1.
Communes of France
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The commune is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are roughly equivalent to civil townships incorporated municipalities in the United States or Gemeinden in Germany, the United Kingdom has no exact equivalent, as communes resemble districts in urban areas, but are closer to parishes in rural areas where districts are much larger. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and have received significant powers of governance to manage the populations, the communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France. A French commune may be a city of 2.2 million inhabitants like Paris, communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes, a commune is a town, city, or municipality. Use of commune in English is a habit, and one that might be corrected. There is nothing in commune in French that is different from town in English. The French word commune appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin communia, as of January 2015, there were 36,681 communes in France,36,552 of them in metropolitan France and 129 of them overseas. This is a higher total than that of any other European country. The whole territory of the French Republic is divided into communes and this is unlike some other countries, such as the United States, where unincorporated areas directly governed by a county or a higher authority can be found. There are only a few exceptions, COM of Saint-Martin and it was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe région. The commune structure was abolished when Saint-Martin became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007, COM of Wallis and Futuna, which still is divided according to the three traditional chiefdoms. It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe region, the commune structure was abolished when Saint-Barthélemy became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007.88 square kilometres. The median area of metropolitan Frances communes at the 1999 census was even smaller, the median area is a better measure of the area of a typical French commune. This median area is smaller than that of most European countries. In Italy, the area of communes is 22 km2, in Belgium it is 40 km2, in Spain it is 35 km2, and in Germany. Switzerland and the Länder of Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia in Germany were the places in Europe where the communes had a smaller median area than in France. The communes of Frances overseas départements such as Réunion and French Guiana are large by French standards and they usually group into the same commune several villages or towns, often with sizeable distances among them
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
4.
Regions of France
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France is divided into 18 administrative regions, including 13 metropolitan regions and 5 overseas regions. The current legal concept of region was adopted in 1982, the term région was officially created by the Law of Decentralisation, which also gave regions their legal status. The first direct elections for representatives took place on 16 March 1986. In 2016, the number of regions was reduced from 27 to 18 through amalgamation, in 2014, the French parliament passed a law reducing the number of metropolitan regions from 22 to 13 with effect from 1 January 2016. However, the region of Upper and Lower Normandy is simply called Normandy. Permanent names were to be proposed by the new regional councils by 1 July 2016, the legislation defining the new regions also allowed the Centre region to officially change its name to Centre-Val de Loire with effect from January 2015. Two regions, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, opted to retain their interim names, between 1982 and 2015, there were 22 regions in Metropolitan France. Before 2011, there were four regions, in 2011 Mayotte became the fifth. Regions lack separate legislative authority and therefore cannot write their own statutory law and they levy their own taxes and, in return, receive a decreasing part of their budget from the central government, which gives them a portion of the taxes it levies. They also have considerable budgets managed by a council made up of representatives voted into office in regional elections. A regions primary responsibility is to build and furnish high schools, in March 2004, the French central government unveiled a controversial plan to transfer regulation of certain categories of non-teaching school staff to the regional authorities. Critics of this plan contended that tax revenue was insufficient to pay for the costs. In addition, regions have considerable power over infrastructural spending, e. g. education, public transit, universities and research. This has meant that the heads of regions such as Île-de-France or Rhône-Alpes can be high-profile positions. Number of regions controlled by each coalition since 1986, Overseas region is a recent designation, given to the overseas departments that have similar powers to those of the regions of metropolitan France. Radio France Internationale in English Overseas regions Ministère de lOutre-Mer some explanations about the past and current developments of DOMs and TOMs
5.
Departments of France
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In the administrative divisions of France, the department is one of the three levels of government below the national level, between the administrative regions and the commune. There are 96 departments in metropolitan France and 5 overseas departments, each department is administered by an elected body called a departmental council. From 1800 to April 2015, they were called general councils, the departments were created in 1791 as a rational replacement of Ancien Régime provinces with a view to strengthen national unity, the title department is used to mean a part of a larger whole. Almost all of them were named after geographical features rather than after historical or cultural territories which could have their own loyalties. The earliest known suggestion of it is from 1764 in the writings of dArgenson and they have inspired similar divisions in many countries, some of them former French colonies. Most French departments are assigned a number, the Official Geographical Code. Some overseas departments have a three-digit number, the number is used, for example, in the postal code, and was until recently used for all vehicle registration plates. For example, inhabitants of Loiret might refer to their department as the 45 and this reform project has since been abandoned. The first French territorial departments were proposed in 1665 by Marc-René dArgenson to serve as administrative areas purely for the Ponts et Chaussées infrastructure administration, before the French Revolution, France gained territory gradually through the annexation of a mosaic of independent entities. By the close of the Ancien Régime, it was organised into provinces, during the period of the Revolution, these were dissolved, partly in order to weaken old loyalties. Their boundaries served two purposes, Boundaries were chosen to break up Frances historical regions in an attempt to erase cultural differences, Boundaries were set so that every settlement in the country was within a days ride of the capital of the department. This was a security measure, intended to keep the national territory under close control. This measure was directly inspired by the Great Terror, during which the government had lost control of rural areas far from any centre of government. The old nomenclature was carefully avoided in naming the new departments, most were named after an areas principal river or other physical features. Even Paris was in the department of Seine, the number of departments, initially 83, was increased to 130 by 1809 with the territorial gains of the Republic and of the First French Empire. Following Napoleons defeats in 1814-1815, the Congress of Vienna returned France to its pre-war size, in 1860, France acquired the County of Nice and Savoy, which led to the creation of three new departments. Two were added from the new Savoyard territory, while the department of Alpes-Maritimes was created from Nice, the 89 departments were given numbers based on their alphabetical order. The department of Bas-Rhin and parts of Meurthe, Moselle, Vosges and Haut-Rhin were ceded to the German Empire in 1871, following Frances defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
6.
Yvelines
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Yvelines is a French department in the region of Île-de-France. It inherited Seine-et-Oises official number of 78 and it gained the communes of Châteaufort and Toussus-le-Noble from the adjacent department of Essonne in 1969. Yvelines is bordered by the departments of Val-dOise on the north, Hauts-de-Seine on the east, Essonne on the southeast, Eure-et-Loir on the southwest, and Eure on the west. Two regional parks can be found in Yvelines, the parc of the Haute Vallée de Chevreuse, Yvelines is home to one of Frances best known golf courses, La Tuilerie-Bignon, in the village of Saint-Nom-la-Bretèche. In French, a man from the Yvelines is called Yvelinois, a woman is Yvelinoise
7.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
8.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
9.
Kilometre zero
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In many countries, Kilometre Zero or similar terms in other languages is a particular location, from which distances are traditionally measured. They were markers where drivers could set their odometers to follow directions in early guide books, a similar notion also exists for individual roads, and for individual cities. The most famous such marker of any part survives from ancient times is the Milliarium Aureum of the Roman Empire. Argentina marks Kilometre Zero with a monolith in Plaza Congreso in Buenos Aires. The work of the brothers Máximo and José Fioravanti, the structure was placed on the side of Plaza Lorea on October 2,1935. Highways in Australia are usually built and maintained by the states and territories, in the state of New South Wales, highway distances were traditionally measured from a sandstone obelisk in Macquarie Place in Sydney, designed by Francis Greenway in 1818. The obelisk lists the distances to locations in New South Wales at the time. For the railway, it is located at platform 1 of Sydney Central Station, the Byzantine Empire had an arched building, the Milion of Constantinople, as the starting-place for the measurement of distances for all the roads leading to the other cities. In the 1960s, some fragments were discovered and erected in its location, now in the district of Eminönü, Istanbul. The kilometre zero marker of the origin of the Trans-Canada Highway is located in St. Johns. Coordinates, 47°33′39. 78″N 52°42′44. 33″W Altitude,14.02 m The western origin of the Trans-Canada Highway in Victoria, Mile zero of the Trans Canada Trail is located adjacent to the Railway Coastal Museum in St. Johns, Newfoundland. Coordinates, 47°33′14. 0″N 52°42′50. 5″W Altitude,4.5 m Mile zero for the Alaska Highway is located in Dawson Creek, all national distances from Santiago originate at the Km.0 plaque, located at the Plaza de Armas main square in downtown Santiago. Chiles Autopista Central – Eje Norte-Sur has its Kilometre Zero at the intersection with the Alameda del Libertador Bernardo OHiggins, China Railways 0 km is located at the entrance to the Fengtai Yard on the Jingguang Line just outside Beijing. This point was historically the start of the line, the marker is a concrete marker. The kilometre zero point for highways is located at Tiananmen Square and it is marked with a plaque in the ground, with the four cardinal points, four animals, and Zero Point of Highways, China in English and Chinese. Cubas Kilometre Zero is located in its capital Havana in El Capitolio, embedded in the floor in the centre of the main hall is a replica 25 carat diamond, which marks Kilometre Zero for Cuba. It was replaced in El Capitolio by a replica in 1973, dR-1, DR-2, and DR-3 all depart from Kilometre Zero from Santo Domingos Parque de Independencia. Kilometre Zero in Egypt is located at the Attaba Square Post Office in 1st of Abdel Khaliq Sarwat Pasha Street, Cairo
10.
Colloquy of Poissy
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The Colloquy at Poissy was a religious conference which took place in Poissy, France, in 1561. Its object was to effect a reconciliation between the Catholics and Protestants of France, the conference was opened on 9 September in the refectory of the convent of Poissy, the French king himself being present. It broke up inconclusively a month later, on 9 October, the Calvinist faction in France, though less than half a million in number, was strong and vocal, under the guidance of several princes of the royal blood and members of the higher nobility. The spread of Protestantism and the application of its principle of private judgment produced far-reaching differences in belief. To heal these and so bring about unity, a conference was held at Weimar in 1560, the heads of the Catholic party had attempted to frustrate any form of negotiation. Disaffection towards the Holy See had paralysed French Catholic activity, instead, Catherine and her advisers chose a religious conference under the direction of the civil power. The Pope tried to prevent, what under the circumstances had to be construed by Catholics as, the defiance of his ecclesiastical authority. The Pope sent as papal legate Ippolito dEste, known as the Cardinal of Ferrara, with James Laynez, the second General superior of the Jesuits, as his adviser, to dissuade the regent, but the affair had gone too far. At the conference, six French Cardinals and thirty-eight archbishops and bishops, with a host of minor prelates and doctors, spent a month in discussions with the Calvinists. Beza was assisted by Nicolas des Gallars, who wrote a report of the conference, for Edmund Grindal, on 9 September the representatives of the rival denominations began their pleadings. The proceedings were opened by a speech of Chancellor LHôpital, who emphasized the right, the spokesman of the Reformed Church was Beza, who, in the first session, gave a lengthy exposition of its tenets. Bezas speech explained the principles of the Reformed understanding of the Eucharist, it was revised and emended. He excited such repugnance by his pronouncements on the Communion that he was interrupted by Cardinal François de Tournon, Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine replied in the second session. On the Catholic side there existed little wish for conciliation, the Jesuit Laynez then claimed that the divinely appointed judge of the religious controversies was the Pope, not the Court of France. The acrimony with which he opposed the Protestants at least clarified the situation, catharine appointed a smaller committee of five Calvinists and five Roman Catholics. Their task was to devise a formula on which the two churches might unite with regard to the question of the Eucharist, the Cardinal of Lorraine had asked whether the Calvinists were prepared to sign the Confession of Augsburg, a matter of dissension between them and the Lutheran Protestants. The committee drafted a vague formula which could be interpreted in a Catholic or a Calvinistic sense, the assemblage of prelates refused assent, and the Calvinists would not commit themselves to the Lutheran Confession. The Catholic Church continued the Council of Trent until 1565, and issued statements on the Eucharist
11.
Matford
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Matford was a car and truck manufacturer in France from 1934 to 1940. In the early 1930s, the Ford Motor Company was quickly expanding its European production, while Mathis had financial problems, Ford were keen to increase production and the Mathis plant in Strasbourg seemed more suitable than their existing workshop in Asnières-sur-Seine. A joint venture between Ford and Mathis was created under the name of Matford S. A. formally created on 1 October 1934, the initial cars were locally assembled versions of contemporary American and British Ford models. During 1935, under the direction of Maurice Dollfus who had joined Ford in 1930. There were high hopes for the Matford collaboration which, in 1934, was expected to last for fifty years, in 1935 a range of V-8 engined Matfords was put on the market which were very similar to the American Ford Model 48s with their V-8 3622cc engines. A French version appeared in 1936 as the model that has come to be known as the Matford Alsace, with a choice of a 2,225 or 3,621 cc V-8 engine, a cabriolet was also listed. The 1937 models were known at the time simply as the Matford 13CV. Both featured a V-shaped windscreen and in 1938 a US style timber bodied estate car joined the range, the steel car bodies were purchased from the coachbuilders Chausson rather than being built inhouse. Volume passenger car production ended in 1940 with the buildup of truck orders for the French army, though a number were made during the German occupation. Ford links with Mathis were severed, fords French business was restructured in 1940, now taking the name Ford Société Anonyme Française and this company used the Ford trademark. Émile Mathis, fearing persecution under German occupation, escaped to the United States where he spent the war, Matford cars achieved success at the Coupe de Dames and at Monte Carlo. Ford Société Anonyme Française Ford Motor Company Front wheel drive Mathis Tracford Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile, ISBN 1-57958-293-1 http, //dvole. free. fr/matford/ Matford, constructeur automobile
12.
Ford SAF
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Ford SAF was the French subsidiary of the American automaker Ford Motor Company, which existed under various names between 1916 and 1954, when Ford sold the manufacturing business to Simca. After 1954 the residuum was renamed Ford France and became an importer of such as the British-built Ford Anglia. The company was formed in Bordeaux as Société Française des Automobiles Ford in 1916 by Percival Perry, Model As were made from 1927 to 1931 and Model Ys from 1932 to 1934. The company also imported the US-built V8-powered Ford Model B, but import taxes made them very expensive, the new company name was Matford SA. Ownership was split 60%/40% with Ford having the larger share, Ford had commissioned a new plant of its own at Poissy in 1937, with the stated intention of pulling out of the Strasbourg based Matford project. By the time Poissy came on stream, in 1940, France had been invaded, meanwhile, a small number of 13CV Matford V8 passenger cars, now branded as Fords, continued to be produced at least until 1942. After the war the company re-introduced the smaller 2,225 cc V8-engined Matford model, the car was known in France as the Ford 13CV, although subsequently it is also called more formally the Ford F-472 and, after the first 300 had been produced, the Ford F-472A. In addition to the familiar four-door sedan/saloon, chassis with front half bodies were made available to coachbuilders. The 13CV was valued by customers for its space, comfort, style. In 1947 the company produced 3,023 of its 13CVs, the Citroën was already being produced at more than three times that rate. This model, launched in October at the 1948 Paris Motor Show as the Ford 12CV Vedette now replaced the F-472A, the Vedette was joined in 1952 by its upmarket counterparts, the Vendôme, and Comète sports coupé, cars that were not shared with any other Ford subsidiary. In November 1954 Ford merged the entire French operation to Simca at first keeping 15.2 per cent of the company, apart from the plant, Simca also acquired plans for a new Vedette, with the 2351 cc V8, which was made until 1961 as Simca Vedette. At the end of the decade, Chrysler in turn divested its European operations to PSA, finally, in the second half of the 1980s, the Talbot brand was axed and Poissy became one of the most important production sites for the Peugeot brand and continues to be today. Ford England Ford Germany Ford do Brasil Ford France http, //dvole. free. fr/matford/ Matford Constructeur automobile http, //dvole. free. fr/fordsaf/fordsaf. htm Ford Société Anonyme Française - Poissy
13.
Simca
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Simca was a French automaker, founded in November 1934 by Fiat and directed from July 1935 to May 1963 by Italian Henri Théodore Pigozzi. Simca was affiliated with Fiat and then, after Simca bought Fords French activities, in 1970, Simca became a subsidiary and brand of Chrysler Europe, ending its period as an independent company. Simca disappeared in 1978, when Chrysler divested its European operations to another French automaker, PSA replaced the Simca brand with Talbot after a short period when some models were badged as Simca-Talbots. During most of its activity, Simca was one of the biggest automobile manufacturers in France. For instance the Simca 1307 was sold in Britain as the Chrysler Alpine, Simca vehicles were also manufactured by Simca do Brasil in São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil, and Barreiros in Spain. They were also assembled in Australia, Chile, Colombia and the Netherlands during the Chrysler era, Henri Théodore Pigozzi was active in the automotive business in the early 1920s when he met Fiat founder, Giovanni Agnelli. They began business together in 1922 with Pigozzi acting as a merchant, buying old automobile bodies. Two years later Pigozzi became Fiats General Agent in France, in 1928, SAFAF started the assembly of Fiat cars in Suresnes near Paris, and licensed the production of some parts to local suppliers. By 1934, as many as 30,000 Fiat cars were sold by SAFAF, the SIMCA company was founded in 1935 by FIAT, when Fiat bought the former Donnet factory in the French town of Nanterre. The first cars produced were Fiat 508 Balillas and Fiat 518 Arditas and they were followed during 1936 by the Simca Cinq or 5CV, a version of the Fiat Topolino announced in the Spring, but only available for sale from October 1936. The Huit, an 8CV version of the Fiat 508C-1100, appeared in 1937, production of the 6CV and 11CV stopped in 1937, leaving the 5CV and the 8CV in production until the outbreak of World War II. The firm nevertheless remained closely connected with Fiat, and it was not until 1938 that the shortened name Simca replaced Simca-Fiat, of the businesses that emerged as Frances big four auto-makers after the war, Simca was unique in not suffering serious bomb damage to its plant. Despite France being occupied, Simca cars continued to be produced in numbers throughout the war. Nevertheless, shortly after the liberation the Nanterre plants financial sustainability received a boost when Simca won a contract from the American army to repair large numbers of Jeep engines, on 3 January 1946 the new government’s five-year plan for the automobile industry came into force. Grégoire owed his influence to a powerfully persuasive personality and an engineering talent. Regarding the future of the French automobile industry, Grégoire held strong opinions, a few weeks after the liberation Grégoire joined the Simca board as General Technical Director, in order to prepare for the production of the AFG at the company’s Nanterre factory. For Simca, faced with a determinedly dirigiste left-wing French government, in return, Grégoire obtained the personal commitment of the surviving Director General to the production at Nanterre of his two-door AFG. It is very easy to see how the two-door AFG looked, because its four-door equivalent went into production, little changed from Grégoire’s prototype and it was a car designed by an engineer, and Pigozzi thought it ugly
14.
Chrysler
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FCA US is one of the Big Three American automobile manufacturers. FCA US has its headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan and sells vehicles worldwide under its flagship Chrysler brand, as well as the Dodge, Jeep, other major divisions include Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The Chrysler Corporation was founded by Walter Chrysler in 1925, out of what remained of the Maxwell Motor Company, Chrysler greatly expanded in 1928, when Mr. The brand diversification efforts were inspired by Mr. Chryslers time working for General Motors, in the 1960s the company expanded into Europe, by taking control of French, British and Spanish auto companies, Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for $1. Chrysler struggled through the 1970s to adapt to changing markets, increased US import competition, the company began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. By the late 1970s, Chrysler was on the verge of bankruptcy, New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship, in 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation, which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was hit hard by the industry crisis of 2008–2010. On June 10,2009, Chrysler emerged from the proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S. p. A. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts, by May 24,2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U. S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years Fiat gradually acquired the other parties shares while removing much of the weight of the loans in a short period. On January 1,2014, Fiat S. p. A announced a deal to purchase the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust. The deal was completed on January 21,2014, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S. p. A, in May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, NV was established by merging Fiat S. p. A. into the company. This was completed in August 2014, Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15,2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6,1925, Walter Chrysler arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s. He was hired to overhaul the companys troubled operations, in late 1923 production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile, the Chrysler was a 6-cylinder automobile, designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, but at a more affordable price than they might expect. The original 1924 Chrysler included an air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication
15.
Talbot
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Talbot or Clément-Talbot Limited was a London automobile manufacturer founded in 1903. Clément-Talbots products were named just Talbot from shortly after introduction but the business did remain Clément-Talbot Limited until 1938 when it was renamed Sunbeam-Talbot Limited, both men, Chetwynd-Talbot and Clément-Bayard, reduced their financial interests in their Clément-Talbot business during the First World War. Soon after the end of the war Clément-Talbot was brought into a combine named S T D Motors, shortly afterwards S T D Motors French products were renamed Talbot instead of Darracq. In the mid 1930s Rootes bought the London Talbot factory and Antonio Lago bought the Paris Talbot factory, then Lago used Talbot or Talbot-Lago in Paris. In 1938 Rootes renamed Clément-Talbot Limited Sunbeam-Talbot Limited, Rootes stopped using the brand name Talbot in the mid-1950s, the Paris factory closed a few years later. The marque came by a series of takeovers to Peugeot S. A. which revived use of the Talbot name from 1978 until 1994. In December 1919 A Darracq and Company Limited of London with its factory in Suresnes, Paris, bought the entire capital of Clément-Talbot and later bought Sunbeam and those initials referred to Sunbeam, Talbot and Darracq. But in the depth of the Great Depression S T D Motors became unable to pay its debts and its subsidiaries managed to find buyers and in 1936 S T D Motors ceased to exist. Clément-Talbot continued to be famous for the design and quality of its products, Clément-Talbot was bought by Rootes Group and later renamed Sunbeam-Talbot. Then Sunbeam alone twenty years after that, in 1920 Suresnes products were branded Talbot-Darracq but the word Darracq was dropped in 1922. Following the financial collapse of S T D Motors and Pariss Automobiles Talbot Antonio Lago, Antonio Lago involved Talbot in sports car and Grand Prix racing as well as producing high quality luxury cars. In the postwar world of austerity and socialism the French government introduced punitive annual taxation on cars with larger than 2. 6-litres. Lago continued the Talbot business until 1958 when the doors were closed. The dormant Talbot marque was sold to Simca, Simca was bought by Chrysler Europe in 1970. PSA Peugeot Citroën acquired the still dormant Talbot marque when it bought Chrysler in 1978, with mounting pressure on its core North American business, the decision was taken by Chryslers then CEO Lee Iacocca to offload the ailing European operations. The French Government persuaded both Renault and PSA Peugeot Citroën to bid for the company, as it was keen to keep Simca in domestic ownership. In August 1978, PSA purchased Chrysler Europe for a nominal $1, the Peugeot takeover saw the end of the Rootes Chrysler Hunter production, but the Simca-designed 1510, and Horizon continued as Talbots. All former Chrysler products registered in Britain after 1 August 1979 bore the Talbot badge, the entry-level model in the Talbot range from 1982 onwards would be the Talbot Samba, a three-door hatchback based on the Peugeot 104
16.
Peugeot
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For the article about the bicycle manufacturer, see Cycles Peugeot. Peugeot is a French car manufacturer, part of Groupe PSA, the family business that preceded the current Peugeot company was founded in 1810, and manufactured coffee mills and bicycles. On 20 November 1858, Émile Peugeot applied for the lion trademark, due to family discord, Armand Peugeot in 1896 founded the Société des Automobiles Peugeot. The Peugeot company and family are originally from Sochaux, France, Peugeot retains a large manufacturing plant and Peugeot museum there. In February 2014, the agreed to a recapitalisation plan, in which Dongfeng Motors. Peugeot has received international awards for its vehicles, including five European Car of the Year awards. In 2013 and 2014, Peugeot ranked the second lowest for average CO2 emissions among generalist brands in Europe, the Renault car maker group being ranked first, with 114. 9g CO2/km. Peugeot is known as a very reliable brand, citing how its 1950s and 1960s models are running in Africa and Cuba in the 2010s. Peugeot has been involved in sport for more than a century. In 2015, Peugeot returned to the Dakar Rally after its four victories in the 1980s, the Peugeot family of Valentigney, Montbéliard, Franche-Comté, France, began in the manufacturing business in the 19th century. In 1842, they added production of coffee, pepper, the companys entry into the vehicle market was by means of crinoline dresses, which used steel rods, leading to umbrella frames, saw blades, chisels, wire wheels, and bicycles. Armand Peugeot introduced his Le Grand Bi penny-farthing in 1882, along with a range of other bicycles, the car company and bike company parted ways in 1926 but Peugeot bicycles continued to be built until very recently. Armand Peugeot became interested in the early on and, after meeting with Gottlieb Daimler. The first Peugeot automobile, a three-wheeled, steam-powered car designed by Léon Serpollet, was produced in 1889, steam power was heavy and bulky and required lengthy warmup times. In 1890, after meeting Daimler and Émile Levassor, steam was abandoned in favour of a car with a petrol-fuelled internal combustion engine built by Panhard under Daimler licence. The car was more sophisticated than many of its contemporaries, with a three-point suspension, an example was sold to the young Alberto Santos-Dumont, who exported it to Brazil. More cars followed,29 being built in 1892,40 in 1894,72 in 1895,156 in 1898 and these early models were given type numbers. Peugeot became the first manufacturer to fit rubber tyres to a petrol-powered car, Peugeot was an early pioneer in motor racing, with Albert Lemaître winning the worlds first motor race, the Paris–Rouen, in a 3 hp Peugeot
17.
Poissy Station
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Poissy is a rail station in Poissy, France, at the western edge of Paris. The station is situated at kilometric point 25.835 of Paris–Le Havre railway, the station is inaugurated on May 9,1843, then rebuilt in the 1870s. The building is dismantled in 1987 to make room for the current station, from May 29,1989, the station is a terminus of one of the three western branches of RER A. Poissy is served by RER A trains running on branch A5. Service frequency is three trains an hour at off-peek time, six trains an hour during peek hours and two trains an hour at evenings, journey time to La Défense is around 20 minutes, and around 30 minutes to Châtelet - Les Halles. The station is served by Transilien line J. Service frequency is two trains an hour at off-peek time and at evenings, and two or three trains an hour during peek hours. Journey time to Paris Saint-Lazare is around 20 minutes
18.
RER A
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RER line A is one of the five lines in the RER rapid transit system serving Paris, France. The line runs from the termini of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Cergy Le Haut and Poissy to the eastern termini of Boissy-Saint-Léger. It is formed from the connection of the Saint-Germain-en-Laye-Nanterre line in the west to the Vincennes – Boissy-St-Léger line in the east, two branches were added in the west, to Poissy and the new town of Cergy-Pontoise, and in the east to the new town of Marne-la-Vallée. The two latest extensions were to Cergy-Le Haut and Disneyland Paris, with more than one million passengers per workday, line A is the busiest Parisian RER and metro line. Ever-increasing traffic volume and the need to ward off imminent saturation have been factors in RATP. SACEM is still one of the most advanced traffic control systems, parisians have become used to the sight of a train pulling into a station as the one before it is just clearing the platform. Around the same time, RATP ordered a significant number of MI79/MI84 trains to remedy premature wear and tear on MS61 stock caused by over-utilization on Line A. Later in the 1980s, the need to relieve congestion on the segment of Line A was a key factor in selecting the route of the new. The same need governed the choice of the route of RER Line E in the early 1990s and is a factor in plans for that lines westward or south-westward extension. A new class of double-deck trains entered service in 1998, in part a product of RATPs belief that no further infrastructure improvement would relieve congestion on Line A. This was followed in 2011 by the MI09 double-decker stock, aimed at replacing the aging MI84, one simple solution to the congestion problem that has never been implemented is a change in the seating configuration in the trains. The RER is unusual among high-capacity urban train networks in its attachment to transverse seating, a change to longitudinal seating typically reduces the number of seats by 10% but increases standing room by 30%. The result is increased capacity and a less cramped ride for those without seats,14 December 1969, RATP buys the ligne de Vincennes from SNCF, connecting Bastille with Boissy-Saint-Léger in the east. A new 2. 5-km tunnel between Vincennes and Nation, which replaces Bastille as the terminus, length,17.5 km.21 February 1970, RATP buys the ligne de St-Germain from SNCF, connecting the Gare Saint-Lazare with Saint-Germain-en-Laye in the west. A new tunnel between La Défense and the Place de lÉtoile, which replaces St-Lazare as the terminus, shuttle service is operated La Défense – Étoile,4 km.23 November 1971, Tunnel opened Étoile – Auber,2 km. Shuttle service extended to operate La Défense – Auber,1 October 1972, Tunnel opened La Défense – Nanterre-Université,2 km. Shuttle service extended on the ligne de St-Germain to operate Saint-Germain – Auber, October 1973, New underground station, Nanterre-Préfecture, between La Défense and Nanterre-Université. 9 December 1977, The lines are connected by a 6-km tunnel, giving birth to the RER A line, two new stations, Châtelet-les Halles and Gare de Lyon
19.
Groupe PSA
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PSA is listed on the Euronext Paris stock exchange and is again a constituent of the CAC40 index after having been removed in 2012. Beginning in 2016, PSA began to outline a strategy which entailed the expansion of the company. PSA has announced plans to enter the Indian, American, Canadian, ASEAN, headquartered in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, PSA was in 2016 the third-largest Europe-based automaker. Following the completion of the acquisition of the GM Opel and Vauxhall Motors brands. In December 1974 Peugeot S. A. acquired a 38. 2% share of Citroën, on 9 April 1976 they increased their stake of the then bankrupt company to 89. 95%, thus creating the PSA Group, becoming PSA Peugeot Citroën. Since Citroën had two new designs in the market at this time and Peugeot was typically prudent in its own finances. Further investment was required because PSA decided to create a new brand for the entity for the disparate French and British models, based on the Talbot sports car last seen in the 1950s. From then on, the whole Chrysler/Simca range was sold under the Talbot badge until production of Talbot-branded passenger cars was shelved in 1987, all of this investment caused serious financial problems for the entire PSA group, PSA lost money from 1980 to 1985. In 1987, the dropped the Talbot brand for passenger cars when it ceased production of the Simca-developed Horizon. What was to have been the Talbot Arizona became the Peugeot 309, with the former Rootes plant in Ryton, producing Peugeots in Ryton was significant, as it signalled the first time that PSA would build cars in the UK. The Talbot name survived for a longer on commercial vehicles until 1992 before being shelved completely. From 1987 to 1995, the plant also produced the Peugeot 405 saloon, on 29 February 2012, PSA announced the creation of a major alliance with General Motors, as part of which GM became PSAs second-largest shareholder, after the Peugeot family, with a holding of 7%. The alliance was intended to enable $2 billion per year of cost savings through platform sharing, common purchasing and other economies of scale. In July 2012, an official said that PSA Peugeot Citroën would cut as much as 10 percent of its French workforce of 100,356 employees on permanent. The jobs cut was more than previously announced, on 24 October, PSA said it was close to an agreement with creditor banks on €11.5 billion of refinancing and had won state guarantees on €7 billion in further borrowing by its Banque PSA Finance. And in doing so, PSA ended up losing revenue rapidly, CEO Philippe Varin says that Citroën and Peugeot are too close, so he plans on positioning Citroën C-line models lower than Peugeot with DS models above Peugeot. On 12 December 2013, General Motors announced it was selling its 7% stake in PSA Peugeot Citroën, in early 2016, PSA unveiled a roadmap detailing its plan to re-enter the North American car market for the first time in almost forty years. Although many only expected the DS to enter the North American market, on 10 February 2017, PSA announced the purchase of Hindustan Motors and the Hindustan Ambassador brand, which will be used to sell Peugeot and Citröen vehicles in India beginning in 2018
20.
Mahle GmbH
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MAHLE GmbH is an automotive parts manufacturer based in Stuttgart, Germany. It is one of the largest automotive suppliers worldwide, in 2014, Mahle GmbH sales amounted to nearly €10 billion. As of 2016, its 76,000 employees work in 170+ production plants and thirteen research and development centers in Germany, Great Britain, United States, Brazil, Japan, China, and India. Worldwide,5000 development engineers and technicians work as partners for MAHLEs customers on new products, in 1920 the engineer and pilot Hellmuth Hirth established together with others a small workshop in Cannstatt, where he developed and constructed a two-stroke engine. 26-year-old Hermann Mahle started working for Hellmuth Hirth on December 1,1920, the workshop was then called Versuchsbau Hellmuth Hirth. December 1,1920 is acknowledged as the birthday of today’s MAHLE Group and it soon became clear that the workshop would not survive by only conducting engine tests. So the need arose to build a line of production in order to finance ongoing engine tests. At that time, in the production, pistons were generally made of cast iron. Versuchsbau Hellmuth Hirth decided to attempt to build light-alloy pistons for combustion engines, on November 1,1922 Hermann Mahles brother, Ernst Mahle, joined the factory as Head of Engineering. In 1924 the company was renamed Elektrometall GmbH, in 1927, the company developed the first controlled-expansion piston in Germany and in 1931, the world’s first aluminum ring carrier piston for Diesel engines. Following this, piston technology was steadily improved, in 1938 the conversion into MAHLE KG took place and the new company logo was introduced. New products were developed and produced, in 1964, the company founders Hermann and Ernst Mahle decided to waive private ownership in their companies and make the companies part of a foundation for public benefit. They renounced the largest part of their property and transferred the company shares to the MAHLE Foundation. In 1976 MAHLE placed the first European aluminum engine blocks made in low-pressure die casting ready for series production, in 1988 the composite camshaft is enhanced to production standard, and in 2001 MAHLE presented a cooling concept for pistons in high-speed passenger car Diesel engines. The first all-plastic oil filter in the world followed in 2003, MAHLE developed and constructed its first complete engine in the same year, which was applied in the Formula Student. In 2010, the MAHLE Group generated sales in excess of €5.2 billion, in 2011, the MAHLE Group generated sales in excess of €6.0 billion. Filtration and Engine Peripherals, Develops and produces components and systems for automotive air, Thermal Management, Components, modules, and systems for vehicle air conditioning and engine cooling. Aftermarket, Our extensive spare parts range for maintenance and engine repair represents uncompromising OEM quality
21.
Faurecia
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Faurecia is the 6th largest international automotive parts manufacturer in the world, in 2013 it was #1 for vehicle interiors and emission control technology. One in four automobiles is equipped by Faurecia and it designs and manufactures seats, exhaust systems, interior systems and decorative aspects of a vehicle. Faurecias customers include the Volkswagen group, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Renault-Nissan, Ford, General Motors, BMW, Daimler, Fiat/Chrysler, Toyota, headquartered in Nanterre, France, Faurecia employs 5,500 engineers and technicians. The company operates over 320 production sites and 30 R&D centres in 34 countries worldwide, about half of these sites are manufacturing plants operating on the just-in-time principle. Faurecia joined the United Nations Global Compact in 2004, while French car manufacturer PSA Peugeot Citroën is Faurecias controlling shareholder, holding around 57. 4% stake, Faurecia is run as an independent company
22.
Siemens
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Siemens AG is a German conglomerate company headquartered in Berlin and Munich and the largest manufacturing and electronics company in Europe with branch offices abroad. The principal divisions of the company are Industry, Energy, Healthcare, and Infrastructure & Cities, the company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. Siemens and its subsidiaries employ approximately 362,000 people worldwide, the von Siemens family remain the largest shareholder with a stake of 6. 9% percent. Siemens & Halske was founded by Werner von Siemens and Johann Georg Halske on 12 October 1847, based on the telegraph, their invention used a needle to point to the sequence of letters, instead of using Morse code. The company, then called Telegraphen-Bauanstalt von Siemens & Halske, opened its first workshop on 12 October, in 1848, the company built the first long-distance telegraph line in Europe,500 km from Berlin to Frankfurt am Main. In 1850, the younger brother, Carl Wilhelm Siemens, later Sir William Siemens. The London agency became an office in 1858. In the 1850s, the company was involved in building long distance telegraph networks in Russia, in 1855, a company branch headed by another brother, Carl Heinrich von Siemens, opened in St Petersburg, Russia. In 1867, Siemens completed the monumental Indo-European telegraph line, in 1867, Werner von Siemens described a dynamo without permanent magnets. A similar system was independently invented by Charles Wheatstone. In 1881, a Siemens AC Alternator driven by a watermill was used to power the worlds first electric lighting in the town of Godalming. The company continued to grow and diversified into electric trains and light bulbs, in 1890, the founder retired and left running the company to his brother Carl and sons Arnold and Wilhelm. In 1887, it opened its first office in Japan, Siemens & Halske was incorporated in 1897, and then merged parts of its activities with Schuckert & Co. Nuremberg in 1903 to become Siemens-Schuckert, in 1907, Siemens had 34,324 employees and was the seventh-largest company in the German empire by number of employees. In 1919, S & H and two companies jointly formed the Osram lightbulb company. During the 1920s and 1930s, S & H started to manufacture radios, television sets, in the 1920s, Siemens constructed the Ardnacrusha Hydro Power station on the River Shannon in the then Irish Free State, and it was a world first for its design. The company is remembered for its desire to raise the wages of its workers only to be overruled by the Cumann na nGaedheal government. Siemens exploited the forced labour of deported people in extermination camps, the company owned a plant in Auschwitz concentration camp
23.
Rochas
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Rochas is a fashion, beauty, and perfume house founded in 1925 by French designer Marcel Rochas the first designer of 2/3-length coats and skirts with pockets. It is currently owned by the multinational Inter Parfums, Rochas had been known primarily for its signature perfume, Femme, which was packaged in a pink box with black lace. The company found recent recognition for its design when it chose Olivier Theyskens as its creative director in 2002. Theyskens, within his first few months, created a new silhouette for the house that was French-influenced. His first full collection, for Fall 2003, was praised by style. com as ravishing and nothing short of magnificent, for the next several years, Rochas continued to garner praise among fashion critics and to attract loyal followers. Rochas clients included Nicole Kidman, Jennifer Aniston, Kirsten Dunst, Kate Bosworth, Jennifer Lopez, Rachel Weisz, in 2006, the Council of Fashion Designers of America awarded Theyskens the International Award. However, Theyskens focus on demicouture was questioned by fashion insiders as a business strategy. His gowns, some of which were priced upwards of $20,000, were out of reach for all. Theyskens took an approach to fashion and did not rely on accessory sales. In July 2006, Procter & Gamble announced the discontinuation of Rochas fashion division, one longtime designer, commenting anonymously in the New York Times, said of the closure, That sort of perfect, made-to-measure business cant exist today, which is really too bad. Everything is about now, and fashion shouldnt have to follow normal economic models—thats not the point. What happened to investing in beauty, news emerged in 2008 that there were plans to reopen the fashion house. On November 3,2008, Marco Zanini was named new director for the fashion house. He showed his first collection during Paris Fashion Week in February 2009, about half a century separate Marco Zanini from the creator and founder of the house, Marcel Rochas. Born in 1971, Marco Zanini graduated from the Fine Arts Academy of Milan in 1995, after having been Assistant at Dolce & Gabbana for their ready-to-wear line, he became Donatella Versaces right arm. He then relaunched the American brand of Halston, Rochas conferred the responsibility of its ready-to-wear collections upon him in 2009. In September 2013, it was confirmed that Zanini would be leaving Rochas after five years with the brand to take on the role of Creative Director at the House of Schiaparelli and he would be replaced by Alessandro DellAcqua who currently also designs his own line No.21. DellAcquas first show for Rochas is set to place in February 2014
24.
Procter & Gamble
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It primarily specializes in a wide range of cleaning agents, personal care and hygienics products. Before the sale of Pringles to the Kellogg Company, its product also included foods, snacks. In 2014, P&G recorded $83.1 billion in sales, David Taylor is the current president and CEO of Procter & Gamble. Candlemaker William Procter born in the United Kingdom and soapmaker James Gamble born in Ireland, emigrated from England and Ireland and they settled in Cincinnati initially and met when they married sisters, Olivia and Elizabeth Norris. Alexander Norris, their father-in-law, called a meeting in which he persuaded his new sons-in-law to become business partners, on October 31,1837, as a result of the suggestion, Procter & Gamble was created. In 1858–1859, sales reached $1 million, by that point, about 80 employees worked for Procter & Gamble. During the American Civil War, the company won contracts to supply the Union Army with soap, in addition to the increased profits experienced during the war, the military contracts introduced soldiers from all over the country to Procter & Gambles products. In the 1880s, Procter & Gamble began to market a new product, the company called the soap Ivory. William Arnett Procter, William Procters grandson, began a program for the companys workforce in 1887. By giving the workers a stake in the company, he assumed that they would be less likely to go on strike. The company began to build factories in other locations in the United States because the demand for products had outgrown the capacity of the Cincinnati facilities. The companys leaders began to diversify its products, as well, and in 1911, began producing Crisco, as radio became more popular in the 1920s and 1930s, the company sponsored a number of radio programs. As a result, these often became commonly known as soap operas. After this acquisition, Procter & Gamble had their UK Headquarters at Hedley House in Newcastle upon Tyne, numerous new products and brand names were introduced over time, and Procter & Gamble began branching out into new areas. The company introduced Tide laundry detergent in 1946 and Prell shampoo in 1947, in 1955, Procter & Gamble began selling the first toothpaste to contain fluoride, known as Crest. Branching out once again in 1957, the company purchased Charmin paper mills, once again focusing on laundry, Procter & Gamble began making Downy fabric softener in 1960 and Bounce fabric softener sheets in 1972. Prior to this point, disposable diapers were not popular, although Johnson & Johnson had developed a product called Chux, babies always wore cloth diapers, which were leaky and labor-intensive to wash. Pampers provided a convenient alternative, albeit at the environmental cost of waste requiring landfilling
25.
Groupe Casino
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Groupe Casino is a French mass retailer with operations around the world. The company is listed on the NYSE Euronext Paris stock exchange, the companys head office is in Saint-Étienne. Following the company’s creation, the focus began to shift towards organisation with the construction of a warehouse in Saint-Étienne, the first Casino-brand products were launched in 1901, introducing the concept of private brands. 1902 saw the introduction of a loyalty programme that offered trading stamps for store purchases. The first factories in the Loire region were opened four years later and by 1916 the company had introduced a family allowance fund, the first self-service store was opened in 1948 followed by the installation of France’s first refigerated display in 1949. Almost a decade later, Casino became the first French food retailer to display a sell-by date on their products, in 1975, Casino joined the global market through its expansion into the United States. By 1992, the group had acquired La Ruche Méridionale before merging with Rallye,1997 saw the development of a hostile takeover bid from retailer Promodès. However, the bid fell through due to the efforts of Jean-Charles Naouri, the Guichard family. The following year, Jean-Charles Naouri became the Group’s majority shareholder, between 2000 and 2001, Casino acquired 50% of the variety retailer Monoprix as well as the discount chains Franprix, Leader Price, and Cdiscount. Banque Casino was founded and the property company Mercialys is established to manage the Group’s shopping centers, in 2007, the Group inaugurated its new headquarters in Saint-Étienne, its historical stronghold. In 2010, the group acquired Carrefour’s interests in Thailand, the same year the GreenYellow subsidiary connected its first solar power plant to the French power grid. In June 2012 the Group acquired a 50% stake in Monoprix from the Galeries Lafayette, later that month they also acquired a controlling interest in the Brazil-based Pão de Açúcar. More recently, Groupe Casino gained management control of two of the Groupe’s foundational assets, GPA in Brazil and Monoprix in France, today, the Group has a network of more than 12,000 stores, of which 9,450 are in France. It operates in eight countries, generating net sales of €48,645 million, the Group’s operations are based on a multi-format, multi-banner, multi-channel approach and a dual retailing/property business model. The Group focuses on countries that offer high potential for growth, based on these criteria, Group currently concentrates on South America. In 2013, emerging markets accounted for 60% of consolidated net sales, Groupe Casino is number one retailer in Brazil and Colombia. Its business model is built on a network of related, yet clearly differentiated banners – Spar and Vival, Monoprix and Franprix, Leader Price. With its 6,500 convenience stores, Casino leads this segment in France, most of the Casino Group’s private label products for textile, home and food categories are manufactured through its sourcing division, Casino Global Sourcing which headquartered in Hong Kong
26.
Business incubator
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A business incubator in business speak is a company that helps new and startup companies to develop by providing services such as management training or office space. The National Business Incubation Association defines business incubators as a catalyst tool for regional or national economic development. Business incubators differ from research and technology parks in their dedication to startup, research and technology parks, on the other hand, tend to be large-scale projects that house everything from corporate, government or university labs to very small companies. Most research and technology parks do not offer business assistance services, however, many research and technology parks house incubation programs. Incubators also differ from the U. S, Small Business Administrations Small Business Development Centers in that they serve only selected clients. SBDCs are required by law to general business assistance to any company that contacts them for help. In addition, SBDCs work with any business at any stage of development. Many business incubation programs partner with their local SBDC to create a shop for entrepreneurial support. Within European Union countries there are different EU and state funded programs that support in form of consulting, mentoring, prototype creation and other services. TecHub is one of examples for IT companies and ideas, the formal concept of business incubation began in the USA in 1959 when Joseph Mancuso opened the Batavia Industrial Center in a Batavia, New York, warehouse. Incubation expanded in the U. S. in the 1980s and spread to the UK, the U. S. -based International Business Innovation Association estimates that there are about 7,000 incubators worldwide. A study funded by the European Commission in 2002 identified around 900 incubation environments in Western Europe, as of October 2006, there were more than 1,400 incubators in North America, up from only 12 in 1980. Her Majestys Treasury identified around 25 incubation environments in the UK in 1997, by 2005, in 2005 alone, North American incubation programs assisted more than 27,000 companies that provided employment for more than 100,000 workers and generated annual revenues of $17 billion. Manufacture New York is a Manhattan-based fashion incubator and small-run production facility, Incubators have been of increased presence since 2011. New experiments like Virtual Business Incubators are bringing the resources of entrepreneurship hubs like Silicon Valley to remote locations all over the world, since startup companies lack many resources, experience and networks, incubators provide services which helps them get through initial hurdles in starting up a business. These hurdles include space, funding, legal, accounting, computer services, technology incubators account for 39% of incubation programs. One example of a type of incubator is a bioincubator. Bioincubators specialize in supporting life science-based startup companies, entrepreneurs with feasible projects in life sciences are selected and admitted for these programs
27.
Heliport
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A Heliport is by definition an area of land, water, or structure used or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of helicopters, and includes its buildings and facilities. In other words, it is an airport suitable for use by helicopters. Designated heliports typically contain one or more touchdown and liftoff area, in some larger towns and cities, customs facilities may also be available. Early advocates of helicopters hoped that heliports would become widespread, other terms used to refer to a heliport are, Helistop - A term sometimes used to describe a minimally developed heliport for boarding and discharging passengers or cargo. Helipad - A term oftentimes confused with heliport or helistop, the only reference of this term in the U. S. Helideck - Used to describe the area on a vessel or offshore structure on which helicopters may land. The airspace immediately surrounding the heliport is called the Primary Surface and this area coincides in shape and size with the designated take-off and landing area. This surface is a horizontal plane equal to the elevation of the established heliport elevation, the Primary Surface is further broken down into three distinct regions. These are, the Touchdown and Liftoff area, the Final Approach and Takeoff area, the TLOF is a load-bearing, generally paved area, normally centered in the FATO, on which the helicopter lands and/or takes off. The FATO is an area over which the pilot completes the final phase of the approach to a hover or a landing. The FATO elevation is the lowest elevation of the edge of the TLOF, the Safety Area is a defined area on a heliport surrounding the FATO intended to reduce the risk of damage to helicopters accidentally diverging from the FATO. In a large metropolitan and urban areas a heliport can serve passengers needing to move within the city or to outlying regions. Generally heliports can be situated closer to a town or city center than an airport for fixed-wing aircraft, the advantage in flying by helicopter to a destination or even to the citys main airport is that travel can be much faster than driving. Some skyscrapers feature rooftop heliports or helistops to serve the needs of executives or clients. Many of these sites also serve as Emergency Helicopter Landing Facilities in case emergency evacuation is needed. Bank Tower in Los Angeles is an example, police departments use heliports as a base for police helicopters, and larger departments may have a dedicated large heliport facility dedicated such as the LAPD Hooper Heliport. Heliports are common features at hospitals where they serve to facilitate Helicopter Air Ambulance and MEDEVACs for transferring patients into, some large trauma centers have multiple heliports while most small hospitals have just one. The National EMS Pilots Association has published multiple white papers, surveys, while heliports can be oriented in a any direction they will have generally have very definitive approach and departure paths
28.
Villa Savoye
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Villa Savoye is a modernist villa in Poissy, on the outskirts of Paris, France. It was designed by Swiss architects Le Corbusier and his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, the house was originally built as a country retreat on behest of the Savoye family. It was thoroughly renovated from 1985 to 1997, and under the care of the Centre des monuments nationaux, in July 2016, the house and several other works by Le Corbusier were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. By the end of the 1920s LeCorbusier was already the internationally known architect, also he was one of the first members of Congrès International dArchitecture Moderne and was becoming known as a champion of modern architecture. His work in the part of the decade, including his urban designs for Algiers. Pierre and Eugénie Savoye approached Corbusier about building a home in Poissy in the spring of 1928. The site was on a field on an otherwise wooded plot of land with a magnificent landscape view to the north west that corresponded with the approach to the site along the road. He began work on the project in September 1928, the eventual solution to this problem was to reduce the volume of the building by moving the master bedroom down to the first floor and reducing the grid spacing down from 5 metres to 4.75 metres. Estimates of the cost in February 1929 were approximately half a million Francs, although this excluded the cost of the lodge, the project was tendered in February with contracts awarded in March 1929. At the time the project started on site no design work had been done on the lodge, the design was for a double lodge but this was reduced to a single lodge as the costs were too high. Although construction of the house was complete within a year. The Villa Savoye is probably Corbusiers best known building from the 1930s, functional roof, serving as a garden and terrace, reclaiming for nature the land occupied by the building. Free floor plan, relieved of load-bearing walls, allowing walls to be placed freely and only where aesthetically needed, long horizontal windows, providing illumination and ventilation. Freely-designed facades, serving only as a skin of the wall and windows, unlike his earlier town villas Corbusier was able to carefully design all four sides of the Villa Savoye in response to the view and the orientation of the sun. On the ground floor he placed the entrance hall, ramp and stairs, garage, chauffeur. At first floor the master bedroom, the bedroom, guest bedroom, kitchen, salon. The salon was oriented to the south east whilst the terrace faced the east, the sons bedroom faced the north west and the kitchen and service terrace were on the south west. At second floor level were a series of sculpted spaces that formed a solarium, in his book Vers une Architecture Corbusier exclaimed the motor car is an object with a simple function and complicated aims
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Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
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Le Corbusier
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Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier, was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner, writer, and one of the pioneers of what is now called modern architecture. He was born in Switzerland and became a French citizen in 1930 and his career spanned five decades, he constructed buildings in Europe, Japan, India, and North and South America. Le Corbusier prepared the plan for the city of Chandigarh in India. On July 17,2016, seventeen projects by Le Corbusier in seven countries were inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites as an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement and it was an industrial town, devoted to the manufacture of watches. His father was an artisan who enameled boxes and watches, while his mother gave piano lessons and his elder brother Albert was an amateur violinist. He attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods, like his contemporaries Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier did not have formal academic training as an architect. He was attracted to the arts and at the age of fifteen he entered the municipal art school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds which taught the applied arts connected with watchmaking. Three years later he attended the course of decoration, founded by the painter Charles LEplattenier. Le Corbusier wrote later that LEplattenier had made him a man of the woods and his father took him frequently into the mountains around the town. He wrote later, we were constantly on mountaintops, we grew accustomed to a vast horizon and his architecture teacher in the Art School was the architect René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusiers earliest house designs. However, he reported later that it was the art teacher LEplattenier who made him choose architecture, I had a horror of architecture and architects, he wrote. I was sixteen, I accepted the verdict and I obeyed. Le Corbusier began teaching himself by going to the library to read about architecture and philosophy, by visiting museums, by sketching buildings, located on the forested hillside near Chaux-de-fonds. It was a chalet with a steep roof in the local alpine style. The success of this led to his construction of two similar houses, the Villas Jacquemet and Stotzer, in the same area. In Florence, he visited the Florence Charterhouse in Galluzzo, which made an impression on him. I would have liked to live in one of what they called their cells and it was the solution for a unique kind of workers housing, or rather for a terrestrial paradise. In 1911, he traveled again for five months, this time he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, as well as Pompeii and Rome. Filling nearly 80 sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw—including many sketches of the Parthenon and he spoke of what he saw during this trip in many of his books, and it was the subject of his last book, Le Voyage dOrient
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Pirmasens, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, since 1964.
