1.
Polarizing filter (photography)
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A polarizing / polarising filter is often placed in front of the camera lens in photography in order to darken skies, manage reflections, or suppress glare from the surface of lakes or the sea. Since reflections tend to be at least partially linearly-polarized, a linear polarizer can be used to change the balance of the light in the photograph, the rotational orientation of the filter is adjusted for the preferred artistic effect. This additional step avoids problems with auto-focus and light-metering sensors within some cameras, light reflected from a non-metallic surface becomes polarized, this effect is maximum at Brewsters angle, about 56° from the vertical for common glass. A polarizer rotated to pass only light polarized in the perpendicular to the reflected light will absorb much of it. This absorption allows glare reflected from, for example, a body of water or a road to be reduced, reflections from shiny surfaces are also reduced. This allows the color and detail of what is beneath to come through. Reflections from a window into a dark interior can be much reduced, some of the light coming from the sky is polarized. The electrons in the air molecules cause a scattering of sunlight in all directions and this explains why the sky is not dark during the day. But when looked at from the sides, the light emitted from an electron is totally polarized. Hence, a picture taken in a direction at 90 degrees from the sun can take advantage of this polarization, actually, the effect is visible in a band of 15° to 30° measured from the optimal direction. Perpendicularly incident light waves tend to reduce clarity and saturation of certain colors, the polarizing lens effectively absorbs these light waves, rendering outdoor scenes crisper with deeper color tones in subject matter such as blue skies, bodies of water and foliage. Much light is differentiated by polarization, e. g. light passing through crystals like sunstones or water droplets producing rainbows, the polarization of the rainbow is caused by the internal reflection. The rays strike the surface of the drop close to the Brewster angle. Polarizing filters can be rotated to maximise or minimise admission of polarised light and they are mounted in a rotating collar for this purpose, one need not screw or unscrew the filter to adjust the effect. Rotating the polarizing filter will make rainbows, reflections, and other polarized light stand out or nearly disappear depending on how much of the light is polarized, the benefits of polarizing filters are the same in digital or film photography. There are two types of polarizing filters readily available, linear and circular, which have exactly the same effect photographically, linearly-polarized light may also defeat the action of the Anti-aliasing filter on the imaging sensor. Circular polarizing photographic filters consist of a linear polarizer on the front, the quarter-wave plate converts the selected polarization to circularly polarized light inside the camera. This works with all types of cameras, because mirrors and beam-splitters split circularly polarized light the way they split unpolarized light
2.
Brewster's angle
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Brewsters angle is an angle of incidence at which light with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light that is reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized and this special angle of incidence is named after the Scottish physicist Sir David Brewster. When light encounters a boundary between two media with different refractive indices, some of it is reflected as shown in the figure above. The fraction that is reflected is described by the Fresnel equations and this equation is known as Brewsters law, and the angle defined by it is Brewsters angle. The physical mechanism for this can be understood from the manner in which electric dipoles in the media respond to p-polarized light. One can imagine that light incident on the surface is absorbed, the polarization of freely propagating light is always perpendicular to the direction in which the light is travelling. The dipoles that produce the transmitted light oscillate in the direction of that light. These same oscillating dipoles also generate the reflected light, however, dipoles do not radiate any energy in the direction of the dipole moment. With simple geometry this condition can be expressed as θ1 + θ2 =90 ∘, solving for θB gives θ B = arctan. For a glass medium in air, Brewsters angle for light is approximately 56°, while for an air-water interface. Since the refractive index for a given medium changes depending on the wavelength of light, the phenomenon of light being polarized by reflection from a surface at a particular angle was first observed by Étienne-Louis Malus in 1808. He attempted to relate the polarizing angle to the index of the material. In 1815, Brewster experimented with higher-quality materials and showed that this angle was a function of the refractive index, the concept of a polarizing angle can be extended to the concept of a Brewster wavenumber to cover planar interfaces between two linear bianisotropic materials. In the case of reflection at Brewsters angle, the reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular, for magnetic materials, Brewsters angle can exist for only one of the incident wave polarizations, as determined by the relative strengths of the dielectric permittivity and magnetic permeability. This has implications for the existence of generalized Brewster angles for dielectric metasurfaces, polarized sunglasses use the principle of Brewsters angle to reduce glare from the sun reflecting off horizontal surfaces such as water or road. In a large range of angles around Brewsters angle, the reflection of p-polarized light is lower than s-polarized light, thus, if the sun is low in the sky, reflected light is mostly s-polarized. Polarizing sunglasses use a material such as Polaroid sheets to block horizontally-polarized light. The effect is strongest with smooth surfaces such as water, but reflections from roads, photographers use the same principle to remove reflections from water so that they can photograph objects beneath the surface
3.
Fresnel equations
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The Fresnel equations, deduced by Augustin-Jean Fresnel, describe the behaviour of light when moving between media of differing refractive indices. The reflection of light that the equations predict is known as Fresnel reflection, when light moves from a medium of a given refractive index, n1, into a second medium with refractive index, n2, both reflection and refraction of the light may occur. The Fresnel equations describe what fraction of the light is reflected and they also describe the phase shift of the reflected light. The equations assume the interface between the media is flat and that the media are homogeneous, the incident light is assumed to be a plane wave, and effects of edges are neglected. This plane is called the plane of incidence, it is the plane of the diagram below, the light is said to be s-polarized, from the German, senkrecht, meaning perpendicular. P-polarized The incident light is polarized with its electric field parallel to the plane of incidence, such light is described as p-polarized, from parallel. In the diagram on the right, an incident light ray, IO, part of the ray is reflected as ray, OR, and part refracted as ray, OT. The angles that the incident, reflected and refracted rays make to the normal of the interface are given as θi, θr and θt, respectively. The relationship between these angles is given by the law of reflection, θ i = θ r, for non-magnetic media, we have Z1 = Z0 n 1, Z2 = Z0 n 2. The second form of equation is derived from the first by eliminating θt using Snells law. If the incident light is unpolarised, the reflectance is R =12, for common glass, with n2 around 1.5, the reflectance at θi =0 is about 4%. Note that reflection by a window is from the front side as well as the side. The combined reflectance for this case is 2R/, when interference can be neglected, the discussion given here assumes that the permeability, μ, is equal to the vacuum permeability, μ0, in both media, embodying the assumption that the material is non-magnetic. This is approximately true for most dielectric materials, but not for other types of material. The completely general Fresnel equations are more complicated, for low-precision applications where polarization may be ignored, such as computer graphics, Schlicks approximation may be used. For the case of incidence, θ i = θ t =0. Thus, the reflectance simplifies to R = | n 1 − n 2 n 1 + n 2 |2, at one particular angle for a given n1 and n2, the value of Rp goes to zero and a p-polarised incident ray is purely refracted. This angle is known as Brewsters angle, and is around 56° for a medium in air or vacuum
4.
Optical filter
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Filters mostly belong to one of two categories. The simplest, physically, is the filter, then there are interference or dichroic filters. Optical filters selectively transmit light in a range of wavelengths. They can usually pass long wavelengths only, short wavelengths only, or a band of wavelengths, the passband may be narrower or wider, the transition or cutoff between maximal and minimal transmission can be sharp or gradual. Optical filters are used in photography, in many optical instruments. Optical filters are essential in fluorescence applications such as fluorescence microscopy. Photographic filters are a case of optical filters, and much of the material here applies. Some photographic effect filters, such as star effect filters, are not relevant to scientific work, absorptive filters are usually made from glass to which various inorganic or organic compounds have been added. These compounds absorb some wavelengths of light while transmitting others, the compounds can also be added to plastic to produce gel filters, which are lighter and cheaper than glass-based filters. Alternately, dichroic filters can be made by coating a substrate with a series of optical coatings. Dichroic filters usually reflect the unwanted portion of the light and transmit the remainder, Dichroic filters use the principle of interference. Their layers form a series of reflective cavities that resonate with the desired wavelengths. Other wavelengths destructively cancel or reflect as the peaks and troughs of the waves overlap, Dichroic filters are particularly suited for precise scientific work, since their exact colour range can be controlled by the thickness and sequence of the coatings. They are usually more expensive and delicate than absorption filters. They can be used in such as the dichroic prism of a camera to separate a beam of light into different coloured components. The basic scientific instrument of this type is a Fabry–Pérot interferometer and it uses two mirrors to establish a resonating cavity. It passes wavelengths that are a multiple of the resonance frequency. Etalons are another variation, transparent cubes or fibers whose polished ends form mirrors tuned to resonate with specific wavelengths and these are often used to separate channels in telecommunications networks that use wavelength division multiplexing on long-haul optic fibers
5.
Light waves
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Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word usually refers to light, which is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light is defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres, or 4.00 × 10−7 to 7.00 × 10−7 m. This wavelength means a range of roughly 430–750 terahertz. The main source of light on Earth is the Sun, sunlight provides the energy that green plants use to create sugars mostly in the form of starches, which release energy into the living things that digest them. This process of photosynthesis provides virtually all the used by living things. Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire, with the development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight. Some species of animals generate their own light, a process called bioluminescence, for example, fireflies use light to locate mates, and vampire squids use it to hide themselves from prey. Visible light, as all types of electromagnetic radiation, is experimentally found to always move at this speed in a vacuum. In physics, the term sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength. In this sense, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves and radio waves are also light, like all types of light, visible light is emitted and absorbed in tiny packets called photons and exhibits properties of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as the wave–particle duality, the study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics. Generally, EM radiation, or EMR, is classified by wavelength into radio, microwave, infrared, the behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, when EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries. There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, infrared sensing in snakes depends on a kind of natural thermal imaging, in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature by the infrared radiation. EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating effects, which is how these animals detect it, above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nanometers and the internal lens below 400. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the eye cannot detect the very short ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420 to 680 to as broadly as 380 to 800 nm
6.
Polarization (waves)
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Polarization is a parameter applying to transverse waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave the direction of the oscillation is transverse to the direction of motion of the wave, a simple example of a polarized transverse wave is vibrations traveling along a taut string for example in a musical instrument like a guitar string. Depending on how the string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a direction, horizontal direction. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves, gravitational waves, in some types of transverse waves the wave displacement is limited to a single direction, so these also dont exhibit polarization. For example, in waves in liquids the wave displacement of the particles is always in a vertical plane. In linear polarization the fields oscillate in a single direction, in circular or elliptical polarization the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the wave travels. Polarized light can be produced by passing unpolarized light through a polarizing filter, some of these are used to make polarizing filters. Light is also partially polarized when it reflects from a surface, according to quantum mechanics, electromagnetic waves consist of particles called photons. When viewed in this way, the polarization of a wave is determined by a quantum mechanical property of photons called their spin. A photon has one of two spins, it can either spin in a right hand sense or a left hand sense about its direction of travel. Circularly polarized electromagnetic waves are composed of photons with one type of spin. Linearly polarized waves consist of numbers of right and left hand spinning photons. Polarization is an important parameter in areas of science dealing with transverse waves, such as optics, seismology, radio, especially impacted are technologies such as lasers, wireless and optical fiber telecommunications, and radar. And incoherent states can be modeled stochastically as a combination of such uncorrelated waves with some distribution of frequencies, phases. Considering a monochromatic wave of optical frequency f, let us take the direction of propagation as the z axis. Being a transverse wave the E and H fields must then contain components only in the x and y directions whereas Ez=Hz=0. Using complex notation, we understand the instantaneous electric and magnetic fields to be given by the real parts of the complex quantities occurring in the following equations. Here ex, ey, hx, and hy are complex numbers, in the second more compact form, as these equations are customarily expressed, these factors are described using the wavenumber k =2 π n / λ and angular frequency ω =2 π f
7.
Polarized light
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Polarization is a parameter applying to transverse waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave the direction of the oscillation is transverse to the direction of motion of the wave, a simple example of a polarized transverse wave is vibrations traveling along a taut string for example in a musical instrument like a guitar string. Depending on how the string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a direction, horizontal direction. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves, gravitational waves, in some types of transverse waves the wave displacement is limited to a single direction, so these also dont exhibit polarization. For example, in waves in liquids the wave displacement of the particles is always in a vertical plane. In linear polarization the fields oscillate in a single direction, in circular or elliptical polarization the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the wave travels. Polarized light can be produced by passing unpolarized light through a polarizing filter, some of these are used to make polarizing filters. Light is also partially polarized when it reflects from a surface, according to quantum mechanics, electromagnetic waves consist of particles called photons. When viewed in this way, the polarization of a wave is determined by a quantum mechanical property of photons called their spin. A photon has one of two spins, it can either spin in a right hand sense or a left hand sense about its direction of travel. Circularly polarized electromagnetic waves are composed of photons with one type of spin. Linearly polarized waves consist of numbers of right and left hand spinning photons. Polarization is an important parameter in areas of science dealing with transverse waves, such as optics, seismology, radio, especially impacted are technologies such as lasers, wireless and optical fiber telecommunications, and radar. And incoherent states can be modeled stochastically as a combination of such uncorrelated waves with some distribution of frequencies, phases. Considering a monochromatic wave of optical frequency f, let us take the direction of propagation as the z axis. Being a transverse wave the E and H fields must then contain components only in the x and y directions whereas Ez=Hz=0. Using complex notation, we understand the instantaneous electric and magnetic fields to be given by the real parts of the complex quantities occurring in the following equations. Here ex, ey, hx, and hy are complex numbers, in the second more compact form, as these equations are customarily expressed, these factors are described using the wavenumber k =2 π n / λ and angular frequency ω =2 π f
8.
Linear polarizer
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A polarizer or polariser is an optical filter that lets light waves of a specific polarization pass and blocks light waves of other polarizations. It can convert a beam of light of undefined or mixed polarization into a beam of well-defined polarization, the common types of polarizers are linear polarizers and circular polarizers. Polarizers are used in many techniques and instruments, and polarizing filters find applications in photography. Polarizers can also be made for other types of electromagnetic waves besides light, such as waves, microwaves. The simplest linear polarizer is the wire-grid polarizer, which consists of many fine parallel wires that are placed in a plane perpendicular to the incident beam. Electromagnetic waves which have a component of their electric fields aligned parallel to the wires will induce the movement of electrons along the length of the wires, for waves with electric fields perpendicular to the wires, the electrons cannot move very far across the width of each wire. Therefore, little energy is reflected and the incident wave is able to pass through the grid, in this case the grid behaves like a dielectric material. Overall, this causes the wave to be linearly polarized with an electric field that is completely perpendicular to the wires. The hypothesis that the waves slip through the gaps between the wires is incorrect, for practical purposes, the separation between wires must be less than the wavelength of the incident radiation. In addition, the width of each wires should be compared to the spacing between wires. Therefore, it is easy to construct wire-grid polarizers for microwaves, far-infrared. In addition, advanced techniques can also build very tight pitch metallic grids. Since the degree of polarization depends little on wavelength and angle of incidence, certain crystals, due to the effects described by crystal optics, show dichroism, preferential absorption of light which is polarized in particular directions. They can therefore be used as linear polarizers, the best known crystal of this type is tourmaline. However, this crystal is used as a polarizer, since the dichroic effect is strongly wavelength dependent. Herapathite is also dichroic, and is not strongly coloured, but is difficult to grow in large crystals, a Polaroid polarizing filter functions similarly on an atomic scale to the wire-grid polarizer. It was originally made of microscopic herapathite crystals and its current H-sheet form is made from polyvinyl alcohol plastic with an iodine doping. Stretching of the sheet during manufacture causes the PVA chains to align in one particular direction, valence electrons from the iodine dopant are able to move linearly along the polymer chains, but not transverse to them
9.
Circular polarizer
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A polarizer or polariser is an optical filter that lets light waves of a specific polarization pass and blocks light waves of other polarizations. It can convert a beam of light of undefined or mixed polarization into a beam of well-defined polarization, the common types of polarizers are linear polarizers and circular polarizers. Polarizers are used in many techniques and instruments, and polarizing filters find applications in photography. Polarizers can also be made for other types of electromagnetic waves besides light, such as waves, microwaves. The simplest linear polarizer is the wire-grid polarizer, which consists of many fine parallel wires that are placed in a plane perpendicular to the incident beam. Electromagnetic waves which have a component of their electric fields aligned parallel to the wires will induce the movement of electrons along the length of the wires, for waves with electric fields perpendicular to the wires, the electrons cannot move very far across the width of each wire. Therefore, little energy is reflected and the incident wave is able to pass through the grid, in this case the grid behaves like a dielectric material. Overall, this causes the wave to be linearly polarized with an electric field that is completely perpendicular to the wires. The hypothesis that the waves slip through the gaps between the wires is incorrect, for practical purposes, the separation between wires must be less than the wavelength of the incident radiation. In addition, the width of each wires should be compared to the spacing between wires. Therefore, it is easy to construct wire-grid polarizers for microwaves, far-infrared. In addition, advanced techniques can also build very tight pitch metallic grids. Since the degree of polarization depends little on wavelength and angle of incidence, certain crystals, due to the effects described by crystal optics, show dichroism, preferential absorption of light which is polarized in particular directions. They can therefore be used as linear polarizers, the best known crystal of this type is tourmaline. However, this crystal is used as a polarizer, since the dichroic effect is strongly wavelength dependent. Herapathite is also dichroic, and is not strongly coloured, but is difficult to grow in large crystals, a Polaroid polarizing filter functions similarly on an atomic scale to the wire-grid polarizer. It was originally made of microscopic herapathite crystals and its current H-sheet form is made from polyvinyl alcohol plastic with an iodine doping. Stretching of the sheet during manufacture causes the PVA chains to align in one particular direction, valence electrons from the iodine dopant are able to move linearly along the polymer chains, but not transverse to them
10.
Optics
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Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light, because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the classical description of light. Complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are, however, often difficult to apply in practice, practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these, geometric optics, treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines, physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation. Some phenomena depend on the fact that light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, explanation of these effects requires quantum mechanics. When considering lights particle-like properties, the light is modelled as a collection of particles called photons, quantum optics deals with the application of quantum mechanics to optical systems. Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including astronomy, various engineering fields, photography, practical applications of optics are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, lasers, and fibre optics. Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the earliest known lenses, made from polished crystal, often quartz, date from as early as 700 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Layard/Nimrud lens. The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses, the word optics comes from the ancient Greek word ὀπτική, meaning appearance, look. Greek philosophy on optics broke down into two opposing theories on how vision worked, the theory and the emission theory. The intro-mission approach saw vision as coming from objects casting off copies of themselves that were captured by the eye, plato first articulated the emission theory, the idea that visual perception is accomplished by rays emitted by the eyes. He also commented on the parity reversal of mirrors in Timaeus, some hundred years later, Euclid wrote a treatise entitled Optics where he linked vision to geometry, creating geometrical optics. Ptolemy, in his treatise Optics, held a theory of vision, the rays from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed back to the observer’s intellect about the distance. He summarised much of Euclid and went on to describe a way to measure the angle of refraction, during the Middle Ages, Greek ideas about optics were resurrected and extended by writers in the Muslim world
11.
Optical instrument
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An optical instrument either processes light waves to enhance an image for viewing, or analyzes light waves to determine one of a number of characteristic properties. The first optical instruments were used for magnification of distant images. Since the days of Galileo and Van Leeuwenhoek, these instruments have been improved and extended into other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The binocular device is a compact instrument for both eyes designed for mobile use. A camera could be considered a type of instrument, with the pinhole camera and camera obscura being very simple examples of such devices. Another class of instrument is used to analyze the properties of light or optical materials. Surface plasmon resonance-based instruments use refractometry to measure and analyze biomolecular interactions, polarization controller Camera Magic lantern Scientific instruments \ Giorgio Carboni
12.
Filter (photography)
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In photography and videography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be inserted into the optical path. Sometimes they are used to make subtle changes to images. In monochrome photography coloured filters affect the brightness of different colours. Others change the balance of images, so that photographs under incandescent lighting show colours as they are perceived. There are filters that distort the image in a way, diffusing an otherwise sharp image, adding a starry effect. Linear and circular polarising filters reduce oblique reflections from non-metallic surfaces, many filters absorb part of the light available, necessitating longer exposure. As the filter is in the path, any imperfections—non-flat or non-parallel surfaces, reflections, scratches. There is no universal naming system for filters. The Wratten numbers adopted in the twentieth century by Kodak. Colour correction filters are often identified by a code of the form CC50Y—CC for colour correction,50 for the strength of the filter, photographic filters sell in larger quantities at correspondingly lower prices than many laboratory filters. The article on optical filters has material relevant to photographic filters, in digital photography the majority of filters used with film cameras have been rendered redundant by digital filters applied either in-camera or during post processing. Exceptions include the ultraviolet filter typically used to protect the front surface of the lens, the neutral density filter, the polarising filter, the only use of a clear filter is to protect the front of a lens. UV filters are used to block ultraviolet light, to which most photographic sensors. Normally, the glass or plastic of a lens is practically opaque to short-wavelength UV. A UV filter passes all or nearly all of the visible spectrum and it can be left on the lens for nearly all shots, UV filters are often used mainly for lens protection in the same way as clear filters. Strong UV filters are sometimes used for warming color photos taken in shade with daylight-type film. While in certain cases, such as harsh environments, a filter may be necessary. Arguments for the use of protection include, If the lens is dropped
13.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
14.
Liquid crystal display
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A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome and they use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays. Small LCD screens are common in consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators. LCD screens are used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube displays in all applications. LCD screens are available in a range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge. Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when an image is displayed on a screen for a long time. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence, the LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be, by 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes. Without the liquid crystal between the filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and this light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The optical effect of a TN device in the state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used, for this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers
15.
Electromagnetic wave
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In physics, electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating through space carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, light, ultraviolet, X-, classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum. The oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation. The wavefront of electromagnetic waves emitted from a point source is a sphere, the position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever charged particles are accelerated, and these waves can interact with other charged particles. EM waves carry energy, momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle, quanta of EM waves are called photons, whose rest mass is zero, but whose energy, or equivalent total mass, is not zero so they are still affected by gravity. Thus, EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field, in this language, the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that directly produced them, specifically, electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena. In the quantum theory of electromagnetism, EMR consists of photons, quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation. The energy of a photon is quantized and is greater for photons of higher frequency. This relationship is given by Plancks equation E = hν, where E is the energy per photon, ν is the frequency of the photon, a single gamma ray photon, for example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light. The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the power and its frequency. EMR of visible or lower frequencies is called non-ionizing radiation, because its photons do not individually have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules, the effects of these radiations on chemical systems and living tissue are caused primarily by heating effects from the combined energy transfer of many photons. In contrast, high ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are called ionizing radiation since individual photons of high frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules or break chemical bonds. These radiations have the ability to cause chemical reactions and damage living cells beyond that resulting from simple heating, Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the speed of light. Maxwell’s equations were confirmed by Heinrich Hertz through experiments with radio waves, according to Maxwells equations, a spatially varying electric field is always associated with a magnetic field that changes over time. Likewise, a varying magnetic field is associated with specific changes over time in the electric field. In an electromagnetic wave, the changes in the field are always accompanied by a wave in the magnetic field in one direction
16.
Radio wave
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Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves, at 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm, and at 3 kHz is 100 km. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light, naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning, or by astronomical objects. Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by radio receivers, the radio spectrum is divided into a number of radio bands on the basis of frequency, allocated to different uses. Radio waves were first predicted by mathematical work done in 1867 by Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell, Maxwell noticed wavelike properties of light and similarities in electrical and magnetic observations. Radio waves were first used for communication in the mid 1890s by Guglielmo Marconi, different frequencies experience different combinations of these phenomena in the Earths atmosphere, making certain radio bands more useful for specific purposes than others. It does not necessarily require a cleared sight path, at lower frequencies radio waves can pass through buildings, foliage and this is the only method of propagation possible at microwave frequencies and above. On the surface of the Earth, line of propagation is limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles. This is the used by cell phones, cordless phones, walkie-talkies, wireless networks, FM and television broadcasting. Indirect propagation, Radio waves can reach points beyond the line-of-sight by diffraction, diffraction allows a radio wave to bend around obstructions such as a building edge, a vehicle, or a turn in a hall. Radio waves also reflect from surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings, vehicles and these effects are used in short range radio communication systems. Ground waves allow mediumwave and longwave broadcasting stations to have coverage areas beyond the horizon, the nonzero resistance of the earth absorbs energy from ground waves, so as they propagate the waves lose power and the wavefronts bend over at an angle to the surface. As frequency decreases, the decrease and the achievable range increases. Military very low frequency and extremely low frequency communication systems can communicate over most of the Earth, and with submarines hundreds of feet underwater. Tropospheric propagation, In the VHF and UHF bands, radio waves can travel somewhat beyond the horizon due to refraction in the troposphere. This is due to changes in the index of air with temperature and pressure. At times, radio waves can travel up to 500 -1000 km due to tropospheric ducting and these effects are variable and not as reliable as ionospheric propagation, below. So radio waves directed at an angle into the sky can return to Earth beyond the horizon, by using multiple skips communication at intercontinental distances can be achieved
17.
Microwave
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Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter, with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves, the broad definition includes both UHF and EHF bands. A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz, in all cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band at minimum. Frequencies in the range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations, S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band. The prefix micro- in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range and it indicates that microwaves are small, compared to waves used in typical radio broadcasting, in that they have shorter wavelengths. The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study. At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, microwaves are extremely widely used in modern technology. Although at the low end of the band they can pass through building walls enough for useful reception, therefore on the surface of the Earth microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 30 -40 miles. Microwaves are absorbed by moisture in the atmosphere, and the attenuation increases with frequency, beginning at about 40 GHz, atmospheric gases also begin to absorb microwaves, so above this frequency microwave transmission is limited to a few kilometers. A spectral band structure causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies, in a microwave beam directed at an angle into the sky, a small amount of the power will be randomly scattered as the beam passes through the troposphere. A sensitive receiver beyond the horizon with a high gain antenna focused on that area of the troposphere can pick up the signal. This technique has been used at frequencies between 0.45 and 5 GHz in tropospheric scatter communication systems to communicate beyond the horizon and their short wavelength allows narrow beams of microwaves to be produced by conveniently small high gain antennas from a half meter to 5 meters in diameter. Therefore beams of microwaves are used for point-to-point communication links, an advantage of narrow beams is that they allow frequency reuse by nearby transmitters. Parabolic antennas are the most widely used directive antennas at microwave frequencies, flat microstrip antennas are being increasingly used in consumer devices. Where omnidirectional antennas are required, for example in wireless devices and Wifi routers for wireless LANs, small monopoles, dipole, or patch antennas are used. Due to the high cost and maintenance requirements of waveguide runs, the term microwave also has a more technical meaning in electromagnetics and circuit theory. As a consequence, practical microwave circuits tend to away from the discrete resistors, capacitors. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines used at lower frequencies are replaced by waveguides and stripline, high-power microwave sources use specialized vacuum tubes to generate microwaves
18.
X-ray
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X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz, X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Spelling of X-ray in the English language includes the variants x-ray, xray, X-rays with high photon energies are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e. g. in medical radiography. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to an image produced using this method. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air, the length of 600 eV X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays, one common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source, X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has problems, other processes also can generate these high-energy photons. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m and this criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to precedent, based on measurement technique. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds and this makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a period of time causes radiation sickness. In medical imaging this increased risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy, hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects, the most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry and research
19.
Absorption (optics)
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In physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way in which the energy of a photon is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the energy is transformed into internal energy of the absorber. The reduction in intensity of a wave propagating through a medium by absorption of a part of its photons is often called attenuation. The mass attenuation coefficient, also called mass extinction coefficient, which is the absorption coefficient divided by density, the absorption cross section and scattering cross-section are closely related to the absorption and attenuation coefficients, respectively. Extinction in astronomy is equivalent to the attenuation coefficient, absorbance and optical depth are two related measures All these quantities measure, at least to some extent, how well a medium absorbs radiation. However, practitioners of different fields and techniques tend to use different quantities drawn from the list above. The absorbance of an object quantifies how much of the incident light is absorbed by it and this may be related to other properties of the object through the Beer–Lambert law. A few examples of absorption are ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, understanding and measuring the absorption of electromagnetic radiation has a variety of applications. Here are a few examples, In meteorology and climatology, global and local temperatures depend in part on the absorption of radiation by gases and land. In medicine, X-rays are absorbed to different extents by different tissues, for example, see computation of radiowave attenuation in the atmosphere used in satellite link design. In chemistry and materials science, because different materials and molecules will absorb radiation to different extents at different frequencies, in optics, sunglasses, colored filters, dyes, and other such materials are designed specifically with respect to which visible wavelengths they absorb, and in what proportions. In physics, the D-region of Earths ionosphere is known to significantly absorb radio signals that fall within the electromagnetic spectrum. Optical Propagation in Linear Media, Atmospheric Gases and Particles, Solid-State Components, physics Archive - Ask a scientist
20.
Cartesian coordinate system
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Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axis, expressed as signed distances from the origin. One can use the principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes. In general, n Cartesian coordinates specify the point in an n-dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension n and these coordinates are equal, up to sign, to distances from the point to n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes. The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes can be described by Cartesian equations, algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of the plane, a familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering. They are the most common system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design. Nicole Oresme, a French cleric and friend of the Dauphin of the 14th Century, used similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes. The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes who published this idea in 1637 and it was independently discovered by Pierre de Fermat, who also worked in three dimensions, although Fermat did not publish the discovery. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Many other coordinate systems have developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane. The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play a role in the development of the Calculus by Isaac Newton. The two-coordinate description of the plane was later generalized into the concept of vector spaces. Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space – that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line, a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative, we say that the line is oriented from the negative half towards the positive half
21.
Crystal
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A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification, the word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος, meaning both ice and rock crystal, from κρύος, icy cold, frost. Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt, most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i. e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, a third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics, Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements. The scientific definition of a crystal is based on the arrangement of atoms inside it. A crystal is a solid where the form a periodic arrangement. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically, there are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids, most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure is characterized by its cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal, the symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system or hexagonal crystal system, Crystals are commonly recognized by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat faces, anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces of a crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others, as a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces
22.
Dichroism
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The original meaning of dichroic, from the Greek dikhroos, two-coloured, refers to any optical device which can split a beam of light into two beams with differing wavelengths. This kind of dichroic device does not usually depend on the polarization of the light, the term dichromatic is also used in this sense. When the polarization states in question are right and left-handed circular polarization and this is more generally referred to as pleochroism, and the technique can be used in mineralogy to identify minerals. In some materials, such as herapathite or Polaroid sheets, the effect is not strongly dependent on wavelength. Dichroism, in the second meaning above, occurs in liquid crystals due to either the optical anisotropy of the structure or the presence of impurities or the presence of dichroic dyes. The latter is called a guest–host effect
23.
Tourmaline
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Tourmaline is a crystalline boron silicate mineral compounded with elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium, or potassium. Tourmaline is classified as a stone and the gemstone comes in a wide variety of colors. The name comes from the Tamil and Sinhalese word Turmali or Thoramalli, brightly colored Sri Lankan gem tourmalines were brought to Europe in great quantities by the Dutch East India Company to satisfy a demand for curiosities and gems. At the time it was not realised that schorl and tourmaline were the same mineral, tourmaline was sometimes called the Ceylonese Magnet because it could attract and then repel hot ashes due to its pyroelectric properties. Tourmalines were used by chemists in the 19th century to light by shining rays onto a cut. It may account for 95% or more of all tourmaline in nature, the early history of the mineral schorl shows that the name schorl was in use prior to 1400 because a village known today as Zschorlau was then named Schorl. This village had a tin mine where, in addition to cassiterite. The first description of schorl with the name schürl and its occurrence was written by Johannes Mathesius in 1562 under the title Sarepta oder Bergpostill, up to about 1600, additional names used in the German language were Schurel, Schörle, and Schurl. Beginning in the 18th century, the name Schörl was mainly used in the German-speaking area, in English, the names shorl and shirl were used in the 18th century. In the 19th century the names common schorl, schörl, schorl, dravite, also called brown tourmaline, is the sodium magnesium rich tourmaline endmember. Uvite, in comparison, is a calcium magnesium tourmaline, dravite forms multiple series, with other tourmaline members, including schorl and elbaite. Today this tourmaline locality at Dravograd, is a part of the Republic of Slovenia, tschermak gave this tourmaline the name dravite, for the Drava river area, which is the district along the Drava River in Austria and Slovenia. Dravite varieties include the green chromium dravite and the vanadium dravite. A lithium-tourmaline elbaite was one of three pegmatitic minerals from Utö, Sweden, in which the new alkali element lithium was determined in 1818 by Johan August Arfwedson for the first time. Elba Island, Italy, was one of the first localities where colored, in 1850 Karl Friedrich August Rammelsberg described fluorine in tourmaline for the first time. In 1870 he proved that all varieties of tourmaline contain chemically bound water, in 1889 Scharitzer proposed the substitution of by F in red Li-tourmaline from Sušice, Czech Republic. In 1914 Vladimir Vernadsky proposed the name Elbait for lithium-, sodium-, most likely the type material for elbaite was found at Fonte del Prete, San Piero in Campo, Campo nellElba, Elba Island, Province of Livorno, Tuscany, Italy. In 1933 Winchell published a formula for elbaite, H8Na2Li3Al3B6Al12Si12O62
24.
Polaroid (polarizer)
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A trademark of the Polaroid Corporation, polaroid has been the common name for a type of synthetic plastic sheet which is used as a polarizer or polarizing filter. The needle-like crystals are aligned during manufacture of the film by stretching or by applying electric or magnetic fields, the resultant electric field of an electromagnetic wave determines its polarization. If the wave interacts with a line of crystals as in a sheet of polaroid, the electrons moving in this current will collide with other particles and re-emit the light backwards and forwards. This will cancel the incident wave causing little or no transmission through the sheet, the component of the electric field perpendicular to the line of crystals however can cause only small movements in the electrons as they cant move very much from side to side. This material, known as J-sheet, was replaced by the improved H-sheet Polaroid. H-sheet is a polyvinyl alcohol polymer impregnated with iodine, during manufacture, the PVA polymer chains are stretched such that they form an array of aligned, linear molecules in the material. The iodine dopant attaches to the PVA molecules and makes them conducting along the length of the chains, light polarized parallel to the chains is absorbed, and light polarized perpendicular to the chains is transmitted. Another type of Polaroid is the K-sheet polarizer, which consists of aligned polyvinylene chains and this polarizer material is particularly resistant to humidity and heat. Polarizing sheets are used in displays, optical microscopes and sunglasses. They are also used to examine for chain orientation in transparent plastic products made from polystyrene or polycarbonate, the intensity of light passing through a Polaroid polarizer is described by Malus law. Some aspects on the development of sheet polarizers, J. Optical Society of America 41, 957-963. One-Way Glass Stops Glare Popular Mechanics, April 1936 pp. 481-483
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Polyvinyl alcohol
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Poly is a water-soluble synthetic polymer. It has the formula n. It is used in papermaking, textiles, and a variety of coatings and it is sometimes supplied as beads or as solutions in water. Polyvinyl acetals, Polyvinyl acetals are prepared by reacting aldehydes with polyvinyl alcohol, Polyvinyl butyral and polyvinyl formal are examples of this family of polymers. They are prepared from polyvinyl alcohol by reaction with butyraldehyde and formaldehyde, preparation of polyvinyl butyral is the largest use for polyvinyl alcohol in the U. S. and Western Europe. Polyvinyl alcohol is used as a polymerization aid, as protective colloid. This is the largest market application in China, in Japan its major use is vinylon fiber production. An example is the envelope containing laundry detergent in liqui-tabs, feminine hygiene and adult incontinence products as a biodegradable plastic backing sheet. PVA is widely used in sport fishing. Small bags made from PVA are filled with dry or oil based bait and attached to the hook, or the hook is placed inside the bag. When the bag lands on the lake or river bottom it dissolves in water, leaving the hook bait surrounded by ground bait and this method helps attract fish to the hook bait. Anglers also use string made of PVA for the purpose of making temporary attachments, for example, holding a length of line in a coil, that might otherwise tangle while the cast is made. Unlike most vinyl polymers, PVA is not prepared by polymerization of the corresponding monomer, the monomer, vinyl alcohol, is unstable with respect to acetaldehyde. PVA instead is prepared by first polymerizing vinyl acetate, and the resulting polyvinylacetate is converted to the PVA, other precursor polymers are sometimes used, with formate, chloroacetate groups instead of acetate. Worldwide consumption of alcohol was over one million metric tons in 2006. The North Korean-manufacture fiber Vinalon is produced from polyvinyl alcohol, despite its inferior properties as a clothing fiber, it is produced for self-sufficiency reasons, because no oil is required to produce it. PVA is a material that exhibits crystallinity. In terms of microstructure, it is composed mainly of 1, 3-diol linkages but a few percent of 1, 2-diols occur, Polyvinyl alcohol has excellent film forming, emulsifying and adhesive properties
26.
Iodine
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Iodine is a chemical element with symbol I and atomic number 53. The heaviest of the halogens, it exists as a lustrous. The elemental form was discovered by the French chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811 and it was named two years later by Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac from this property, after the Greek ἰωδης violet-coloured. Iodine occurs in many states, including iodide, iodate. It is the least abundant of the halogens, being the sixty-first most abundant element. It is even less abundant than the rare earths. It is the heaviest essential element, iodine is found in the thyroid hormones. Iodine deficiency affects two billion people and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities. The dominant producers of today are Chile and Japan. Iodine and its compounds are used in nutrition. Due to its atomic number and ease of attachment to organic compounds. Because of the specificity of its uptake by the human body, iodine is also used as a catalyst in the industrial production of acetic acid and some polymers. In 1811, iodine was discovered by French chemist Bernard Courtois, at that time of the Napoleonic Wars, saltpeter was in great demand in France. Saltpeter produced from French nitre beds required sodium carbonate, which could be isolated from seaweed collected on the coasts of Normandy, to isolate the sodium carbonate, seaweed was burned and the ash washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid, Courtois once added excessive sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapour rose. He noted that the vapour crystallised on cold surfaces, making dark crystals, Courtois suspected that this material was a new element but lacked funding to pursue it further. Courtois gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes and Nicolas Clément and he also gave some of the substance to chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and to physicist André-Marie Ampère. On 29 November 1813, Desormes and Clément made Courtois discovery public and they described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial Institute of France
27.
Valence electron
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In a transition metal, a valence electron can also be in an inner shell. An atom with a shell of valence electrons tends to be chemically inert. 2) Because of their tendency either to gain the missing valence electrons, similar to an electron in an inner shell, a valence electron has the ability to absorb or release energy in the form of a photon. An energy gain can trigger an electron to move to an outer shell, or the electron can even break free from its associated atoms valence shell, this is ionization to form a positive ion. When an electron energy, then it can move to an inner shell which is not fully occupied. Valence energy levels correspond to the quantum numbers or are labeled alphabetically with letters used in the X-ray notation. The number of electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic table group in which the element is categorized. With the exception of groups 3–12, the digit of the group number identifies how many valence electrons are associated with a neutral atom of an element listed under that particular column. * Consists of ns and d electrons, alternatively, the d electron count is used. ** Except for helium, which has two valence electrons. The electrons that determine how an atom reacts chemically are those whose average distance from the nucleus is greatest, that is, for a main group element, the valence electrons are defined as those electrons residing in the electronic shell of highest principal quantum number n. Thus, the number of electrons that it may have depends on the electron configuration in a simple way. However, transition elements have partially filled d energy levels, that are close in energy to the ns level. So as opposed to group elements, a valence electron for a transition metal is defined as an electron that resides outside a noble-gas core. Thus, generally, the d electrons in transition metals behave as valence electrons although they are not in the valence shell. For example, manganese has configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5, this is abbreviated to 4s2 3d5, in this atom, a 3d electron has energy similar to that of a 4s electron, and much higher than that of a 3s or 3p electron. In effect, there are possibly seven valence electrons outside the argon-like core, the farther right in each transition metal series, the lower the energy of an electron in a d subshell and the less such an electron has the properties of a valence electron. Thus, although a nickel atom has, in principle, ten valence electrons, for zinc, the 3d subshell is complete and behaves similarly to core electrons
28.
Sunglasses
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Sunglasses or sun glasses are a form of protective eyewear designed primarily to prevent bright sunlight and high-energy visible light from damaging or discomforting the eyes. They can sometimes function as a visual aid, as variously termed spectacles or glasses exist. In the early 20th century, they were known as sun cheaters. The American Optometric Association recommends sunglasses whenever a person is in the sun. to protect the eyes from ultraviolet radiation and blue light, Sunglasses have long been associated with celebrities and film actors primarily from a desire to mask their identity. Since the 1940s, sunglasses have been popular as a fashion accessory, in prehistoric and historic time, Inuit peoples wore flattened walrus ivory glasses, looking through narrow slits to block harmful reflected rays of the sun. It is said that the Roman emperor Nero liked to watch gladiator fights with emeralds and these, however, appear to have worked rather like mirrors. Sunglasses made from flat panes of smoky quartz, which offered no corrective powers, ancient documents describe the use of such crystal sunglasses by judges in ancient Chinese courts to conceal their facial expressions while questioning witnesses. James Ayscough began experimenting with tinted lenses in spectacles in the mid-18th century and these were not sunglasses as that term is now used, Ayscough believed that blue- or green-tinted glass could correct for specific vision impairments. Protection from the Suns rays was not a concern for him, in the early 1920s, the use of sunglasses started to become more widespread, especially among movie stars. The stereotype persisted long after improvements in quality and the introduction of ultraviolet filters had eliminated this problem. Inexpensive mass-produced sunglasses made from celluloid were first produced by Sam Foster in 1929, Foster found a ready market on the beaches of Atlantic City, New Jersey, where he began selling sunglasses under the name Foster Grant from a Woolworth on the Boardwalk. By 1938, Life magazine wrote of how sunglasses were a new fad for wear on city streets, a favorite affectation of thousands of women all over the U. S. It stated that 20 million sunglasses were sold in the United States in 1937, Polarized sunglasses first became available in 1936, when Edwin H. Land began experimenting with making lenses with his patented Polaroid filter, at present, Xiamen, China, is the worlds largest producer of sunglasses, with its port exporting 120 million pairs each year. Sunglasses can improve comfort and visual clarity by protecting the eye from glare. Various types of disposable sunglasses are dispensed to patients after receiving mydriatic eye drops during eye examinations, the lenses of polarized sunglasses reduce glare reflected at some angles off shiny non-metallic surfaces, such as water. They allow wearers to see into water when only surface glare would otherwise be seen, Sunglasses offer protection against excessive exposure to light, including its visible and invisible components. Sunglasses that meet this requirement are often labeled as UV400 and this is slightly more protection than the widely used standard of the European Union, which requires that 95% of the radiation up to only 380 nm must be reflected or filtered out
29.
Photographic filter
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In photography and videography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be inserted into the optical path. Sometimes they are used to make subtle changes to images. In monochrome photography coloured filters affect the brightness of different colours. Others change the balance of images, so that photographs under incandescent lighting show colours as they are perceived. There are filters that distort the image in a way, diffusing an otherwise sharp image, adding a starry effect. Linear and circular polarising filters reduce oblique reflections from non-metallic surfaces, many filters absorb part of the light available, necessitating longer exposure. As the filter is in the path, any imperfections—non-flat or non-parallel surfaces, reflections, scratches. There is no universal naming system for filters. The Wratten numbers adopted in the twentieth century by Kodak. Colour correction filters are often identified by a code of the form CC50Y—CC for colour correction,50 for the strength of the filter, photographic filters sell in larger quantities at correspondingly lower prices than many laboratory filters. The article on optical filters has material relevant to photographic filters, in digital photography the majority of filters used with film cameras have been rendered redundant by digital filters applied either in-camera or during post processing. Exceptions include the ultraviolet filter typically used to protect the front surface of the lens, the neutral density filter, the polarising filter, the only use of a clear filter is to protect the front of a lens. UV filters are used to block ultraviolet light, to which most photographic sensors. Normally, the glass or plastic of a lens is practically opaque to short-wavelength UV. A UV filter passes all or nearly all of the visible spectrum and it can be left on the lens for nearly all shots, UV filters are often used mainly for lens protection in the same way as clear filters. Strong UV filters are sometimes used for warming color photos taken in shade with daylight-type film. While in certain cases, such as harsh environments, a filter may be necessary. Arguments for the use of protection include, If the lens is dropped
30.
Infrared
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It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers, to 1000000 nm. Most of the radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon, slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an effect on Earths climate. Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements and it excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range, Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected, Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatuses. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes, military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm, Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sunlight, at a temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level, of this energy,527 watts is infrared radiation,445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers. On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wiens displacement law. Therefore, the band is often subdivided into smaller sections. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical hot objects, such as exhaust pipes, the three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space
31.
Optical fiber communications
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Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms a carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. Fiber is preferred over electrical cabling when high bandwidth, long distance, optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals. Researchers at Bell Labs have reached speeds of over 100 petabit×kilometer per second using fiber-optic communication. First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optics have revolutionized the industry and have played a major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed world, due to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance and high-demand applications. However, infrastructure development within cities was difficult and time-consuming. Since 2000, the prices for fiber-optic communications have dropped considerably, the price for rolling out fiber to the home has currently become more cost-effective than that of rolling out a copper based network. Prices have dropped to $850 per subscriber in the US and lower in countries like The Netherlands, since 1990, when optical-amplification systems became commercially available, the telecommunications industry has laid a vast network of intercity and transoceanic fiber communication lines. Bell considered it his most important invention, the device allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light. On June 3,1880, Bell conducted the worlds first wireless transmission between two buildings, some 213 meters apart. Due to its use of a transmission medium, the Photophone would not prove practical until advances in laser. The Photophones first practical use came in military communication systems many decades later, in 1954 Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany showed that rolled fiber glass allowed light to be transmitted. Initially it was considered that the light can traverse in only straight medium, after a period of research starting from 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic communications system was developed, which operated at a wavelength around 0.8 µm and used GaAs semiconductor lasers. This first-generation system operated at a bit rate of 45 Mbit/s with repeater spacing of up to 10 km, soon on 22 April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics sent the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6 Mbit/s throughput in Long Beach, California. The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 µm. In 1984, they had developed a fiber optic cable that would help further their progress toward making fiber optic cables that would circle the globe. Canadian service provider SaskTel had completed construction of what was then the world’s longest commercial fiberoptic network, by 1987, these systems were operating at bit rates of up to 1.7 Gb/s with repeater spacing up to 50 km
32.
Beam splitter
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A beam splitter is an optical device that splits a beam of light in two. It is the part of most interferometers. In its most common form, a cube, it is made from two glass prisms which are glued together at their base using polyester, epoxy, or urethane-based adhesives. The thickness of the layer is adjusted such that half of the light incident through one port is reflected. Polarizing beam splitters, such as the Wollaston prism, use birefringent materials, another design is the use of a half-silvered mirror, a sheet of glass or plastic with a transparently thin coating of metal, now usually aluminium deposited from aluminium vapor. The thickness of the deposit is controlled so that part of the light which is incident at a 45-degree angle and not absorbed by the coating is transmitted, a very thin half-silvered mirror used in photography is often called a pellicle mirror. To reduce loss of light due to absorption by the reflective coating, originally, these were sheets of highly polished metal perforated with holes to obtain the desired ratio of reflection to transmission. Instead of a coating, a dichroic optical coating may be used. Depending on its characteristics, the ratio of reflection to transmission will vary as a function of the wavelength of the incident light, dichroic mirrors are used in some ellipsoidal reflector spotlights to split off unwanted infrared radiation, and as output couplers in laser construction. A third version of the splitter is a dichroic mirrored prism assembly which uses dichroic optical coatings to divide an incoming light beam into a number of spectrally distinct output beams. Such a device was used in color television cameras and the three-strip Technicolor movie camera. It is currently used in modern three-CCD cameras, beam splitters with single mode fiber for PON networks use the single mode behavior to split the beam. The splitter is done by physically splicing two fibers together as an X, a beam splitter that consists of a glass plate with a reflective dielectric coating on one side gives a phase shift of 0 or π, depending on the side from which it is incident. Transmitted waves have no phase shift, reflected waves entering from the reflective side are phase-shifted by π, whereas reflected waves entering from the glass side have no phase shift. This is the case in the transition of air to reflector and this does not apply to partial reflection by conductive coatings, where other phase shifts occur in all paths. We consider a classical lossless beam-splitter with electric fields incident at both its inputs, the two output fields Ec and Ed are linearly related to the inputs through =, where the 2 ×2 element is the beam-splitter matrix. R and t are the reflectance and transmittance along a path through the beam-splitter. Expanding, we can write each r and t as a number having an amplitude and phase factor, for instance
33.
Laser
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A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently, spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances, Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i. e. they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond, Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a great distance along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum, most single wavelength lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies, often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously, there are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all devices are classified as lasers based on their method of producing light. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies. The word laser started as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, in the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser, this term is now obsolete. A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been noted that the acronym LOSER, for light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation. With the widespread use of the acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as laser amplifiers. The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning to produce light, especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser. Further use of the laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser
34.
Birefringence
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Birefringence is the optical property of a material having a refractive index that depends on the polarization and propagation direction of light. These optically anisotropic materials are said to be birefringent, the birefringence is often quantified as the maximum difference between refractive indices exhibited by the material. Crystals with non-cubic crystal structures are often birefringent, as are plastics under mechanical stress and this effect was first described by the Danish scientist Rasmus Bartholin in 1669, who observed it in calcite, a crystal having one of the strongest birefringences. A mathematical description of wave propagation in a birefringent medium is presented below, following is a qualitative explanation of the phenomenon. Thus rotating the material around this axis does not change its optical behavior and this special direction is known as the optic axis of the material. Light whose polarization is perpendicular to the axis is governed by a refractive index no. Light whose polarization is in the direction of the optic axis sees an optical index ne, for any ray direction there is a linear polarization direction perpendicular to the optic axis, and this is called an ordinary ray. The magnitude of the difference is quantified by the birefringence, Δ n = n e − n o, the propagation of the ordinary ray is simply described by no as if there were no birefringence involved. However the extraordinary ray, as its name suggests, propagates unlike any wave in an optical material. Its refraction at a surface can be using the effective refractive index. However it is in fact an inhomogeneous wave whose power flow is not exactly in the direction of the wave vector and this causes an additional shift in that beam, even when launched at normal incidence, as is popularly observed using a crystal of calcite as photographed above. Rotating the calcite crystal will cause one of the two images, that of the ray, to rotate slightly around that of the ordinary ray. When the light propagates either along or orthogonal to the optic axis, in the first case, both polarizations see the same effective refractive index, so there is no extraordinary ray. In the second case the extraordinary ray propagates at a different phase velocity but is not an inhomogeneous wave, for instance, a quarter-wave plate is commonly used to create circular polarization from a linearly polarized source. The case of so-called biaxial crystals is substantially more complex and these are characterized by three refractive indices corresponding to three principal axes of the crystal. For most ray directions, both polarizations would be classified as extraordinary rays but with different effective refractive indices, being extraordinary waves, however, the direction of power flow is not identical to the direction of the wave vector in either case. The two refractive indices can be determined using the index ellipsoids for given directions of the polarization, note that for biaxial crystals the index ellipsoid will not be an ellipsoid of revolution but is described by three unequal principle refractive indices nα, nβ and nγ. Thus there is no axis around which a rotation leaves the optical properties invariant, for this reason, birefringent materials with three distinct refractive indices are called biaxial
35.
Quartz
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Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in Earths continental crust, behind feldspar. There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are semi-precious gemstones, since antiquity, varieties of quartz have been the most commonly used minerals in the making of jewelry and hardstone carvings, especially in Eurasia. The word quartz is derived from the German word Quarz and its Middle High German ancestor twarc, the Ancient Greeks referred to quartz as κρύσταλλος derived from the Ancient Greek κρύος meaning icy cold, because some philosophers apparently believed the mineral to be a form of supercooled ice. Today, the rock crystal is sometimes used as an alternative name for the purest form of quartz. Quartz belongs to the crystal system. The ideal crystal shape is a six-sided prism terminating with six-sided pyramids at each end, well-formed crystals typically form in a bed that has unconstrained growth into a void, usually the crystals are attached at the other end to a matrix and only one termination pyramid is present. However, doubly terminated crystals do occur where they develop freely without attachment, a quartz geode is such a situation where the void is approximately spherical in shape, lined with a bed of crystals pointing inward. α-quartz crystallizes in the crystal system, space group P3121 and P3221 respectively. β-quartz belongs to the system, space group P6222 and P6422. These space groups are truly chiral, both α-quartz and β-quartz are examples of chiral crystal structures composed of achiral building blocks. The transformation between α- and β-quartz only involves a comparatively minor rotation of the tetrahedra with respect to one another, although many of the varietal names historically arose from the color of the mineral, current scientific naming schemes refer primarily to the microstructure of the mineral. Color is an identifier for the cryptocrystalline minerals, although it is a primary identifier for the macrocrystalline varieties. Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal or clear quartz, is colorless and transparent or translucent, common colored varieties include citrine, rose quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, milky quartz, and others. The most important distinction between types of quartz is that of macrocrystalline and the microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline varieties, the cryptocrystalline varieties are either translucent or mostly opaque, while the transparent varieties tend to be macrocrystalline. Chalcedony is a form of silica consisting of fine intergrowths of both quartz, and its monoclinic polymorph moganite. Other opaque gemstone varieties of quartz, or mixed rocks including quartz, often including contrasting bands or patterns of color, are agate, carnelian or sard, onyx, heliotrope, amethyst is a form of quartz that ranges from a bright to dark or dull purple color. The worlds largest deposits of amethysts can be found in Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, Russia, France, Namibia, sometimes amethyst and citrine are found growing in the same crystal. It is then referred to as ametrine, an amethyst is formed when there is iron in the area where it was formed
36.
Calcite
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Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate. The Mohs scale of hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison. Other polymorphs of calcium carbonate are the minerals aragonite and vaterite, aragonite will change to calcite at 380–470 °C, and vaterite is even less stable. Calcite is derived from the German Calcit, a term coined in the 19th century from the Latin word for lime and it is thus etymologically related to chalk. Calcite crystals are trigonal-rhombohedral, though actual calcite rhombohedra are rare as natural crystals, however, they show a remarkable variety of habits including acute to obtuse rhombohedra, tabular forms, prisms, or various scalenohedra. Calcite exhibits several twinning types adding to the variety of observed forms and it may occur as fibrous, granular, lamellar, or compact. Cleavage is usually in three directions parallel to the rhombohedron form and its fracture is conchoidal, but difficult to obtain. It has a defining Mohs hardness of 3, a gravity of 2.71. Color is white or none, though shades of gray, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, brown, calcite is transparent to opaque and may occasionally show phosphorescence or fluorescence. A transparent variety called Iceland spar is used for optical purposes, acute scalenohedral crystals are sometimes referred to as dogtooth spar while the rhombohedral form is sometimes referred to as nailhead spar. Single calcite crystals display an optical property called birefringence and this strong birefringence causes objects viewed through a clear piece of calcite to appear doubled. The birefringent effect was first described by the Danish scientist Rasmus Bartholin in 1669, at a wavelength of ~590 nm calcite has ordinary and extraordinary refractive indices of 1.658 and 1.486, respectively. Between 190 and 1700 nm, the refractive index varies roughly between 1.9 and 1.5, while the extraordinary refractive index varies between 1.6 and 1.4. Calcite, like most carbonates, will dissolve with most forms of acid, calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Although calcite is fairly insoluble in water, acidity can cause dissolution of calcite. Ambient carbon dioxide, due to its acidity, has a slight solubilizing effect on calcite, calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together or it can fill fractures. On a landscape scale, continued dissolution of calcium carbonate-rich rocks can lead to the expansion and eventual collapse of cave systems, high-grade optical calcite was used in World War II for gun sights, specifically in bomb sights and anti-aircraft weaponry
37.
Refraction
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Refraction is the change in direction of wave propagation due to a change in its transmission medium. The phenomenon is explained by the conservation of energy and the conservation of momentum, due to the change of medium, the phase velocity of the wave is changed but its frequency remains constant. This is most commonly observed when a wave passes from one medium to another at any other than 0° from the normal. In optics, refraction is a phenomenon that occurs when waves travel from a medium with a given refractive index to a medium with another at an oblique angle. At the boundary between the media, the phase velocity is altered, usually causing a change in direction. Its wavelength increases or decreases, but its frequency remains constant, for example, a light ray will refract as it enters and leaves glass, assuming there is a change in refractive index. A ray traveling along the normal will change speed, but not direction, refraction still occurs in this case. Understanding of this led to the invention of lenses and the refracting telescope. Refraction can be seen looking into a bowl of water. Air has a index of about 1.0003. If a person looks at an object, such as a pencil or straw, which is placed at a slant, partially in the water. This is due to the bending of light rays as they move from the water to the air, once the rays reach the eye, the eye traces them back as straight lines. The lines of sight intersect at a position than where the actual rays originated. This causes the pencil to appear higher and the water to appear shallower than it really is, the depth that the water appears to be when viewed from above is known as the apparent depth. This is an important consideration for spearfishing from the surface because it will make the fish appear to be in a different place. Conversely, an object above the water has a higher apparent height when viewed from below the water, the opposite correction must be made by an archer fish. For small angles of incidence, the ratio of apparent to real depth is the ratio of the indexes of air to that of water. But, as the angle of incidence approaches 90o, the apparent depth approaches zero, albeit reflection increases, the diagram on the right shows an example of refraction in water waves
38.
Snell's law
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In optics, the law is used in ray tracing to compute the angles of incidence or refraction, and in experimental optics to find the refractive index of a material. The law is also satisfied in metamaterials, which light to be bent backward at a negative angle of refraction with a negative refractive index. Although named after Dutch astronomer Willebrord Snellius, the law was first accurately described by the scientist Ibn Sahl at the Baghdad court in 984, in the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberrations. The law follows from Fermats principle of least time, which in turn follows from the propagation of light as waves, ptolemy, a Greek living in Alexandria, Egypt, had found a relationship regarding refraction angles, but it was inaccurate for angles that were not small. Ptolemy was confident he had found an empirical law, partially as a result of fudging his data to fit theory. Alhazen, in his Book of Optics, came closer to discovering the law of refraction, although named after Dutch astronomer Willebrord Snellius, the law was first accurately described by the Persian scientist Ibn Sahl at the Baghdad court in 984. In the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberrations. The law was rediscovered by Thomas Harriot in 1602, who however did not publish his results although he had corresponded with Kepler on this very subject, in 1621, Willebrord Snellius derived a mathematically equivalent form, that remained unpublished during his lifetime. René Descartes independently derived the law using heuristic momentum conservation arguments in terms of sines in his 1637 essay Dioptrics, rejecting Descartes solution, Pierre de Fermat arrived at the same solution based solely on his principle of least time. Interestingly, Descartes assumed the speed of light was infinite, yet in his derivation of Snells law he also assumed the denser the medium, the greater the speed of light. Fermat supported the assumptions, i. e. the speed of light is finite. Fermats derivation also utilized his invention of adequality, a mathematical equivalent to differential calculus, for finding maxima, minima. In his influential mathematics book Geometry, Descartes solves a problem that was worked on by Apollonius of Perga, given n lines L and a point P on each line, find the locus of points Q such that the lengths of the line segments QP satisfy certain conditions. For example, when n =4, given the lines a, b, c, and d and a point A on a, B on b, and so on, find the locus of points Q such that the product QA*QB equals the product QC*QD. When the lines are not all parallel, Pappus showed that the loci are conics, to show that the cubic curves were interesting, he showed that they arose naturally in optics from Snells law. According to Dijksterhuis, In De natura lucis et proprietate Isaac Vossius said that Descartes had seen Snells paper and we now know this charge to be undeserved but it has been adopted many times since. Both Fermat and Huygens repeated this accusation that Descartes had copied Snell, in French, Snells Law is called la loi de Descartes or loi de Snell-Descartes. As the development of optical and electromagnetic theory, the ancient Snells law was brought into a new stage
39.
Nicol prism
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A Nicol prism is a type of polarizer, an optical device used to produce a polarized beam of light. It is made in such a way that it one of the rays by total internal reflection, i. e the ordinary ray is eliminated. It was the first type of polarizing prism, invented in 1828 by William Nicol of Edinburgh and it passes out the top side of the upper half of the prism with some refraction, as shown. The extraordinary ray, or e-ray, experiences a lower index in the calcite and is not totally reflected at the interface because it strikes the interface at a sub-critical angle. The e-ray merely undergoes a slight refraction, or bending, as it passes through the interface into the half of the prism. It finally leaves the prism as a ray of plane-polarized light, undergoing another refraction, in most instruments, however, Nicol prisms have been replaced by other types of polarizers such as Polaroid sheets and Glan–Thompson prisms. Nomarski prism Glan–Thompson prism Glan–Foucault prism Sénarmont prism Rochon prism Wollaston prism
40.
Canada balsam
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Canada balsam, also called Canada turpentine or balsam of fir, is a turpentine made from the resin of the balsam fir tree of boreal North America. The resin, dissolved in essential oils, is a viscous, sticky, Canada balsam is amorphous when dried. Since it does not crystallize with age, its properties do not deteriorate. However, it has poor thermal and solvent resistance, lenses glued with Canada balsam are called cemented lenses. Also, other elements can be cemented with Canada balsam. Balsam was phased out as an optical adhesive during World War II, in favour of polyester, epoxy, in modern optical manufacturing, UV-cured epoxies are often used to bond lens elements. Canada balsam was also used for making permanent microscope slides. Xylene balsam, Canada balsam dissolved in xylene, is used for preparing slide mounts. Some workers prefer terpene resin for slide mounts, as it is less acidic and cheaper than balsam. Synthetic resins have largely replaced organic balsams for such applications, another important application of Canada balsam is in the construction of the Nicol prism. A Nicol prism consists of a crystal cut into two halves. Canada balsam is placed between the two layers, calcite is an anisotropic crystal and has different refractive indices for rays polarized along directions parallel and perpendicular to its optic axis. These rays with differing refractive indices are known as the ordinary and extraordinary rays, the refractive index for Canada balsam is in between the refractive index for the ordinary and extraordinary rays. Hence the ordinary ray will be totally internally reflected, the emergent ray will be linearly polarized, and traditionally this has been one of the popular ways of producing polarized light. Balm of Gilead, a compound made from the resinous gum of Commiphora gileadensis
41.
Total internal reflection
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Total internal reflection is the phenomenon which occurs when a propagated wave strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with respect to the normal to the surface. If the refractive index is lower on the side of the boundary and the incident angle is greater than the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the internal reflection occurs. This is particularly common as a phenomenon, where light waves are involved. When a wave reaches a boundary between different materials with different refractive indices, the wave will in general be partially refracted at the boundary surface, and partially reflected. This can only occur when the wave in a medium with a refractive index reaches a boundary with a medium of lower refractive index. For example, it will occur with light reaching air from glass, Total internal reflection of light can be demonstrated using a semi-circular block of glass or plastic. A ray box shines a beam of light onto the glass medium. At the glass/air boundary of the surface, what happens will depend on the angle. If θc is the angle, then the following scenarios depict what will happen according to the size of the incident angle. If θ ≤ θc, the ray will split, some of the ray will reflect off the boundary and this is not total internal reflection. If θ > θc, the ray reflects from the boundary. This is called total internal reflection and this physical property makes optical fibers useful and prismatic binoculars possible. It is also what gives diamonds their distinctive sparkle, as diamond has a high refractive index. The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90°, the angle of incidence is measured with respect to the normal at the refractive boundary. Consider a light ray passing from glass into air, the light emanating from the interface is bent towards the glass. When the incident angle is increased sufficiently, the transmitted angle reaches 90 degrees and it is at this point no light is transmitted into air. The critical angle θ c is given by Snells law, n 1 sin θ i = n 2 sin θ t, rearranging Snells Law, we get incidence sin θ i = n 2 n 1 sin θ t
42.
Microscopy
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Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye. There are three branches of microscopy, optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy. This process may be carried out by irradiation of the sample or by scanning of a fine beam over the sample. Scanning probe microscopy involves the interaction of a probe with the surface of the object of interest. The development of microscopy revolutionized biology, gave rise to the field of histology and so remains an essential technique in the life and physical sciences. Optical or light microscopy involves passing visible light transmitted through or reflected from the sample through a single or multiple lenses to allow a view of the sample. The resulting image can be detected directly by the eye, imaged on a plate or captured digitally. The single lens with its attachments, or the system of lenses and imaging equipment, along with the lighting equipment, sample stage and support. The most recent development is the microscope, which uses a CCD camera to focus on the exhibit of interest. The image is shown on a screen, so eye-pieces are unnecessary. Limitations of standard optical microscopy lie in three areas, This technique can only image dark or strongly refracting objects effectively, diffraction limits resolution to approximately 0.2 micrometres. This limits the practical limit to ~1500x. Out of focus light from points outside the focal plane reduces image clarity, live cells in particular generally lack sufficient contrast to be studied successfully, since the internal structures of the cell are colourless and transparent. The most common way to increase contrast is to stain the different structures with selective dyes, staining may also introduce artifacts, apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of the specimen and are thus not legitimate features of the specimen. In general, these make use of differences in the refractive index of cell structures. It is comparable to looking through a window, you dont see the glass. There is a difference, as glass is a material. The human eye is not sensitive to this difference in phase, in order to improve specimen contrast or highlight certain structures in a sample special techniques must be used
43.
Wollaston prism
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A Wollaston prism is an optical device, invented by William Hyde Wollaston, that manipulates polarized light. It separates randomly polarized or unpolarized light into two linearly polarized outgoing beams. The Wollaston prism consists of two orthogonal calcite prisms, cemented together on their base to two right triangle prisms with perpendicular optic axes. Outgoing light beams diverge from the prism, giving two polarized rays, with the angle of divergence determined by the wedge angle and the wavelength of the light. Commercial prisms are available with divergence angles from 15° to about 45°, nomarski prism Nicol prism Glan–Thompson prism Glan–Foucault prism Glan–Taylor prism Sénarmont prism Rochon prism Wollaston prism. Molecular Expressions Microscopy Primer, Specialized Microscopy Techniques - Wollaston Prisms, Interactive Java Tutorial
44.
Rochon prism
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A Rochon prism is a type of polariser. It is made from two prisms of a birefringent material such as calcite, which are cemented together, the Rochon prism was invented by and is named after Abbé Alexis Marie Rochon. It is in ways similar to the Wollaston prism. The Sénarmont prism is similar but transmits the s-polarized ray undeviated, in both the Rochon and the Sénarmont prisms the undeviated ray is ordinary on both sides of the interface. Rochon prisms are available, but for many applications other polarisers are preferred. Nomarski prism Nicol prism Glan–Thompson prism Glan–Foucault prism Sénarmont prism An article by CVI about different types of polariser
45.
Nomarski prism
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A Nomarski prism is a modification of the Wollaston prism that is used in differential interference contrast microscopy. It is named after its inventor, Polish physicist Georges Nomarski, like the Wollaston prism, the Nomarski prism consists of two birefringent crystal wedges cemented together at the hypotenuse. One of the wedges is identical to a conventional Wollaston wedge and has the optical axis oriented parallel to the surface of the prism. The second wedge of the prism is modified by cutting the crystal in such a manner that the axis is oriented obliquely with respect to the flat surface of the prism. Prism Nicol prism Glan–Thompson prism Glan–Foucault prism Sénarmont prism Rochon prism Allen, RD, David, GB, Nomarski, the zeiss-Nomarski differential interference equipment for transmitted-light microscopy. Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie und mikroskopische Technik, Nomarski Prism Action in Polarized Light Wavefront Shear in Wollaston and Nomarski Prisms
46.
Differential interference contrast microscopy
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DIC works on the principle of interferometry to gain information about the optical path length of the sample, to see otherwise invisible features. A relatively complex optical system produces an image with the object appearing black to white on a grey background and this image is similar to that obtained by phase contrast microscopy but without the bright diffraction halo. The technique was developed by Polish physicist Georges Nomarski in 1952, DIC works by separating a polarized light source into two orthogonally polarized mutually coherent parts which are spatially displaced at the sample plane, and recombined before observation. The interference of the two parts at recombination is sensitive to their optical path difference, unpolarised light enters the microscope and is polarised at 45°. Polarised light is required for the technique to work, the polarised light enters the first Nomarski-modified Wollaston prism and is separated into two rays polarised at 90° to each other, the sampling and reference rays. The Nomarski prism causes the two rays to come to a point outside the body of the prism, and so allows greater flexibility when setting up the microscope. The two rays are focused by the condenser for passage through the sample and these two rays are focused so they will pass through two adjacent points in the sample, around 0.2 μm apart. The sample is illuminated by two coherent light sources, one with 0° polarisation and the other with 90° polarisation. These two illuminations are, however, not quite aligned, with one lying slightly offset with respect to the other, the rays travel through adjacent areas of the sample, separated by the shear. The separation is normally similar to the resolution of the microscope and they will experience different optical path lengths where the areas differ in refractive index or thickness. This causes a change in phase of one ray relative to the due to the delay experienced by the wave in the more optically dense material. The passage of many pairs of rays through pairs of adjacent points in the means a image of the sample will now be carried by both the 0° and 90° polarised light. These, if looked at individually, would be bright field images of the sample, the light also carries information about the image invisible to the human eye, the phase of the light. The different polarisations prevent interference between two images at this point. The rays travel through the lens and are focused for the second Nomarski-modified Wollaston prism. The second prism recombines the two rays into one polarised at 135°, the combination of the rays leads to interference, brightening or darkening the image at that point according to the optical path difference. This prism overlays the two bright field images and aligns their polarisations so they can interfere, because the difference in phase is due to the difference in optical path length, this recombination of light causes optical differentiation of the optical path length, generating the image seen. The image has the appearance of an object under very oblique illumination, causing strong light
47.
Thin-film optics
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Thin-film optics is the branch of optics that deals with very thin structured layers of different materials. In order to exhibit thin-film optics, the thickness of the layers of material must be on the order of the wavelengths of visible light. Layers at this scale can have remarkable reflective properties due to wave interference. These effects alter the way the optic reflects and transmits light and this effect, known as thin-film interference, is observable in soap bubbles and oil slicks. More general periodic structures, not limited to layers, are known as photonic crystals. In manufacturing, thin layers can be achieved through the deposition of one or more thin layers of material onto a substrate. This is most often using a physical vapor deposition process, such as evaporation or sputter deposition. Thin films are used to create optical coatings, examples include low emissivity panes of glass for houses and cars, anti-reflective coatings on glasses, reflective baffles on car headlights, and for high precision optical filters and mirrors. Another application of these coatings is spatial filtering, Thin-film layers are common in the natural world. Their effects produce colors seen in soap bubbles and oil slicks, the wings of many insects act as thin-films, because of their minimal thickness. This is clearly visible in the wings of flies and wasps. Dichroic filter Dichroic prism Dielectric mirror Fresnel equations Thin-film interference Transparent materials Dual polarisation interferometry M. F. Land, the physics and biology of animal reflectors, Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology,24, 75–106. An excellent introduction to thin-film optics, with a focus on biology, Z. Knittl, Optics of thin films, Wiley,1981. Stavenga, Thin film and multilayer optics cause structural colors of many insects and birds Materials Today, Thin-film spatial filters, Optics Letters 30, 914–916 MacLeod, H. Angus
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