1.
Grapheme
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In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest unit of a writing system of any given language. An individual grapheme may or may not carry meaning by itself, graphemes include alphabetic letters, typographic ligatures, Chinese characters, numerical digits, punctuation marks, and other individual symbols. The word grapheme, coined in analogy with phoneme, is derived from Greek γράφω, meaning write, the study of graphemes is called graphemics. The concept of graphemes is an one and similar to the notion in computing of a character. By comparison, a shape that represents any particular grapheme in a specific typeface is called a glyph. For example, the corresponding to the abstract concept of the Arabic numeral one has two distinct glyphs in the fonts Times New Roman and Helvetica. Graphemes are often notated within angle brackets, as ⟨a⟩, ⟨B⟩ and this is analogous to the slash notation used for phonemes, and the square bracket notation used for phonetic transcriptions. Hence a grapheme can be regarded as an abstraction of a collection of glyphs that are all semantically equivalent, for example, in written English, there are many different physical representations of the lowercase letter a, such as a, ɑ, etc. But because the substitution of any of these for any other cannot change the meaning of a word, they are considered to be allographs of the same grapheme, italic and bold face are also allographic. There is some disagreement as to whether capital and lower-case letters are allographs or distinct graphemes, some linguists consider digraphs like the ⟨sh⟩ in ship to be distinct graphemes, but these are generally analyzed as sequences of graphemes. Ligatures, however, such as ⟨æ⟩, are distinct graphemes, as are letters with distinctive diacritics. For a full discussion of the different types, see Writing system § Functional classification, there are additional graphemic components used in writing, such as punctuation marks, mathematical symbols, word dividers such as the space, and other typographic symbols. As mentioned in the section, in languages that use alphabetic writing systems. In practice, however, the orthographies of such languages entail at least an amount of deviation from the ideal of exact grapheme–phoneme correspondence. A phoneme may be represented by a multigraph, as the digraph sh represents a sound in English. Multigraphs representing a single phoneme are normally treated as combinations of separate letters, for more examples, see Alphabetical order § Language-specific conventions. Conversion of scripts Character Grapheme–color synesthesia Grapheme–color ideasthesia Sign
2.
Interpunct
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It appears in a variety of uses in some modern languages and is present in Unicode as code point U+00B7 · Middle dot. The multiplication dot, whose glyphs are similar or identical to the interpunct, is a multiplication sign optionally used instead of the styled ×, the same sign is also used in vector multiplication to discriminate between the scalar product and the vector cross product or exterior product. As a multiplication operator, it is encountered in symbols for compound units such as the newton-meter. The multiplication dot is a separate Unicode character, but is often replaced by the interpunct or bullet. Various dictionaries use the interpunct to indicate syllabification within a word with multiple syllables, there is also a separate Unicode character, U+2027 ‧ hyphenation point. In British typography, the dot is an interpunct used as the formal decimal point. Its use is advocated by laws and by academic circles such as the Cambridge University History Faculty Style Guide and is mandated by some UK-based academic journals such as The Lancet, the space dot may still be used frequently in handwriting, however. In the Shavian alphabet, interpuncts replace capitalization as the marker of proper nouns, the dot is placed at the beginning of a word. The flown dot is used in Catalan between two Ls in cases where each belongs to a syllable, for example cel·la, cell. This distinguishes such geminate Ls, which are pronounced, from double L, in situations where the flown dot is unavailable, periods or hyphens are frequently used as substitutes, but this is tolerated rather than encouraged. Historically, medieval Catalan also used the symbol ⟨·⟩ as a marker for certain elisions, much like the modern apostrophe, there is no separate keyboard layout for Catalan, the flown dot can be typed using Shift-3 in the Spanish layout. It appears in Unicode as the letters ⟨Ŀ⟩ and ⟨ŀ⟩, similarly, the larger bullet may be seen but is discouraged on aesthetic grounds. The preferred Unicode representation is ⟨l·⟩, the partition sign is used in Chinese to mark divisions in transliterated foreign words, particularly names. This is properly a full-width punctuation mark, although sometimes narrower forms are substituted for aesthetic reasons, in particular, the regular interpunct is more commonly used as a computer input, although Chinese-language fonts typically render this as full width. When the Chinese text is romanized, the sign is simply replaced by a standard space or other appropriate punctuation. Thus, William Shakespeare is signified as 威廉·莎士比亞 or 威廉·莎士比亚, George W. Bush as 喬治·W·布殊 or 乔治·W·布什, titles and other translated words are not similarly marked, Genghis Khan and Elizabeth II are simply 成吉思汗 and 伊利沙伯二世 or 伊麗莎白二世 without a partition sign. The partition sign is used to separate book and chapter titles when they are mentioned consecutively, book first. It also appears in Swedish sinologist Bernhard Karlgrens works, where an interpunct is used to represent the stop in his reconstruction of medieval Chinese
3.
Decimal mark
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A decimal mark is a symbol used to separate the integer part from the fractional part of a number written in decimal form. Different countries officially designate different symbols for the decimal mark, the choice of symbol for the decimal mark also affects the choice of symbol for the thousands separator used in digit grouping, so the latter is also treated in this article. In mathematics the decimal mark is a type of radix point, in the Middle Ages, before printing, a bar over the units digit was used to separate the integral part of a number from its fractional part, e. g.9995. His Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing presented the first systematic solution of linear, a similar notation remains in common use as an underbar to superscript digits, especially for monetary values without a decimal mark, e. g.9995. Later, a separatrix between the units and tenths position became the norm among Arab mathematicians, e. g. 99ˌ95, when this character was typeset, it was convenient to use the existing comma or full stop instead. The separatrix was also used in England as an L-shaped or vertical bar before the popularization of the period, gerbert of Aurillac marked triples of columns with an arc when using his Hindu–Arabic numeral-based abacus in the 10th century. Fibonacci followed this convention when writing numbers such as in his influential work Liber Abaci in the 13th century, in France, the full stop was already in use in printing to make Roman numerals more readable, so the comma was chosen. Many other countries, such as Italy, also chose to use the comma to mark the decimal units position and it has been made standard by the ISO for international blueprints. However, English-speaking countries took the comma to separate sequences of three digits, in some countries, a raised dot or dash may be used for grouping or decimal mark, this is particularly common in handwriting. In the United States, the stop or period was used as the standard decimal mark. g. However, as the mid dot was already in use in the mathematics world to indicate multiplication. In the event, the point was decided on by the Ministry of Technology in 1968, the three most spoken international auxiliary languages, Ido, Esperanto, and Interlingua, all use the comma as the decimal mark. Interlingua has used the comma as its decimal mark since the publication of the Interlingua Grammar in 1951, Esperanto also uses the comma as its official decimal mark, while thousands are separated by non-breaking spaces,12345678,9. Idos Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido officially states that commas are used for the mark while full stops are used to separate thousands, millions. So the number 12,345,678.90123 for instance, the 1931 grammar of Volapük by Arie de Jong uses the comma as its decimal mark, and uses the middle dot as the thousands separator. In 1958, disputes between European and American delegates over the representation of the decimal mark nearly stalled the development of the ALGOL computer programming language. ALGOL ended up allowing different decimal marks, but most computer languages, the 22nd General Conference on Weights and Measures declared in 2003 that the symbol for the decimal marker shall be either the point on the line or the comma on the line. It further reaffirmed that numbers may be divided in groups of three in order to facilitate reading, neither dots nor commas are ever inserted in the spaces between groups
4.
Microprinting
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Microprinting is the production of recognizable patterns or characters in a printed medium at a scale that requires magnification to read with the naked eye. To the unaided eye, the text may appear as a solid line, Microprint is predominantly used as an anti-counterfeiting technique, due to its inability to be easily reproduced by digital methods. Over the following decade, Boni worked to develop microprint, a process in which pages were photographed using 35mm microfilm. This process proved to produce a 6 by 9 index card that stored 100 pages of text from the normal sized publications he was reproducing, Boni began the Readex Microprint company to produce and license this technology. He also published an article A Guide to the Literature of Photography and Related Subjects, currency commonly exhibits the highest quality of microprint because it demands the highest level of counterfeiting deterrence. For example, on the series 2004 United States $20 bill, bank cheques as well as various other items of value may also commonly leverage microprinting methods, but generally not of such extreme size. While microprinting on such medium may be readable to the eye without microscopy. The first US postage stamp to incorporate microprinting was the American Wildflower Series introduced by The United States Postal Service in 1992 and it was also the first commemorative stamp wholly produced by offset lithography. Microprint of the smallest scale is only producible by hand using engraved offset printing plates or some other method of Intaglio, digital microtext printers utilize specially designed fonts and ink for the purpose. The ink used is most commonly MICR toner particles but may also be polyester based toners, Microprint of the scale capable by other printing methods can not be produced by a digital printer regardless of the resolution of the device. Some digital fonts are designed specifically for the purpose of microprinting and these pseudo-microprint fonts are referred to as microtext. Xerox was acclaimed for developing a microtext font they claimed could produce characters 1/100th of an inch tall, 1/100th of an inch is equivalent to 0.7227 points. In April 2015, Videojet Technologies released their 1650 High Resolution and 1620 HR Continuous Inkjet printers, the printers use a 40-micron nozzle that outputs more than 100,000 drops per second of ink. While these printers make microprinting faster and easier to produce digitally, the smallest scale microtext a laser printer can produce is 0. 5pt. Using gold nanoparticle inks on a substrate, scientists concluded that it was possible for them to control the production of print patterns to a scale of 2 microns. After printing, the nano-particle ink suspension was heated using a laser, as it was heated. In further experiments, they were able to fuse the nano-particles together into a tighter formation a continuous conductive line, such experiments did not directly include font characters but could translate to such usage. Microdot Microfilmer Microform Microphotograph Point Preservation
5.
Minion (typeface)
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Minion is a serif typeface designed by Robert Slimbach in 1990 for Adobe Systems and inspired by late Renaissance-era type. The name comes from the naming system for type sizes. As the name suggests, it is intended as a font for body text in a classical style. Slimbach described the design as having a structure and moderate proportions. Minion was developed using sophisticated interpolation or multiple master technology to create a range of weights and this automation of font creation was intended to allow a gradual trend in styles from solid, chunky designs for caption-size small print to more graceful and slender designs for headings. It is a member of what became Adobes Originals program. Minion is a large family of fonts, including Greek and Cyrillic alphabets, optical sizes, condensed styles. It is one of the most popular used in books, one of the most famous being The Elements of Typographic Style, Robert Bringhursts book about fine printing. Modern Minion releases are in the OpenType format, allowing a variety of stylistic alternates such as small caps, the original release used additional expert set fonts for these features, and may remain used by designers using more primitive software such as Microsoft Office that have limited OpenType support. Minion Black does not have italic counterpart, Minion Expert is a separate font package that include fonts containing small caps, ligatures, old style figures, and swash glyphs. There are also fonts for dingbats, and a Black-weighted font, swash fonts are included for only the 2 lightest font weights. An expert set font is used for older and simpler applications that handle multiple text styles for the same letter in the same font. Slimbach stated, I saw it as being useful in applications like newspapers, textbooks. Minion Cyrillic was designed in 1992 by Robert Slimbach and was conceived as a counterpart to Slimbach’s Minion typeface family. There were no Display-sized fonts, expert fonts, or Black-weighted fonts in this family, the Multi Master version of the original Minion family, released in 1992. Commonly used in Adobe Acrobat to replace unknown fonts, an OpenType version of the Minion Black font, but includes features found in Expert versions of PostScript Minion Black fonts. In addition, character set was updated to support Adobe Western 2, an OpenType update of the original family, released in 2000. The update is based on Minion MM but features slight changes to the selection of instances, the family comes with 3 weights, each in roman and italic,2 widths, and 4 optical sizes
6.
System of measurement
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A system of measurement is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to each other. Systems of measurement have historically been important, regulated and defined for the purposes of science and commerce, systems of measurement in modern use include the metric system, the imperial system, and United States customary units. The French Revolution gave rise to the system, and this has spread around the world. In most systems, length, mass, and time are base quantities, later science developments showed that either electric charge or electric current could be added to extend the set of base quantities by which many other metrological units could be easily defined. Other quantities, such as power and speed, are derived from the set, for example. Such arrangements were satisfactory in their own contexts, the preference for a more universal and consistent system only gradually spread with the growth of science. Changing a measurement system has substantial financial and cultural costs which must be offset against the advantages to be obtained using a more rational system. However pressure built up, including scientists and engineers for conversion to a more rational. The unifying characteristic is that there was some definition based on some standard, eventually cubits and strides gave way to customary units to met the needs of merchants and scientists. In the metric system and other recent systems, a basic unit is used for each base quantity. Often secondary units are derived from the units by multiplying by powers of ten. Thus the basic unit of length is the metre, a distance of 1.234 m is 1,234 millimetres. Metrication is complete or nearly complete in almost all countries, US customary units are heavily used in the United States and to some degree in Liberia. Traditional Burmese units of measurement are used in Burma, U. S. units are used in limited contexts in Canada due to the large volume of trade, there is also considerable use of Imperial weights and measures, despite de jure Canadian conversion to metric. In the United States, metric units are used almost universally in science, widely in the military, and partially in industry, but customary units predominate in household use. At retail stores, the liter is a used unit for volume, especially on bottles of beverages. Some other standard non-SI units are still in use, such as nautical miles and knots in aviation. Metric systems of units have evolved since the adoption of the first well-defined system in France in 1795, during this evolution the use of these systems has spread throughout the world, first to non-English-speaking countries, and then to English speaking countries
7.
Typographic unit
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Typographic units are the units of measurement used in typography or typesetting. Traditional typometry units are different from familiar metric units because they were established in the days of printing. Though most printing is now, the old terms and units have persisted. Even though these units are all small, across a line of print they add up quickly. Confusions such as resetting text originally in type of one unit in type of another will result in moving from one line to the next. Before the popularization of desktop publishing, type measurements were carried by using a tool called typometer, in Europe, the Didot point system was created by François-Ambroise Didot in c. Didots system was based on Pierre Simon Fourniers, but Didot modified Fourniers by adjusting the base unit precisely to a French Royal inch, as Fourniers unit was based on a less common foot. In Fourniers system, an approximate French Royal inch is divided by 12 to calculate 1 ligne, Didot just made the base unit identical to the standard value defined by the government. In Didots point system,1 point = 1⁄6 ligne = 1⁄72 French Royal inch =15 625⁄41559 mm ≤0.3759715104 mm, however in practice mostly,0.376000 mm, i. e. +0. 0076%. Both in Didots and Fourniers systems, some point sizes have traditional names such as Cicero. 1 cicero =12 Didot points = 1⁄6 French Royal inch =62 500⁄13853 mm ≤4.5116581246 mm, also in practice mostly,4.512000 mm, the Didot point system has been widely used in European countries. An abbreviation for it that these countries use is dd, employing an old method for indicating plurals, hence 12 dd means twelve didot points. Many proposals for type size standardization had been made by the end of 19th century, however, no nationwide standard was created until the American Point System was decided in 1886. The American Point System was proposed by Nelson C, as MS&J was very influential in those days, many other type foundries were using the Johnson Pica. Also, MS&J defined that 83 Picas are equal to 35 centimeters, the choice of the metric unit for the prototype was because at the time the Imperial and US inches differed in size slightly, and neither country could legally specify a unit of the other. The Johnson Pica was named after Lawrence Johnson who had succeeded Binny & Ronaldson in 1833, Binny & Ronaldson was one of the oldest type foundries in the United States, established in Philadelphia in 1796. Binny & Ronaldson had bought the type founding equipment of Benjamin Franklins type foundry established in 1786, the equipment is thought to be that which Benjamin Franklin purchased from Pierre Simon Fournier when he visited France for diplomatic purposes. The official standard approved by the Fifteenth Meeting of the Type Founders Association of the United States in 1886 was this Johnson pica, therefore, the two other – very close – definitions,1200 /7227 inch and 350 /83 mm, are both unofficial
8.
Length
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In geometric measurements, length is the most extended dimension of an object. In the International System of Quantities, length is any quantity with dimension distance, in other contexts length is the measured dimension of an object. For example, it is possible to cut a length of a wire which is shorter than wire thickness. Length may be distinguished from height, which is vertical extent, and width or breadth, length is a measure of one dimension, whereas area is a measure of two dimensions and volume is a measure of three dimensions. In most systems of measurement, the unit of length is a base unit, measurement has been important ever since humans settled from nomadic lifestyles and started using building materials, occupying land and trading with neighbours. As society has become more technologically oriented, much higher accuracies of measurement are required in a diverse set of fields. One of the oldest units of measurement used in the ancient world was the cubit which was the length of the arm from the tip of the finger to the elbow. This could then be subdivided into shorter units like the foot, hand or finger, the cubit could vary considerably due to the different sizes of people. After Albert Einsteins special relativity, length can no longer be thought of being constant in all reference frames. Thus a ruler that is one meter long in one frame of reference will not be one meter long in a frame that is travelling at a velocity relative to the first frame. This means length of an object is variable depending on the observer, in the physical sciences and engineering, when one speaks of units of length, the word length is synonymous with distance. There are several units that are used to measure length, in the International System of Units, the basic unit of length is the metre and is now defined in terms of the speed of light. The centimetre and the kilometre, derived from the metre, are commonly used units. In U. S. customary units, English or Imperial system of units, commonly used units of length are the inch, the foot, the yard, and the mile. Units used to denote distances in the vastness of space, as in astronomy, are longer than those typically used on Earth and include the astronomical unit, the light-year. Dimension Distance Orders of magnitude Reciprocal length Smoot Unit of length
9.
Imperial units
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The system of imperial units or the imperial system is the system of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which was later refined and reduced. The Imperial units replaced the Winchester Standards, which were in effect from 1588 to 1825, the system came into official use across the British Empire. The imperial system developed from what were first known as English units, the Weights and Measures Act of 1824 was initially scheduled to go into effect on 1 May 1825. However, the Weights and Measures Act of 1825 pushed back the date to 1 January 1826, the 1824 Act allowed the continued use of pre-imperial units provided that they were customary, widely known, and clearly marked with imperial equivalents. Apothecaries units are mentioned neither in the act of 1824 nor 1825, at the time, apothecaries weights and measures were regulated in England, Wales, and Berwick-upon-Tweed by the London College of Physicians, and in Ireland by the Dublin College of Physicians. In Scotland, apothecaries units were unofficially regulated by the Edinburgh College of Physicians, the three colleges published, at infrequent intervals, pharmacopoeiae, the London and Dublin editions having the force of law. The Medical Act of 1858 transferred to The Crown the right to publish the official pharmacopoeia and to regulate apothecaries weights, Metric equivalents in this article usually assume the latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 metres, in 1824, the various different gallons in use in the British Empire were replaced by the imperial gallon, a unit close in volume to the ale gallon. It was originally defined as the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the standing at 30 inches of mercury at a temperature of 62 °F. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 switched to a gallon of exactly 4.54609 l and these measurements were in use from 1826, when the new imperial gallon was defined, but were officially abolished in the United Kingdom on 1 January 1971. In the USA, though no longer recommended, the system is still used occasionally in medicine. The troy pound was made the unit of mass by the 1824 Act, however, its use was abolished in the UK on 1 January 1879, with only the troy ounce. The Weights and Measures Act 1855 made the pound the primary unit of mass. In all the systems, the unit is the pound. For the yard, the length of a pendulum beating seconds at the latitude of Greenwich at Mean Sea Level in vacuo was defined as 39.01393 inches, the imperial system is one of many systems of English units. Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes. The distinctions between these systems are not drawn precisely. One such distinction is that between these systems and older British/English units/systems or newer additions, the US customary system is historically derived from the English units that were in use at the time of settlement
10.
US customary units
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United States customary units are a system of measurements commonly used in the United States. The United States customary system developed from English units which were in use in the British Empire before the US declared its independence, however, the British system of measures was overhauled in 1824 to create the imperial system, changing the definitions of some units. Therefore, while many U. S. units are similar to their Imperial counterparts. The majority of U. S. customary units were redefined in terms of the meter and these definitions were refined by the international yard and pound agreement of 1959. Americans primarily use customary units in commercial activities, as well as for personal and social use, in science, medicine, many sectors of industry and some of government, metric units are used. The International System of Units, the form of the metric system, is preferred for many uses by the U. S. National Institute of Standards. The United States system of units is similar to the British imperial system, both systems are derived from English units, a system which had evolved over the millennia before American independence, and which had its roots in Roman and Anglo-Saxon units. The customary system was championed by the U. S. -based International Institute for Preserving and Perfecting Weights, advocates of the customary system saw the French Revolutionary, or metric, system as atheistic. An auxiliary of the Institute in Ohio published a poem with wording such as down with every metric scheme and A perfect inch, one adherent of the customary system called it a just weight and a just measure, which alone are acceptable to the Lord. The U. S. government passed the Metric Conversion Act of 1975, the legislation states that the federal government has a responsibility to assist industry as it voluntarily converts to the metric system, i. e. metrification. This is most evident in U. S. labeling requirements on food products, according to the CIA Factbook, the United States is one of three nations that have not adopted the metric system as their official system of weights and measures. U. S. customary units are used on consumer products. Metric units are standard in science, medicine, as well as many sectors of industry and government, the metric system also lacks a parallel to the foot. Frequently, however, these units designate quite different sizes, for example, the mile ranged by country from one-half to five U. S. miles, foot and pound also had varying definitions. Historically, a range of non-SI units were used in the U. S. and in Britain. This article deals only with the commonly used or officially defined in the U. S. For measuring length, the U. S. customary system uses the inch, foot, yard, and mile, since July 1,1959, these have been defined on the basis of 1 yard =0.9144 meters except for some applications in surveying. The U. S. the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries agreed on this definition, the NAD27 was replaced in the 1980s by the North American Datum of 1983, which is defined in meters
11.
Inch
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The inch is a unit of length in the imperial and United States customary systems of measurement now formally equal to 1⁄36 yard but usually understood as 1⁄12 of a foot. Derived from the Roman uncia, inch is also used to translate related units in other measurement systems. The English word inch was a borrowing from Latin uncia not present in other Germanic languages. The vowel change from Latin /u/ to English /ɪ/ is known as umlaut, the consonant change from the Latin /k/ to English /tʃ/ or /ʃ/ is palatalisation. Both were features of Old English phonology, inch is cognate with ounce, whose separate pronunciation and spelling reflect its reborrowing in Middle English from Anglo-Norman unce and ounce. In many other European languages, the word for inch is the same as or derived from the word for thumb, the inch is a commonly used customary unit of length in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. It is also used in Japan for electronic parts, especially display screens, for example, three feet two inches can be written as 3′ 2″. Paragraph LXVII sets out the fine for wounds of various depths, one inch, one shilling, an Anglo-Saxon unit of length was the barleycorn. After 1066,1 inch was equal to 3 barleycorns, which continued to be its legal definition for several centuries, similar definitions are recorded in both English and Welsh medieval law tracts. One, dating from the first half of the 10th century, is contained in the Laws of Hywel Dda which superseded those of Dyfnwal, both definitions, as recorded in Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales, are that three lengths of a barleycorn is the inch. However, the oldest surviving manuscripts date from the early 14th century, john Bouvier similarly recorded in his 1843 law dictionary that the barleycorn was the fundamental measure. He noted that this process would not perfectly recover the standard, before the adoption of the international yard and pound, various definitions were in use. In the United Kingdom and most countries of the British Commonwealth, the United States adopted the conversion factor 1 metre =39.37 inches by an act in 1866. In 1930, the British Standards Institution adopted an inch of exactly 25.4 mm, the American Standards Association followed suit in 1933. By 1935, industry in 16 countries had adopted the industrial inch as it came to be known, in 1946, the Commonwealth Science Congress recommended a yard of exactly 0.9144 metres for adoption throughout the British Commonwealth. This was adopted by Canada in 1951, the United States on 1 July 1959, Australia in 1961, effective 1 January 1964, and the United Kingdom in 1963, effective on 1 January 1964. The new standards gave an inch of exactly 25.4 mm,1.7 millionths of a longer than the old imperial inch and 2 millionths of an inch shorter than the old US inch. The United States retains the 1/39. 37-metre definition for survey purposes and this is approximately 1/8-inch in a mile
12.
Metric system
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The metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system of measurement. Many sources also cite Liberia and Myanmar as the other countries not to have done so. Although the originators intended to devise a system that was accessible to all. Control of the units of measure was maintained by the French government until 1875, when it was passed to an intergovernmental organisation. From its beginning, the features of the metric system were the standard set of interrelated base units. These base units are used to larger and smaller units that could replace a huge number of other units of measure in existence. Although the system was first developed for use, the development of coherent units of measure made it particularly suitable for science. Although the metric system has changed and developed since its inception, designed for transnational use, it consisted of a basic set of units of measurement, now known as base units. At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, most countries, the metric system was designed to be universal—in the words of the French philosopher Marquis de Condorcet it was to be for all people for all time. However, these overtures failed and the custody of the metric system remained in the hands of the French government until 1875. In languages where the distinction is made, unit names are common nouns, the concept of using consistent classical names for the prefixes was first proposed in a report by the Commission on Weights and Measures in May 1793. The prefix kilo, for example, is used to multiply the unit by 1000, thus the kilogram and kilometre are a thousand grams and metres respectively, and a milligram and millimetre are one thousandth of a gram and metre respectively. These relations can be written symbolically as,1 mg =0, however,1935 extensions to the prefix system did not follow this convention, the prefixes nano- and micro-, for example have Greek roots. During the 19th century the prefix myria-, derived from the Greek word μύριοι, was used as a multiplier for 10000, prefixes are not usually used to indicate multiples of a second greater than 1, the non-SI units of minute, hour and day are used instead. On the other hand, prefixes are used for multiples of the unit of volume. The base units used in the system must be realisable. Each of the units in SI is accompanied by a mise en pratique published by the BIPM that describes in detail at least one way in which the base unit can be measured. In practice, such realisation is done under the auspices of a mutual acceptance arrangement, in the original version of the metric system the base units could be derived from a specified length and the weight of a specified volume of pure water
13.
International System of Units
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The International System of Units is the modern form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units, the system also establishes a set of twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples and fractions of the units. The system was published in 1960 as the result of an initiative began in 1948. It is based on the system of units rather than any variant of the centimetre-gram-second system. The motivation for the development of the SI was the diversity of units that had sprung up within the CGS systems, the International System of Units has been adopted by most developed countries, however, the adoption has not been universal in all English-speaking countries. The metric system was first implemented during the French Revolution with just the metre and kilogram as standards of length, in the 1830s Carl Friedrich Gauss laid the foundations for a coherent system based on length, mass, and time. In the 1860s a group working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science formulated the requirement for a coherent system of units with base units and derived units. Meanwhile, in 1875, the Treaty of the Metre passed responsibility for verification of the kilogram, in 1921, the Treaty was extended to include all physical quantities including electrical units originally defined in 1893. The units associated with these quantities were the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, in 1971, a seventh base quantity, amount of substance represented by the mole, was added to the definition of SI. On 11 July 1792, the proposed the names metre, are, litre and grave for the units of length, area, capacity. The committee also proposed that multiples and submultiples of these units were to be denoted by decimal-based prefixes such as centi for a hundredth, on 10 December 1799, the law by which the metric system was to be definitively adopted in France was passed. Prior to this, the strength of the magnetic field had only been described in relative terms. The technique used by Gauss was to equate the torque induced on a magnet of known mass by the earth’s magnetic field with the torque induced on an equivalent system under gravity. The resultant calculations enabled him to assign dimensions based on mass, length, a French-inspired initiative for international cooperation in metrology led to the signing in 1875 of the Metre Convention. Initially the convention only covered standards for the metre and the kilogram, one of each was selected at random to become the International prototype metre and International prototype kilogram that replaced the mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives respectively. Each member state was entitled to one of each of the prototypes to serve as the national prototype for that country. Initially its prime purpose was a periodic recalibration of national prototype metres. The official language of the Metre Convention is French and the version of all official documents published by or on behalf of the CGPM is the French-language version
14.
Typography
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Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible, readable, and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line-spacing, and letter-spacing, the term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography, most typographers do not design typefaces, Typography also may be used as a decorative device, unrelated to communication of information. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation, as the capability to create typography has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay, Typography also was implemented in the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete, which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B. C. It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing, the essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc. The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches, apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries. Other early examples include individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng. His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty, wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down, metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however. Modern lead-based movable type, along with the printing press, is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439. His type pieces, made from an alloy, suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts and this technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg Bible. Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as introduced by IBM. During the mid-1980s personal computers such as the Macintosh allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software, Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, the cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses
15.
Typeface
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font
16.
Desktop publishing
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Desktop publishing is the creation of documents using page layout skills on a personal computer primarily for print. Desktop publishing software can generate layouts and produce typographic quality text and images comparable to traditional typography and this technology allows individuals, businesses, and other organizations to self-publish a wide range of printed matter. Desktop publishing is also the reference for digital typography. When used skillfully, desktop publishing allows the user to produce a variety of materials, from menus to magazines and books. Desktop publishing methods provide more control over design, layout, however, word processing software has evolved to include some, though by no means all, capabilities previously available only with professional printing or desktop publishing. Although what is classified as DTP software is usually limited to print and PDF publications, the content produced by desktop publishers may also be exported and used for electronic media. Desktop publishing began in 1983 with a developed by James Davise at a community newspaper in Philadelphia. The program Type Processor One ran on a PC using a card for a WYSIWYG display and was offered commercially by Best info in 1984. Later on, Adobe PageMaker overtook Microsoft Word in professional DTP in 1985, before the advent of desktop publishing, the only option available to most people for producing typed documents was a typewriter, which offered only a handful of typefaces and one or two font sizes. Indeed, one popular desktop publishing book was entitled The Mac is not a typewriter, newspapers and other print publications made the move to DTP-based programs from older layout systems such as Atex and other programs in the early 1980s. By the standards of the 2010s, early 1980s desktop publishing was a primitive affair, however, it was a revolutionary combination at the time, and was received with considerable acclaim. Behind-the-scenes technologies developed by Adobe Systems set the foundation for professional desktop publishing applications, the LaserWriter and LaserWriter Plus printers included high quality, scalable Adobe PostScript fonts built into their ROM memory. Macintosh-based systems continued to dominate the market into 1986, when the GEM-based Ventura Publisher was introduced for MS-DOS computers and this made it suitable for manuals and other long-format documents. Software was published even for 8-bit computers like the Apple II and Commodore 64, Home Publisher, The Newsroom, however, some desktop publishers who mastered the programs were able to realize truly professional results. DTP skill levels range from what may be learned in a few hours to what requires a college education, the discipline of DTP skills range from technical skills such as prepress production and programming to creative skills such as communication design and graphic image development. There are two types of pages in desktop publishing, electronic pages and virtual paper pages to be printed on physical paper pages, all computerized documents are technically electronic, which are limited in size only by computer memory or computer data storage space. Some desktop publishing programs allow custom sizes designated for large format printing used in posters, billboards, a virtual page for printing has a predesignated size of virtual printing material and can be viewed on a monitor in WYSIWYG format. Each page for printing has trim sizes and an area if bleed printing is not possible as is the case with most desktop printers
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Digital printing
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Digital printing refers to methods of printing from a digital-based image directly to a variety of media. It usually refers to professional printing where small-run jobs from desktop publishing and it also allows for on-demand printing, short turnaround time, and even a modification of the image used for each impression. This results in quicker turnaround time and lower cost when using digital printing, fine art digital inkjet printing is printing from a computer image file directly to an inkjet printer as a final output. Initially, these printers were limited to glossy papers, but the IRIS Graphics printer allowed the use of a variety of papers that included traditional and non-traditional media. Substrates in fine art inkjet printmaking include traditional fine-art papers such as Rives BFK, Arches watercolor paper, treated and untreated canvas, experimental substrates, inkjet reproductions can be printed and sold individually in accordance with demand. Digital inkjet printing also allows for the output of art of all types as finished pieces or as an element in a further art piece. Experimental artists often add texture or other media to the surface of a final print, many terms for the process have been used over the years, including digigraph and giclée. Thousands of print shops and digital printmakers now offer services to painters, photographers, digital images are exposed onto true, light sensitive photographic paper with lasers and processed in photographic developers and fixers. These prints are true photographs and have continuous tone in the image detail, the archival quality of the print is as high as the manufacturers rating for any given photo paper used. In large format prints, the greatest advantage is that, since no lens is used, digital printing technology has grown significantly over the past few years with substantial developments in quality and sheet sizes. Digital printing has many advantages over traditional methods, print on Demand – digital printing is used for personalized printing for example, childrens books customized with a childs name, photo books, or any other books. Advertising – often used for banner advertising and event signage, in trade shows, in the retail sector at point of sale or point of purchase. Photos – digital printing has revolutionized photo printing in terms of the ability to retouch, architectural Design – new media that conforms to a variety of surfaces has enabled interior and exterior spaces to be transformed using digitally printed wall murals and floor graphics
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Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
19.
Em (typography)
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An em is a unit in the field of typography, equal to the currently specified point size. For example, one em in a 16-point typeface is 16 points, therefore, this unit is the same for all typefaces at a given point size. Typographic measurements using this unit are frequently expressed in decimal notation or as fractions of 100 or 1000, the name em was originally a reference to the width of the capital M in the typeface and size being used, which was often the same as the point size. In metal type, the point size was equal to the height of the metal body from which the letter rises. In metal type, the size of a letter could not normally exceed the em. In digital type, the em is a grid of arbitrary resolution that is used as the space of a digital font. Imaging systems, whether for screen or for print, work by scaling the em to a specified point size, in digital type, the relationship of the height of particular letters to the em is arbitrarily set by the typeface designer. However, as a rough guideline, an average font might have a cap height of 70% of the em. In modern typefaces, the character M is usually less than one em wide. Because of how digital type works, the em now always means the point size of the font in question, in Cascading Style Sheets, the em unit is the height of the font in nominal points or inches. The actual, physical height of any portion of the font depends on the user-defined DPI setting, current element font-size. To make style rules that only on the default font size, another unit was developed. The rem, or root em, is the font size of the element of the document. Unlike the em, which may be different for each element, the rem is constant throughout the document
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Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
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Francesco Torniello
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Francesco Torniello da Novara was a Milanese typographer, writer and Franciscan friar who became known for applying geometric specifications to Latin capital letters fonts. Torniello was born between 1488 and 1491 in Barengo, which was part of the Duchy of Milan and he came from a noble family of the area. In 1519 he joined the Order of Friars Minor as a preacher, in 1525 Torniello and his brother, Giovanni Antonio gained Milanese citizenship. He died in 1589 in the monastery of Treviglio in the Duchy of Milan, torniellos works were focused on adopting the Latin alphabet inscriptions as original as possible, while simultaneously improving their geometric conditions. His works were influenced by Luca Paciolis Divine Proportione and Sigismondo Fanti and these fonts were not then designed for usage in the printing press, but as a model for artistic inscriptions. Torniello designed a 18X18 grid which served as a system for his geometrical fonts. In his work Opera del modo de fare le littere maiuscole antique, geometrical conditions were added to the letters M, R, S and T. The letters S and T were also enriched calligraphically, in order to broaden the usage of his fonts in non-Latin texts Torniello added the letter Z. He also was the first typographer to define the point as unit of measurement in typography, Opera del modo de fare le littere maiuscole antique,1517, Milan. Only four copies of the book exist today, one is located in Seville, one in Milan and two in Cambridge
22.
Cascading Style Sheets
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Cascading Style Sheets is a style sheet language used for describing the presentation of a document written in a markup language. It can also display the web page differently depending on the size or viewing device. Readers can also specify a different style sheet, such as a CSS file stored on their own computer, to override the one the author specified. Changes to the design of a document can be applied quickly and easily, by editing a few lines in the CSS file they use. The CSS specification describes a priority scheme to determine which style rules apply if more than one rule matches against a particular element, in this so-called cascade, priorities are calculated and assigned to rules, so that the results are predictable. The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium, Internet media type text/css is registered for use with CSS by RFC2318. The W3C operates a free CSS validation service for CSS documents, CSS has a simple syntax and uses a number of English keywords to specify the names of various style properties. A style sheet consists of a list of rules, each rule or rule-set consists of one or more selectors, and a declaration block. In CSS, selectors declare which part of the markup a style applies to by matching tags, Selectors may apply to, all elements of a specific type, e. g. Classes and IDs are case-sensitive, start with letters, and can include alphanumeric characters and underscores. A class may apply to any number of instances of any elements, an ID may only be applied to a single element. Pseudo-classes are used in CSS selectors to permit formatting based on information that is not contained in the document tree. One example of a widely used pseudo-class is, hover, which identifies content only when the points to the visible element. It is appended to a selector as in a, hover or #elementid, a pseudo-class classifies document elements, such as, link or, visited, whereas a pseudo-element makes a selection that may consist of partial elements, such as, first-line or, first-letter. Selectors may be combined in ways to achieve great specificity and flexibility. Multiple selectors may be joined in a spaced list to specify elements by location, element type, id, class, the order of the selectors is important. For example, div. myClass applies to all elements of class myClass that are inside div elements, the following table provides a summary of selector syntax indicating usage and the version of CSS that introduced it. A declaration block consists of a list of declarations in braces, each declaration itself consists of a property, a colon, and a value. If there are multiple declarations in a block, a semi-colon must be inserted to separate each declaration, properties are specified in the CSS standard
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World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
24.
Units of measurement in France
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France has a unique history of units of measurement due to radical attempts to adopt a metric system following the French Revolution. In the Ancien régime, before 1795, France used a system of measures that had many of the characteristics of the modern Imperial System of units. There was widespread abuse of the standards to the extent that the lieue could vary from 3.268 km in Beauce to 5.849 km in Provence. In the revolutionary era, France used the first version of the metric system and this system was not well received by the public. Between 1812 and 1837, the mesures usuelles was used – traditional names were restored, but were based on units, for example. After 1837, the system was reintroduced and has remained the principal system of use to this day. In the pre-revolutionary era, France used a system of measures that had many of the characteristics of the modern Imperial System of units, charlemagne and successive kings had tried but failed to impose a unified system of measurement in France. It has been estimated that, on the eve of the Revolution, as an example, the weights and measures used at Pernes-les-Fontaines in southeastern France differ from those catalogued later in this article as having been used in Paris. In many cases, the names are different, while the livre is shown as being 403 g, the French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic Wars marked the end of the Age of Enlightenment. The forces of change that had been brewing manifest themselves across all of France, the savants of the day favoured the use of a system of units that were inter-related and which used a decimal basis. There was also a wish that the units of measure should be for all people and for all time, tallyrand, at the prompting of the savant Condorcet, approached the British and the Americans in the early 1790s with proposals of a joint effort to define the metre. In the end, these came to nothing and France decided to go it alone. Decimal time was introduced in the decree of 5 October 1793 under which the day was divided into 10 decimal hours, the hour into 100 decimal minutes and the decimal minute into 100 decimal seconds. The decimal hour corresponded to 2 hr 24 min, the minute to 1.44 min. The implementation of decimal time proved a task and under the article 22 of the law of 18 Germinal, Year III. On 1 January 1806, France reverted to the traditional timekeeping, the metric system of measure was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. Article 5 of the law of 18 Germinal, Year III defined five units of measure, using Cassinis survey of 1744, a provisional value of 443.44 lignes was assigned to the metre which, in turn, defined the other units of measure. The final value of the metre had to wait until 1799, the law 19 Frimaire An VIII defined the metre in terms of this value and the kilogram as being 18,827.15 grains
25.
French inch
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Charlemagne brought a consistent system of measures across the entire empire. However, after his death the empire fragmented and many rulers introduced their own variants of the units of measure, by the time of the revolution, the number of units of measure had grown to the extent that it was almost impossible to keep track of them. Although the pre-revolutionary era when France used a system of measures that had many of the characteristics of the Imperial System of units and it has been estimated that on the eve of the Revolution a quarter of a million different units of measure were in use in France. As an example, the weights and measures used at Pernes-les-Fontaines in south eastern France differ from those later in this article as having been used in Paris. In many cases the names are different, while the livre is shown as being 403 g and these definitions use the Paris definitions for the coutume of Paris, and definitions for other Ancien régime civil jurisdictions varied, at times quite significantly. The toise had 6 pieds each of 326.6 mm, in 1668 the reference standard was found to have been deformed and it was replaced by the toise du Châtelet which, to accommodate the deformation of the earlier standard, was 11 mm shorter. In 1747 this toise was replaced by a new toise of near-identical length – the Toise du Pérou, thus the French royal foot is exactly 9000/27,706 metres. In Quebec, the surveys in French units were converted using the relationship 1 pied =12.789 English inches and this makes the Quebec pied very slightly smaller than the pied used in France. The French typographic point, the Didot point, was 1⁄72 French inch, the French pica, called Cicéro, measured 12 Didot points. According to the law of 19 Frimaire An VIII, The kilogramme is equal to 18,827.15 grains, the kilogramme is, in addition, defined as the weight of 1 dm3 of distilled water at 4 degrees centigrade, i. e. at maximum density. Traditionally, the French pound was defined as the mass of exactly 1⁄70 of a French cubic foot of water, when the kilogramme was defined, knowledge that a pied du roi cube filled with water masses exactly 70 French pounds was apparently lost. According to the definition, one livre would have been about 489.675 grammes. According to the definition, one livre was about 489.506 grammes. However, a difference in salinity is enough to explain this difference. The units in the table are calculated based on the kilogramme definition of the livre
26.
History of the metric system
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Concepts similar to those behind the metric system had been discussed in the 16th and 17th centuries. Simon Stevin had published his ideas for a decimal notation and John Wilkins had published a proposal for a system of measurement based on natural units. The work of reforming the old system of weights and measures was sponsored by the revolutionary government, the metric system was to be, in the words of philosopher and mathematician Condorcet, for all people for all time. Reference copies for both units were manufactured and placed in the custody of the French Academy of Sciences, by 1812, due to the unpopularity of the new metric system, France had reverted to units similar to those of their old system. In 1837 the metric system was re-adopted by France, and also during the first half of the 19th century was adopted by the scientific community, maxwell proposed three base units, length, mass and time. This concept worked well with mechanics, but attempts to describe electromagnetic forces in terms of these units encountered difficulties. This impasse was resolved by Giovanni Giorgi, who in 1901 proved that a coherent system that incorporated electromagnetic units had to have a unit as a fourth base unit. The mole was added as a base unit in 1971. Since the end of the 20th century, an effort has been undertaken to redefine the ampere, kilogram, mole, the first practical implementation of the metric system was the system implemented by French Revolutionaries towards the end of the 18th century. Its key features were that, It was decimal in nature and it derived its unit sizes from nature. Units that have different dimensions are related to other in a rational manner. Prefixes are used to denote multiples and sub-multiples of its units and these features had already been explored and expounded by various scholars and academics in the two centuries prior to the French metric system being implemented. Simon Stevin is credited with introducing the system into general use in Europe. Twentieth-century writers such Bigourdan and McGreevy credit the French cleric Gabriel Mouton as the originator of the metric system, in 2007 a proposal for a coherent decimal system of measurement by the English cleric John Wilkins received publicity. During the early era, Roman numerals were used in Europe to represent numbers, but the Arabs represented numbers using the Hindu numeral system. In about 1202, Fibonacci published his book Liber Abaci which introduced the concept of positional notation into Europe and these symbols evolved into the numerals 0,1,2 etc. At that time there was dispute regarding the difference between numbers and irrational numbers and there was no consistency in the way in which decimal fractions were represented. In 1586, Simon Stevin published a pamphlet called De Thiende which historians credit as being the basis of modern notation for decimal fractions
27.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
28.
Metre
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The metre or meter, is the base unit of length in the International System of Units. The metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299792458 seconds, the metre was originally defined in 1793 as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. In 1799, it was redefined in terms of a metre bar. In 1960, the metre was redefined in terms of a number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton-86. In 1983, the current definition was adopted, the imperial inch is defined as 0.0254 metres. One metre is about 3 3⁄8 inches longer than a yard, Metre is the standard spelling of the metric unit for length in nearly all English-speaking nations except the United States and the Philippines, which use meter. Measuring devices are spelled -meter in all variants of English, the suffix -meter has the same Greek origin as the unit of length. This range of uses is found in Latin, French, English. Thus calls for measurement and moderation. In 1668 the English cleric and philosopher John Wilkins proposed in an essay a decimal-based unit of length, as a result of the French Revolution, the French Academy of Sciences charged a commission with determining a single scale for all measures. In 1668, Wilkins proposed using Christopher Wrens suggestion of defining the metre using a pendulum with a length which produced a half-period of one second, christiaan Huygens had observed that length to be 38 Rijnland inches or 39.26 English inches. This is the equivalent of what is now known to be 997 mm, no official action was taken regarding this suggestion. In the 18th century, there were two approaches to the definition of the unit of length. One favoured Wilkins approach, to define the metre in terms of the length of a pendulum which produced a half-period of one second. The other approach was to define the metre as one ten-millionth of the length of a quadrant along the Earths meridian, that is, the distance from the Equator to the North Pole. This means that the quadrant would have defined as exactly 10000000 metres at that time. To establish a universally accepted foundation for the definition of the metre, more measurements of this meridian were needed. This portion of the meridian, assumed to be the length as the Paris meridian, was to serve as the basis for the length of the half meridian connecting the North Pole with the Equator
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French line
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It is vestigially retained today by French and Swiss watchmakers to measure the size of watch movements, in button making, and ribbon manufacture. There are 12 lignes to one French inch, the standardized conversion for a ligne is 2.2558291 mm, and it is abbreviated with the letter L or represented by the triple prime, ‴. One ligne is the equivalent of 0.0888 international inch and this is comparable in size to the British measurement called line, used prior to 1824. In the 9th century German button makers began to use the term ligne to measure the diameter of buttons, the consensus definition was that a ligne was the measurement of a round wick, folded flat. In this sense it measures 1⁄40 of an inch, but not exactly, for there were several inches in the kingdoms, such a measurement became the American measurement called line, being one-fortieth of the US-customary inch, used measure buttons, probably introduced by German immigrants. It remains in US use today for buttons and snaps, ligne is used in measuring the width of ribbons in mens hat bands, at 11.26 per inch
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Pierre Simon Fournier
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Pierre-Simon Fournier was a French mid-18th century punch-cutter, typefounder and typographic theoretician. He was both a collector and originator of types, Fourniers contributions to printing were his creation of initials and ornaments, his design of letters, and his standardization of type sizes. He worked in the form, and designed typefaces including Fournier. He was known for incorporating ‘decorative typographic ornaments’ into his typefaces, Fourniers main accomplishment is that he ‘created a standardized measuring system that would revolutionize the typography industry forever’. He was also known as Fournier le Jeune to distinguish him from his father Jean Claude, in his early life, Fournier studied watercolour with J. B. G. Colson, and later wood engraving. In 1737, Fournier published his first theoretical work, on the spacing between letters while still retaining readability. In 1723, the French government agreed that types should be subject to standards, by 1737, the younger Fournier decided to begin creating his punches to a scale of 6 ciceros or 72 points to the Paris inch, instead of the then-standard height-to-paper method. This point is smaller than the subsequent Didot point established by François-Ambroise Didot 38 years later, the Fournier cicero is approximately 11 Didot points. Two years after developing the point system, Fournier decided to create his own type foundry, when the Netherlands was seized by France, Louis XIV commissioned new types for use during his reign. The King kept the font as a monopoly to himself, with penalties against unauthorized reproduction, in the following century, Fourniers Modèles des Caractères continued the Romain du Roi style, but adapted it for his own new age. The typefaces that Fournier and successors created had such extreme contrast between thick and thin strokes, that there was a constant risk of the letters shattering, upon publishing Modèles des Caractères, filled with rococo and fleurons, Fourniers publication helped revive the 16th century concept of type ornaments. The revival spawned imitations, including some by Johann Michael Fleischmann, by the 1750s, Fournier was still riding high as a major player in the industry. Fournier acted as advisor to Sweden and Sardinia in the creation of their printing works. On his wave of success, Fourniers interest in music had a chance to finally flourish. Breitkopf in 1756, Fournier developed a new musical typestyle that made the round, more elegant. They quickly gained popularity in the music world, Ballard had previously had a monopoly in the printing of music, using Haultins comparatively crude 1525 cuts. Patenting his invention in 1762, he surprisingly was frowned upon by other printers and he published a historical and critical treatise on the origins and process of cast iron characters for music, in which he pleaded for acceptance of his own works, while blasting Ballard. Fourniers company remained open until the 19th century, interest in type design was stimulated in 1922 by D. B
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Monotype Imaging
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Monotype Imaging Holdings, Inc. is a Delaware corporation based in Woburn, Massachusetts. It specialises in digital typesetting and typeface design as well as text, Monotype developed many of the most widely used typeface designs, including Times New Roman, Gill Sans, Arial, Bembo and Albertus. Monotype has carried out a series of acquisitions from 2000 onwards of companies such as Linotype GmbH, International Typeface Corporation, Bitstream Inc. and FontShop. This has gained it the rights to many further widely known designs, including Helvetica, ITC Franklin Gothic, Optima, Avant Garde, Palatino and it also owns the MyFonts online retailer used by many independent font design studios. The Lanston Monotype Machine Company was founded by Tolbert Lanston in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Lanston had a patented mechanical method of punching out metal types from cold strips of metal which were set into a matrix for the printing press. In 1896 Lanston patented the first hot metal typesetting machine and Monotype issued Modern Condensed, the licenses for the Lanston type library have been acquired by P22, a digital type foundry based in Buffalo, New York. In a search for funding, the set up a branch in London in 1897 under the name Lanston Monotype Corporation Ltd. In 1899 a new factory was built in Salfords near Redhill in Surrey where it has located for over a century. The company was of sufficient size to justify the construction of its own Salfords railway station, the Monotype machine worked by casting letters from hot metal as pieces of type. Thus spelling mistakes could be corrected by adding or removing individual letters and this was particularly useful for quality printing - such as books. In contrast, the Linotype machine formed a line of type in one bar. Editing these required replacing an entire line, but Linotype slugs were easier to handle if moving a complete section of text around a page. This was more useful for quick printing - such as newspapers, the typesetting machines were continually improved in the early years of the 20th century, with a typewriter style keyboard for entering the type being introduced in 1906. This arrangement addressed the need to vary the space between words so that all lines were the same length, the keyboard operator types the copy, each key punching holes in a roll of paper tape that will control the separate caster. A drum on the keyboard indicates to the operator the space required for each line and this information is also punched in the paper. Before fitting the tape to the caster it is turned over so that the first holes read on each set the width of the variable space. The subsequent holes determine the position of a frame, or die case, each matrix is a rectangle of copper recessed with the shape of the letter. Once the matrix is positioned over the mould that forms the rest of the piece of type being cast, Monotypes role in design history is not merely due to their supply of printing equipment but due to their commissioning of many of the most important typefaces of the twentieth century
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Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
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Divisor
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In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some other integer to produce n. In this case one says also that n is a multiple of m, an integer n is divisible by another integer m if m is a divisor of n, this implies dividing n by m leaves no remainder. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 holds for every m, as before, but with the additional constraint k ≠0. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 does not hold for m ≠0, in the remainder of this article, which definition is applied is indicated where this is significant. Divisors can be negative as well as positive, although sometimes the term is restricted to positive divisors. For example, there are six divisors of 4, they are 1,2,4, −1, −2, and −4,1 and −1 divide every integer. Every integer is a divisor of itself, every integer is a divisor of 0. Integers divisible by 2 are called even, and numbers not divisible by 2 are called odd,1, −1, n and −n are known as the trivial divisors of n. A divisor of n that is not a divisor is known as a non-trivial divisor. A non-zero integer with at least one divisor is known as a composite number, while the units −1 and 1. There are divisibility rules which allow one to recognize certain divisors of a number from the numbers digits, the generalization can be said to be the concept of divisibility in any integral domain. 7 is a divisor of 42 because 7 ×6 =42 and it can also be said that 42 is divisible by 7,42 is a multiple of 7,7 divides 42, or 7 is a factor of 42. The non-trivial divisors of 6 are 2, −2,3, the positive divisors of 42 are 1,2,3,6,7,14,21,42. 5 ∣0, because 5 ×0 =0, if a ∣ b and b ∣ a, then a = b or a = − b. If a ∣ b and a ∣ c, then a ∣ holds, however, if a ∣ b and c ∣ b, then ∣ b does not always hold. If a ∣ b c, and gcd =1, then a ∣ c, if p is a prime number and p ∣ a b then p ∣ a or p ∣ b. A positive divisor of n which is different from n is called a proper divisor or a part of n. A number that does not evenly divide n but leaves a remainder is called an aliquant part of n, an integer n >1 whose only proper divisor is 1 is called a prime number
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Integer factorization
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In number theory, integer factorization is the decomposition of a composite number into a product of smaller integers. If these integers are further restricted to numbers, the process is called prime factorization. When the numbers are large, no efficient, non-quantum integer factorization algorithm is known. However, it has not been proven that no efficient algorithm exists, the presumed difficulty of this problem is at the heart of widely used algorithms in cryptography such as RSA. Many areas of mathematics and computer science have been brought to bear on the problem, including elliptic curves, algebraic number theory, not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor. The hardest instances of these problems are semiprimes, the product of two prime numbers, many cryptographic protocols are based on the difficulty of factoring large composite integers or a related problem—for example, the RSA problem. An algorithm that efficiently factors an arbitrary integer would render RSA-based public-key cryptography insecure, by the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every positive integer has a unique prime factorization. If the integer is then it can be recognized as such in polynomial time. If composite however, the theorem gives no insight into how to obtain the factors, given a general algorithm for integer factorization, any integer can be factored down to its constituent prime factors simply by repeated application of this algorithm. The situation is complicated with special-purpose factorization algorithms, whose benefits may not be realized as well or even at all with the factors produced during decomposition. For example, if N =10 × p × q where p < q are very large primes, trial division will quickly produce the factors 2 and 5 but will take p divisions to find the next factor. Among the b-bit numbers, the most difficult to factor in practice using existing algorithms are those that are products of two primes of similar size, for this reason, these are the integers used in cryptographic applications. The largest such semiprime yet factored was RSA-768, a 768-bit number with 232 decimal digits and this factorization was a collaboration of several research institutions, spanning two years and taking the equivalent of almost 2000 years of computing on a single-core 2.2 GHz AMD Opteron. Like all recent factorization records, this factorization was completed with an optimized implementation of the general number field sieve run on hundreds of machines. No algorithm has been published that can factor all integers in polynomial time, neither the existence nor non-existence of such algorithms has been proved, but it is generally suspected that they do not exist and hence that the problem is not in class P. The problem is clearly in class NP but has not been proved to be in, or not in and it is generally suspected not to be in NP-complete. There are published algorithms that are faster than O for all positive ε, i. e. sub-exponential, the best published asymptotic running time is for the general number field sieve algorithm, which, for a b-bit number n, is, O. For current computers, GNFS is the best published algorithm for large n, for a quantum computer, however, Peter Shor discovered an algorithm in 1994 that solves it in polynomial time
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Eurasian Economic Union
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The Eurasian Economic Union is an economic union of states located primarily in northern Eurasia. A treaty aiming for the establishment of the EAEU was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia, treaties aiming for Armenias and Kyrgyzstans accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October and 23 December 2014, respectively. Armenias accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015, Kyrgyzstans accession treaty came into effect on 6 August 2015. It participated in the EAEU from the day of its establishment as an acceding state, in 1994, the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, first suggested the idea of creating a Eurasian Union during a speech at Moscow State University. Numerous treaties were signed to establish the trading bloc gradually. Many politicians, philosophers and political scientists have called for further integration towards a monetary, political, military. However the member states decided to seek a purely economic union, having concerns about keeping their independence, the Eurasian Economic Union has an integrated single market of 183 million people and a gross domestic product of over 4 trillion U. S. dollars. Provisions for a currency and greater integration are envisioned in future. The union operates through supranational and intergovernmental institutions, the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council is the Supreme Body of the Union, consisting of the Heads of the Member States. The second level of institutions is represented by the Eurasian Intergovernmental Council. The day-to-day work of the EAEU is done through the Eurasian Economic Commission, there is also a judicial body - the Court of the EAEU. After the end of the Cold War and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia, post-Soviet states underwent economic reforms and privatisation. The idea was seen as a way to bolster trade, boost investments in the region. During the 1990s, the Eurasian integration process was slow, possibly due to the crisis experienced after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. As a result, numerous treaties have been signed by states to establish the regional trading bloc gradually. In 1995, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, and later acceding states Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan signed the first agreements on the establishment of a Customs Union and its purpose was to gradually lead the way toward the creation of open borders without passport controls between member states. The treaty established a market for its member states. The Eurasian Economic Community was modelled on the European Economic Community, the two had a comparable population size of 171 million and 169 million, respectively
