leather in
East Timor
Leather
–
Leather tanning in
Fes,
Morocco
Leather
–
Tanned leather in
Marrakech
13.
Silver
–
Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
Silver
–
Electrolytically refined silver
Silver
–
Silver 1000
oz t (~31 kg) bullion bar
Silver
–
Cessna 210 equipped with a silver iodide generator for
cloud seeding
Silver
–
A Canadian 50 cent piece from 1951, with King George the 6th on the obverse and Canada's (now former) coat of arms on the reverse. It is made of 80% silver and 20% copper.
14.
Vitreous enamel
–
Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C. The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating on metal, so in technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and metal. Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in jewelry, enamelled and enamelling are the preferred spellings in British English, while enameled and enameling are preferred in American English. The term enamel is most often restricted to work on metal, enamelled glass is also called painted, and overglaze decoration to pottery is often called enamelling. The word enamel comes from the Old High German word smelzan via the Old French esmail, or from a Latin word smaltum, used as a noun, an enamel is usually a small decorative object coated with enamel. Since the 19th century the term also to industrial materials and many metal consumer objects, such as some cooking vessels, dishwashers, laundry machines, sinks. The ancient Egyptians applied enamels to stone objects, pottery, and sometimes jewellery, the ancient Greeks, Celts, Georgians, and Chinese also used enamel on metal objects. Enamel powder could be produced in two ways, either by powdering coloured glass, or by mixing colourless glass powder with pigments such as a metallic oxide, designs were either painted freehand or over the top of outline incisions, and the technique probably originated in metalworking. Once painted, enamelled glass vessels needed to be fired at a high enough to melt the applied powder. Ancient Persians used this method for colouring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colours that are decorated in an intricate design and called it Meenakari. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari Jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer, initially, the work of Meenakari often went unnoticed as this art was traditionally used as a backing for the famous kundan or stone-studded jewellery. This also allowed the wearer to reverse the jewellery as also promised a special joy in the secret of the hidden design, the Byzantine enamel style was widely adopted by the barbarian peoples of Migration Period northern Europe. The Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images, the champlevé technique was considerably easier and very widely practiced in the Romanesque period. In Gothic art the finest work is in basse-taille and ronde-bosse techniques, from either Byzantium or the Islamic world, the cloisonné technique reached China in the 13-14th centuries. The first written reference to cloisonné is in a book from 1388, cloisonné remained very popular in China until the 19th century and is still produced today. Starting from the century, the Japanese also produced large quantities of very high technical quality. A resurgence in enamel-based art took place near the end of the 20th century in the Soviet Union, led by artists like Alexei Maximov, in Australia, abstract artist Bernard Hesling brought the style into prominence with his variously sized steel plates. Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in Austria, industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased
Vitreous enamel
–
Cloisonné enamel plaque,
Byzantine Empire, ca. 1100
Vitreous enamel
–
Detail of painted enamel dish, Limoges, mid-16th century, attributed to
Jean de Court,
Waddesdon Bequest
Vitreous enamel
–
The murder of
Thomas Becket, detail from a reliquary in
champlevé enamel,
Limoges
Vitreous enamel
–
Chinese
cloisonné enamel wine pot, 18th century
15.
Club (organization)
–
A club is an association of two or more people united by a common interest or goal. A service club, for example, exists for voluntary or charitable activities, there are clubs devoted to hobbies and sports, social clubs, political and religious clubs. Historically, clubs occurred in all ancient states of which we have detailed knowledge, once people started living together in larger groups, there was need for people with a common interest to be able to associate despite having no ties of kinship. Organizations of the sort have existed for years, as evidenced by Ancient Greek clubs. It is uncertain whether the use of the club originated in its meaning of a knot of people. The oldest English clubs were merely informal periodic gatherings of friends for the purpose of dining or drinking with one another, thomas Occleve mentions such a club called La Court de Bonne Compagnie, of which he was a member. In 1659 John Aubrey wrote, “We now use the word clubbe for a sodality in a tavern. ”Of early clubs the most famous, John Selden, John Donne, John Fletcher and Francis Beaumont were among the members. Another such club, founded by Ben Jonson, met at the Devil Tavern near Temple Bar, the word “club, ” in the sense of an association to promote good-fellowship and social intercourse, became common in England at the time of Tatler and The Spectator. With the introduction of coffee-drinking in the middle of the 17th century, the coffee houses of the later Stuart period are the real originals of the modern clubhouse. The clubs of the late 17th and early 18th century type resembled their Tudor forerunners in being oftenest associations solely for conviviality or literary coteries, but many were confessedly political, e. g. The Rota, or Coffee Club, a society for the spread of republican ideas, broken up at the Restoration in 1660, the Calves Head Club. The characteristics of all clubs were, No permanent financial bond between the members, each man’s liability ending for the time being when he had paid his “score” after the meal. No permanent clubhouse, though each clique tended to some special coffee house or tavern their headquarters. ”So unpopular was this proclamation that it was almost instantly found necessary to withdraw it. The idea of the club developed in two directions, one was of a permanent institution with a fixed clubhouse. g. These still exist today as the famous gentlemens clubs, the peripatetic lifestyle of the 18th and 19th century middle classes also drove the development of more residential clubs, which had bedrooms and other facilities. Clubbing with a number of like-minded friends to secure a large shared house with a manager was therefore a convenient solution, the other sort of club meets occasionally or periodically and often has no clubhouse, but exists primarily for some specific object. Such are the many athletic, sports and pastimes clubs. The institution of the club has spread all over the English-speaking world
Club (organization)
–
The
Savile Club, London: The Bar
Club (organization)
–
Historical image of
Pall Mall with the
Carlton Club, describing itself as the "oldest, and most important of all Conservative clubs.
Club (organization)
–
Coffeehouse in
London, 17th century
Club (organization)
–
A print of the 1822 meeting of the "Royal British Bowmen"
archery club.
16.
Society
–
In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant and this is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. The term society came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity, Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit. Cultural relativism as an approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of primitive, better/worse. Societies may also be structured politically, in order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of power, depending on the cultural, geographical. Thus, an isolated society with the same level of technology. A society that is unable to offer a response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as. a human product, and nothing but a human product, according to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. This is similar to the earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. This system of classification contains four categories, Hunter-gatherer bands, tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments, in addition to this there are, Humanity, mankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including societys beliefs. Virtual society, a society based on identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and this cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages, villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states, many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all cultures, typically
Society
–
A half-section of the 12th-century South Tang Dynasty version of Night Revels of Han Xizai, original by
Gu Hongzhong. The painting portrays servants, musicians, monks, children, guests, and hosts all in a single social environment. It serves as an in-depth look into the Chinese social structure of the time.
Society
Society
–
The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis. Both individual and social (common) goals can thus be distinguished and considered. Ant (formicidae)
social ethology.
Society
–
Canis lupus
social ethology
17.
Cigar cutter
–
A cigar cutter is a mechanical device designed to cut one end off a cigar so that it may be properly smoked. Although some cigars are cut on both ends, or twirled at both ends, the vast majority come with one straight cut end and one end in a cap which must be cut off for the cigar to be smoked. The cap end of a cigar is the end without the tobacco exposed. The cap may be cut with a knife or bitten off, but if the cap is cut jaggedly or without care, the end of the cigar will not burn evenly and smokeable tobacco will be lost. There are three types of cigar cutters, Guillotine Punch cut V-cut The straight cut is the most common. This cut uses a straight cut causing both ends of the cigar to be exposed. The double blade guillotine is preferred by many aficionados over the single blade, cigar scissors are also used to make straight cuts, and may be the best choice for cutting the cigar with exactness. However, the guillotines are usually the most practical, the least expensive, most prefer this cut because the entire cap end is exposed allowing for maximum smoke to exit with only minimum buildup occurring around the edge. There are three types of cigar punches, a bullet punch, Havana punch, and multi-punch. The bullet punch is a bullet shaped device that fits on a keychain, the punch can be twisted to expose a circular blade, used to cut a hole in the cigar cap. This cut is preferred by some, as it less of the filler and binder. Critics of this cut maintain that the hole does not allow as much smoke to come out. One problem associated with these otherwise handy, durable and inexpensive devices is that the top is easy to lose. Havana punches offer some of the same convenience but with more safety, rather than an easy-to-lose top, the blade is recessed and springs out at the push of a button. Multi-punches offer different-sized punch holes for different sizes of cigars, the last of the most common type of cuts is the V-cut. V-cutters look like guillotine cutters, but cut a wedge into the cap rather than completely removing it. Good V-cutters penetrate deeper into the filler than straight cutters, however, cheap V-cutters can result in sloppy cuts too deep into the cigar, which result in an uneven burn. Fairholt also describes another device, Another simple little implement, to act as cigar-cutter and holder
Cigar cutter
–
Illustration of a nineteenth century cigar cutter, published in 1859.
Cigar cutter
–
A semi-airtight cigar storage tube and a double guillotine-style cutter
Cigar cutter
–
A
rosewood sided dual ended cigar cutter by
J.A. Henckels capable of making both straight cuts and V-cuts
18.
Buttonhole
–
Buttonholes are holes in fabric which allow buttons to pass through, securing one piece of the fabric to another. The raw edges of a buttonhole are usually finished with stitching and this may be done either by hand or by a sewing machine. Some forms of button, such as a frog, use a loop of cloth or rope instead of a buttonhole, buttonholes can also refer to flowers worn in the lapel buttonhole of a coat or jacket, which are referred to simply as buttonholes or boutonnières. Buttonholes for fastening or closing clothing with buttons appeared first in Germany in the 13th century, however it is believed that ancient Persians used it first. They soon became widespread with the rise of snug-fitting garments in 13th-, buttonholes often have a bar of stitches at either side of them. This is a row of perpendicular hand or machine stitching to reinforce the raw edges of the fabric, traditionally, mens clothing buttonholes are on the left side, and womens clothing buttonholes are on the right. The lore of this opposite sides buttoning is that the practice came into being as women of means had chamber maids who dressed them. So as not to confuse the poor chamber maids, the wealthy began having womens garments made with the buttons and holes switched, the birth of the modern ladies blouse. The chamber maids themselves, as did most all the common class, there appears to be no concrete reference to prove or disprove this story, but its plausibility bears noting. There is also the theory if a man is driving his ox cart or carriage or car, he can see inside her blouse. A plain buttonhole, by far the most common type, in plain buttonholes, the raw edges of the textile are finished with thread in very closely spaced stitches with a gimp cord at the edges to act as a reinforcement. When stitched by hand, a slit is made in the fabric first, sewing machines offer various levels of automation to creating plain buttonholes. When made by machine, the slit between the sides of the buttonhole is opened after the stitching is completed, a machine-made buttonhole is usually sewn with two parallel rows of machine sewing in a narrow zig-zag stitch, with the ends finished in a broader zig-zag stitch. A bound buttonhole is one which has its raw edges encased by pieces of fabric or trim instead of stitches, a keyhole buttonhole is a special case of a thread-finished buttonhole that is normally machine-made due to the difficulty of achieving it by hand working. It is characterized by a hole at the end of the slit. Because a button-closed gap in a garment is normally under some stress, a keyhole at the end of the buttonhole closest to the gap will accommodate the buttons shank without distorting the fabric. Keyhole buttonholes are most often found on tailored coats and jackets
Buttonhole
–
Machine-stitched keyhole buttonhole with bar
19.
Train conductor
–
A conductor or guard is a train crew member responsible for operational and safety duties that do not involve actual operation of the train. The conductor title is most common in North American railway operations, in Commonwealth English, a conductor is only responsible for selling tickets. The conductor often stays in the center of the train where they can best view the platform, Conductor is also a crew member in some bus, trolleybus or tram operations. All crew members work under the conductor, the conductor, engineer, and additional engine crew members share responsibility for safe and efficient train operation and adherence to railway rules and procedures. On some railroads, union contracts specify that conductors must progress to engineer, onboard service crew members on passenger trains normally remain on duty for the entire run, including assigned meal and sleep breaks. Since nearly the beginning of railroading in North America, the conductor on freight trains rode aboard a caboose, along with the flagman and the rear brakeman. Advances in technology and pressure to reduce operating costs made cabooses redundant and this relocated the conductor from the rear of the train to the locomotive at the head of the train. In most cases, these same conditions gradually eliminated members of the crew under the conductor—head and rear brakemen, flagmen. Most freight trains on most railroads today have a crew of two, one conductor and one engineer, railroad companies continue to press for reduced operating and labor costs and this threatens to eliminate conductors. Railroads rationalize that since the engineer is already qualified as a conductor, in fact, on most railroads, engineers begin as brakemen/assistant conductors, then become conductors, and finally engineers. Some railroads already implement such a strategy, notably the Montana Rail Link, and operate with an engineer, therefore, eliminating the conductor position would require that the railroads and unions negotiate a new agreement. If the railroads were successful, conductors already trained and certified as engineers would be able to work as engineers and those that have not yet progressed to engineer would have to be trained as engineers as positions became available. Others would have to accept other positions or possibly lose their jobs, the primary union for engineers, the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers does not support this movement, claiming that requiring its members to operate trains alone would be unsafe. The conductors union, the United Transportation Union, also opposes this initiative, by the late 1990s, remote control locomotives were increasingly popular on North American railroads for switching duties in rail yards. This system allows the conductor to control the locomotive via a wireless remote unit. Some Class I Rail Yards utilize RCO packs for their conductors, while others do not, depending on the size, Class I Railroads train conductors on the use of RCO packs with classroom and hands-on instruction, culminating with on-the-job training and certification as a RCO operator. Currently, Class I railroads such as Norfolk Southern require RCO qualified conductors to work from job boards that perform RCO operations exclusively and this ensures the extra training and pay these conductors receive will provide the company with maximum value for the investment. Before operation began, the FRA required FrontRunner to employ a second crewmember on each train to assist with evacuation, disabled access
Train conductor
–
A conductor on an
Amtrak train
Train conductor
–
A Russian train conductor in front of the express train "Repin"
Train conductor
–
Streetcar conductor 1919 in
Flint, Michigan
20.
Clockmaker
–
A clockmaker is an artisan who makes and/or repairs clocks. Since almost all clocks are now factory-made, most modern clockmakers only repair clocks, modern clockmakers may be employed by jewellers, antique shops, and places devoted strictly to repairing clocks and watches. The trade requires fine motor coordination as clockmakers must frequently work on devices with small gears, originally, clockmakers were master craftsmen who designed and built clocks by hand. A qualified clockmaker can typically design and make a piece for a clock without access to the original component. Clockmakers generally do not work on watches, the skills and tools required are different enough that watchmaking is a field, handled by another specialist. The earliest use of the term clokkemaker is said to date from 1390, from the beginning in the 15th century through the 17th century, clockmaking was considered the leading edge, most technically advanced trade existing. Historically, the best clockmakers often also built instruments, as for a long time they were the only craftsmen around trained in designing precision mechanical apparatus. In one example, the harmonica was invented by a young German clockmaker, prior to 1800 clocks were entirely handmade, including all their parts, in a single shop under a master clockmaker. Examples of these complex movements can be seen in the many longcase clocks constructed in the 16th and 17th centuries. By the 19th century, clock parts were beginning to be made in factories, but the skilled work of designing, assembling. By the 20th century, interchangeable parts and standardized designs allowed the clock to be assembled in factories. As the art of making clocks became widespread and distinguished. There are many guilds where clockmakers meet to buy, sell and get clocks to repair from customers, early clockmakers fashioned all the intricate parts and wheelwork of clocks by hand, using hand tools. They developed specialized tools to help them, balance Truing Caliper, This device was used in fashioning the wheels and gearwork of the clock, to make sure the wheel, particularly the balance wheel was balanced and circular. The pivots of the wheel were mounted in the caliper, an index arm was moved next to the edge and the wheel was spun to see if the edge was true. Die/Screw Plate, The die plate was used to cut threads on small screws and it had a number of threaded die holes of different sizes for making different threads. A piece of wire was inserted in a hole and turned to cut a thread on the end, then a head would be formed on the other end of the wire to make a screw. File, Hardened steel files were used to shape the metal before it was used to make, there were many variations of files
Clockmaker
–
The statue of the clockmaker (Jean Cuypers - 19th century) -
Brussels.
Clockmaker
–
Woodcut of medieval clockmakers, 1568.
Clockmaker
–
Lateral view of a
Timothy Mason (clockmaker) longcase clock movement with striking mechanism, circa: 1730
Clockmaker
–
View inside the
Relojes Centenario factory in
Zacatlán, Puebla Mexico
21.
Duke of Modena
–
Emperor Frederick III elevated the Italian family of Este, Lords of Ferrara, to Dukes of Modena and Reggio in 1452, and Dukes of Ferrara in 1471. In 1597, they lost the succession of Ferrara itself to the Papal States and they continued to rule the Duchy of Modena and Reggio in the Emilia until 1796, when it became part of Napoleon Bonapartes Cispadane Republic. In 1814 the duchy was restored under the Habsburg grandson of the last Este Duke, the line of Marquesses of Este rises in 1039 with Albert Azzo II, Margrave of Milan. The name Este is related to the city where the came from. The family was founded by Adalbert the Margrave, who might have been the true first Margrave of Milan of this family. In 1209 Azzo VI is named the first Marquess of Ferrara, and the passed to his descendants. Later, were created the Marquisates of Modena and Reggio. King Ludwig III Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria Albrecht, Duke of Bavaria Franz, Duke of Bavaria Heir apparent, Prince Max, Duke in Bavaria List of Modenese consorts List of Ferrarese consorts
Duke of Modena
–
Duke of Modena
Duke of Modena
–
Flag of the Duchy of Modena
Duke of Modena
–
Francesco IV 14 July 1814– 21 January 1846
22.
Spring (device)
–
A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are usually out of spring steel. There are a number of spring designs, in everyday usage the term often refers to coil springs. When a spring is compressed or stretched from its resting position, the rate or spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in deflection of the spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force versus deflection curve, an extension or compression springs rate is expressed in units of force divided by distance, for example lbf/in or N/m. A torsion spring is a spring that works by twisting, when it is twisted about its axis by an angle, a torsion springs rate is in units of torque divided by angle, such as N·m/rad or ft·lbf/degree. The inverse of spring rate is compliance, that is, if a spring has a rate of 10 N/mm, the stiffness of springs in parallel is additive, as is the compliance of springs in series. Springs are made from a variety of materials, the most common being spring steel. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel, some non-ferrous metals are also used including phosphor bronze and titanium for parts requiring corrosion resistance and beryllium copper for springs carrying electrical current. Simple non-coiled springs were used throughout history, e. g. the bow. In the Bronze Age more sophisticated spring devices were used, as shown by the spread of tweezers in many cultures, coiled springs appeared early in the 15th century, in door locks. The first spring powered-clocks appeared in that century and evolved into the first large watches by the 16th century, in 1676 British physicist Robert Hooke discovered Hookes law which states that the force a spring exerts is proportional to its extension. Compression spring – is designed to operate with a compression load, flat spring – this type is made of a flat spring steel. Machined spring – this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than a coiling operation, since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the load cases of compression/extension, torsion. Serpentine spring - a zig-zag of thick wire - often used in modern upholstery/furniture, the most common types of spring are, Cantilever spring – a spring which is fixed only at one end. Coil spring or helical spring – a spring is of two types, Tension or extension springs are designed to become longer under load and their turns are normally touching in the unloaded position, and they have a hook, eye or some other means of attachment at each end. Compression springs are designed to become shorter when loaded and their turns are not touching in the unloaded position, and they need no attachment points
Spring (device)
–
Helical or coil springs designed for tension.
Spring (device)
–
A heavy-duty helical spring designed for compression and tension.
Spring (device)
–
The
English longbow – a simple but very powerful spring made of
yew, measuring 2 m (6 ft 6 in) long, with a 470 N (105
lbf) draw force
Spring (device)
–
A machined spring incorporates several features into one piece of bar stock
23.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
24.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
25.
Master craftsman
–
A master craftsman or master tradesman was a member of a guild. In the European guild system, only masters and journeymen were allowed to be members of the guild, an aspiring master would have to pass through the career chain from apprentice to journeyman before he could be elected to become a master craftsman. He would then have to produce a sum of money and a masterpiece before he could join the guild. If the masterpiece was not accepted by the masters, he was not allowed to join the guild, originally, holders of the academic degree of Master of Arts were also considered, in the Medieval universities, as master craftsmen in their own academic field. The Guild of Master Craftsmen continues a tradition established by the guilds of medieval Europe, the earliest of these were frith or peace guilds - groups bonded together for mutual protection following the breakdown of the kins, which were groups related by blood ties. The world-renowned College of Arms in London awarded the coat of arms of The Guild of Master Craftsmen in 1992, the southern keep of Lewes Castle, which overlooks the Guild’s headquarters, is featured above the helmet as the crest. While guilds as such do not exist, many trades continue the apprentice-journeyman-master model, carpenters, electricians, pipefitters and plumbers are notable examples. The terms Master Mariner and harbormaster reflect the fact that the holders of positions were originally Master craftsman in the Seamens Guild. Further derived from harbormaster is stationmaster, though no longer existed when railways came into being. In Germany, the craftsman is the highest professional qualification in crafts and is a state-approved grade. The qualification includes theoretical and practical training in the craft as well as business, additionally, it implies the qualification to train apprentices. These qualifications prepare the Meister for running their own business or alternatively for higher positions at a company, the status of master craftsmen is regulated in the German Gesetz zur Ordnung des Handwerks. While privileged guilds have been abolished in Germany, the ranks of apprentice, journeyman, for security-relevant crafts, e. g. electricians and chimney sweeps, any business in the trade has to be run by a master craftsman or has to employ at least one Meister. Journeymen and master craftsmen are by law members of their regional chamber of crafts. The chamber organizes vocational training and oversees the examination of the journeymen, if these requirements are fulfilled, the candidate can take courses for the Meisterprüfung. The duration of the courses takes 4 to 6 years depending on the craft, the examination includes theoretical, practical and oral parts and takes 5 to 7 days. In some crafts, the creation of a masterpiece is also part of the examination, the German Meister qualifies the holder to study for a bachelors degree at University, whether the Meister holds a regular university entrance qualification or not. According to the German Qualifications Framework, the Meisterbrief is at the level as a bachelors degree, even though it is not an academic degree
Master craftsman
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Craftsman Selling Cases By A Teak Wood Building Ahmedabad, by
Edwin Lord Weeks
Master craftsman
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A master discusses a vacuum compressor with his apprentice boy and several other craftspersons
26.
Locksmith
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A lock is a mechanical or electronic fastening device that is released by a physical object, by supplying secret information, or by a combination thereof. The earliest known lock and key device was discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, Locks such as this were later developed into the Egyptian wooden pin lock, which consisted of a bolt, door fixture, and key. When the key was inserted, pins within the fixture were lifted out of drilled holes within the bolt, when the key was removed, the pins fell part-way into the bolt, preventing movement. The warded lock was also present from antiquity and remains the most recognizable lock, the first all-metal locks appeared between the years 870 and 900, and are attributed to the English craftsmen. It is also said that the key was invented by Theodore of Samos in the 6th century BC, affluent Romans often kept their valuables in secure boxes within their households, and wore the keys as rings on their fingers. The practice had two benefits, It kept the key handy at all times, while signaling that the wearer was wealthy and important enough to have money and jewelry worth securing. The lever tumbler lock, which uses a set of levers to prevent the bolt from moving in the lock, was perfected by Robert Barron in 1778. His double acting lever lock required the lever to be lifted to a height by having a slot cut in the lever. This type of lock is currently used today. The lever tumbler lock was improved by Jeremiah Chubb in 1818. A burglary in Portsmouth Dockyard prompted the British Government to announce a competition to produce a lock that could be opened only with its own key, Chubb was awarded £100 after a trained lock-picker failed to break the lock after 3 months. In 1820, Jeremiah joined his brother Charles in starting their own lock company, the Chubb brothers also received a patent for the first burglar-resisting safe and began production in 1835. The designs of Barron and Chubb were based on the use of levers, but Joseph Bramah. His lock used a key with precise notches along the surface. The lock was at the limits of the manufacturing capabilities of the time and was said by its inventor to be unpickable. Hobbs attempt required some 51 hours, spread over 16 days and this lock design used pins of varying lengths to prevent the lock from opening without the correct key. The modern Yale lock is essentially a developed version of the Egyptian lock. Despite some improvement in key design since, the majority of locks today are variants of the designs invented by Bramah, Chubb
Locksmith
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Locks
Locksmith
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Medieval lock in
Kathmandu
Locksmith
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Simple three-disc locking mechanism from a wooden box recovered from the Swedish ship
Vasa, sunk in 1628
Locksmith
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Chinese lock and key from
Yunnan Province, early 20th century
27.
Nuremberg
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Nuremberg is a city on the river Pegnitz and the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in the German state of Bavaria, in the administrative region of Middle Franconia, about 170 kilometres north of Munich. It is the second-largest city in Bavaria, and the largest in Franconia, the population as of February 2015, is 517,498, which makes it Germanys fourteenth-largest city. The urban area also includes Fürth, Erlangen and Schwabach with a population of 763,854. The European Metropolitan Area Nuremberg has ca.3.5 million inhabitants, Nuremberg was, according to the first documentary mention of the city in 1050, the location of an Imperial castle between the East Franks and the Bavarian March of the Nordgau. From 1050 to 1571, the city expanded and rose dramatically in importance due to its location on key trade routes, Nuremberg is often referred to as having been the unofficial capital of the Holy Roman Empire, particularly because Imperial Diet and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg were an important part of the structure of the empire. The increasing demand of the court and the increasing importance of the city attracted increased trade. Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe. In 1298, the Jews of the town were accused of having desecrated the host, behind the massacre of 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city, which were divided by the Pegnitz. The Jews of the German lands suffered many massacres during the plague years, in 1349, Nurembergs Jews were subjected to a pogrom. They were burned at the stake or expelled, and a marketplace was built over the former Jewish quarter, the plague returned to the city in 1405,1435,1437,1482,1494,1520 and 1534. Charles was the patron of the Frauenkirche, built between 1352 and 1362, where the Imperial court worshipped during its stays in Nuremberg. Charles IV conferred upon the city the right to conclude alliances independently, frequent fights took place with the burgraves without, however, inflicting lasting damage upon the city. Through these and other acquisitions the city accumulated considerable territory, the Hussite Wars, recurrence of the Black Death in 1437, and the First Margrave War led to a severe fall in population in the mid-15th century. During the Middle Ages, Nurembergs literary culture was rich, varied, the cultural flowering of Nuremberg, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made it the centre of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Protestant Reformation, and in 1532, during the 1552 revolution against Charles V, Nuremberg tried to purchase its neutrality, but the city was attacked without a declaration of war and was forced into a disadvantageous peace. The state of affairs in the early 16th century, increased trade routes elsewhere, frequent quartering of Imperial, Swedish and League soldiers, the financial costs of the war and the cessation of trade caused irreparable damage to the city and a near-halving of the population. In 1632, the city, occupied by the forces of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, was besieged by the army of Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein, the city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the 19th century, when it grew as an industrial centre
Nuremberg
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Nuremberg Castle
Nuremberg
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Flag
Nuremberg
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Old fortifications of Nuremberg
Nuremberg
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The Imperial Castle
28.
Manufacture
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacture
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Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacture
Manufacture
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Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacture
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A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
29.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
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Reconstruction of
Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
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A medieval
T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah — Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham)
Europe
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Early modern depiction of
Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical
Europa of the 8th century BC.
.JPG)
