1.
Hungary
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Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri
2.
Constitution of Hungary
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The Fundamental Law of Hungary, the countrys constitution, was adopted on 18 April 2011, promulgated a week later and entered into force on 1 January 2012. It is Hungarys first constitution adopted within a framework and following free elections. The document succeeded the 1949 Constitution, originally adopted at the creation of the Hungarian Peoples Republic on 20 August 1949, both domestically and abroad, the 2011 constitution has been the subject of controversy. The government that enacted the charter has dismissed such assertions, saying it was enshrined lawfully, the constitution is divided into sections and articles as outlined below. Described as socially and fiscally conservative, the initiates a number of changes. In an effort to push the public debt below 50% of gross domestic product, the President is allowed to dissolve Parliament if a budget is not approved, and only companies with transparent activities and ownership structures are allowed to bid for government contracts. The powers of the head of the Hungarian National Bank are also limited, the life of a fetus is protected from the moment of conception, and although the move is seen as opening the possibility for a future ban or restrictions on abortion, existing laws were unaffected. Same-sex couples may register their partnerships, but marriage is defined as being between one man and one woman. A ban on discrimination does not mention age or sexual orientation, the constitution lowers judges mandatory retirement age from 70 to the general retirement age, which was 62 at the time of adoption and is set to rise to 65 by 2022. The provision also covers prosecutors, while the Prosecutor General and the head of the Curia are exempt, for centuries, the Hungarian constitution was unwritten, based upon customary law. There was no civil code either, lawyers worked with the Corpus Iuris Hungarici, following the advent of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, the Revolutionary Governing Council adopted a Provisional Constitution on 2 April 1919, providing for a Soviet-style political system. On 23 June, the National Assembly of Allied Councils adopted Hungarys first charter-like constitution, however, that regime was crushed two months later and Hungary returned to its historical, unwritten pre-1918 constitution. Despite the lack of a constitution, several constitutional laws were passed during the interwar period of the Kingdom of Hungary. Statute I of 1920 confirmed the monarchical form of government and vested legislative power in a diet, Statute XLVII dethroned the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. A second chamber was established by Statute XXII of 1926, successive constitutional acts increased the power of the regent, who was empowered to nominate forty senators at first, and during World War II, eighty-seven. Its basic features remained in place until 1989, although a number of important amendments were made, while the constitution guaranteed certain fundamental rights, their scope was limited by provisions stating they had to be exercised in harmony with the interests of the socialist society. In 1989, as the Communist regime crumbled, the legislature approved a constitutional revision that brought in a civil democratic form of government. After the opposition won free elections in 1990, references to democratic socialism, further modifications followed over the ensuing two decades, as successive plans for a new constitution did not reach fulfillment
3.
Hungarian Constitution of 1949
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The Hungarian Constitution of 1949 was adopted on 20 August 1949 and heavily amended on 23 October 1989. The Constitution of Hungary, adopted in 2011, declares the 1949 constitution to be invalid, following the end of World War II and after the country had been occupied by the Soviet Union, democratic elections were held under Statute VIII of 1945. Then, Statute I of 1946, a constitutional statute passed on 31 January, formally ended the thousand-year monarchy. Then in 1949, after the Hungarian Working Peoples Party had assumed undisputed control of the country, the date of its adoption,20 August, made a new national holiday that coincided with the traditional holiday of the feast of Saint Stephen. Now, Hungary became a republic, which was the state of the workers. A Presidential Council elected by parliament was to be head of state, the National Assembly met for some ten days each year, with most rules taking the form of presidential and ministerial decrees. A variety of rights was guaranteed, but only for the working people. Moreover, no means existed of ensuring these rights mandatory nature or of rendering them enforceable, until 1989, the charters basic features remained in effect, although the regime added important amendments in 1950,1953,1954,1972, and 1983. Notably, Act I of 26 April 1972, comprehensively redrafted the constitution, while the social, economic and political order remained the same, fundamental rights were now guaranteed for all citizens. The preamble still paid tribute to the Soviet liberators but took a historical perspective. From 1988 on, as the situation deteriorated and opposition groups emerged. However, time constraints did not allow a new constitution to be written. On 18 October, the National Assembly adopted an amendment to the 1949 Constitution. This reform was the first thoroughgoing constitutional transformation in the Soviet bloc and it was adopted like a normal constitutional amendment, with at least two-thirds of MPs approving, and went into effect on 23 October, the anniversary of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. The 1989 reform established Hungary as an independent, democratic, constitutional republic that was both democratic and democratic socialist. The economy was to be a market one, with planning employed and public. The people were sovereign, with parties functioning freely, outside the preamble, all references to socialism were carefully deleted. The Constitutional Court, whose members are elected by two-thirds of parliament, can annul laws declared unconstitutional, the parliamentary term was reduced from five to four years
4.
Government of Hungary
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The Government of Hungary exercises executive power in Hungary. It is led by the Prime Minister, and comprises ministers and it is the principal organ of public administration. The Prime Minister elected by the National Assembly and serves as the head of government, the Prime Minister is the leader of the party with the most seats in parliament. The Prime Minister selects Cabinet ministers and has the right to dismiss them. Cabinet nominees must appear before consultative open hearings before one or more parliamentary committees, survive a vote in the National Assembly, the cabinet is responsible to the parliament. Since the fall of communism, Hungary has a multi-party system, the last Hungarian parliamentary election took place on 6 April 2014. This parliamentary election was the 7th since the 1990 first multi-party election, the result was a victory for Fidesz–KDNP alliance, preserving its two-thirds majority with Viktor Orbán remaining Prime Minister. It was the first election according to the new Constitution of Hungary which went into force on 1 January 2012, the new electoral law also entered into force that day. The voters elected 199 MPs instead of previous 386 lawmakers, list of cabinets since 1989, Following the Hungarian parliamentary election,2014, the current prime minister, Viktor Orbán is serving with his government since 6 June 2014. The Minister of Interior of Hungary is a member of the Hungarian cabinet, the current foreign minister is Sándor Pintér. Between 2006 and 2010 the ministry was split into the Ministry of Local Government, in 2010 the prior organization was restored. Ministry of Local Government Ministry of Justice and Law Enforcement The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Hungary is a member of the Hungarian cabinet, the current foreign minister is Péter Szijjártó. The Minister of National Economy of Hungary is a member of the Hungarian cabinet, the current minister of national economy is Mihály Varga
5.
Prime Minister of Hungary
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The Prime Minister of Hungary is the head of government of Hungary, and the most powerful person in Hungarian politics. He or she leads the majority party or coalition in the National Assembly of Hungary, the current Prime Minister is Viktor Orbán, who has served since 29 May 2010. The title of Hungarys head of government in Hungarian is miniszterelnök, if there is no party with a majority, the President asks the leader of the largest party to attempt to form a government coalition. Therefore, the election of members of a party to parliament is the equivalent to a vote for that partys leader for Prime Minister. There is no limit to the number of mandates as Prime Minister, he/she is appointed by the President of the Republic, after the legislative elections and after an audience with every leader of a party represented at the Assembly. It is usual for the leader of the party receives a plurality of votes in the elections to be named Prime Minister. The Prime Minister has a role in the executive branch in accordance with the Hungarian Constitution. Further, the Prime Minister selects Cabinet ministers and has the right to dismiss them as is the case with the Chancellor of Germany. Cabinet nominees appear before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and they must then survive a vote by Parliament and be formally approved by the President. The palatine was the highest dignitary in the Kingdom of Hungary after the king from the rise up to 1848/1918. Initially, he was in fact the representative of the king, in the early centuries of the kingdom, he was appointed by the king, later elected by the Diet of the Kingdom of Hungary. After the Habsburgs solidified their hold of Hungary, the dignity became a position once again. Finally, it became hereditary in a branch of the Habsburg dynasty after King Francis appointed his brother Joseph. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 the revolutionaries wanted the creation of a Hungarian cabinet which would be independent from the Austrian Empire, one of the 12 points said,2. Ferdinand V appointed Count Lajos Batthyány for the position of Prime Minister of Hungary on 17 March 1848, the government was called ministry, differently from the current acceptation. Batthyány resigned on October 2,1848 he was succeeded by Lajos Kossuth as President of the Committee of National Defence and this executive body has not been allocated the portfolios. In April 1849, when the Hungarians had won many successes, after sounding the army, in May Bertalan Szemere was appointed Prime Minister. The position was vacant after the defeat of the freedom fight, List of rulers of Hungary List of heads of state of Hungary List of palatines of Hungary List of Prime Ministers of Hungary by tenure
6.
National Assembly (Hungary)
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The National Assembly is the parliament of Hungary. The unicameral body consists of 199 members elected to 4-year terms, election of members is based on a complex system involving both area and list election, parties must win at least 5% of the popular vote in order to enter the list of members of the assembly. The Assembly includes 25 standing committees to debate and report on introduced bills, the Constitutional Court of Hungary has the right to challenge legislation on the grounds of constitutionality. The assembly has met in the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest since 1902, the name of the legislative body was originally Parlamentum during the Middle Ages, the Diet expression gained mostly in the Early Modern period. It convened at regular intervals with interruptions during the period of 1527 to 1918, as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, it was reconstituted in 1867. Natio Hungarica was a geographic, institutional and juridico-political category, the democratic character of the Hungarian parliament was reestablished with the fall of the Iron Curtain and the end of communist dictatorship in 1989. Todays parliament is still called Országgyűlés just like in royal times, at the sixth parliamentary elections, four parties or party alliances passed the minimum threshold, the Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Union in alliance with the Christian Democratic Peoples Party. Fidesz-KDNP candidates won seats to achieve a two-thirds majority required to modify major laws. The Hungarian Socialist Party won 59 seats, while its former coalition party Alliance of Free Democrats failed to win any seats, there were two newcomers to the Országgyűlés, Jobbik and Politics Can Be Different. 1 independent got into the Parliament, winning a constituency in Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén County, the other prestigious party, the Hungarian Democratic Forum also lost all its seats. The President of Fidesz and Prime Minister is Viktor Orbán, pál Schmitt served as Speaker of the National Assembly until August 2010 when he became President of Hungary. He was replaced by László Kövér, after the 2010 local elections, held on the 3rd of October, Katalin Szili founded the Social Union and became its first chairperson. As a result, she quit the Hungarian Socialist Party and their parliamentarian group, continuing the parliamentarian work as formally independent MP. The heads of the factions were, MSZP, Ildikó Lendvai, Attila Mesterházy Fidesz, Tibor Navracsics KDNP, Zsolt Semjén SZDSZ, Gábor Kuncze, Mátyás Eörsi, János Kóka. MDF, the faction of MDF broke up in 2009. The head of the allied faction Fidesz-KDNP was Viktor Orbán, the head of the minority government was Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány then Gordon Bajnai. The speaker of the Assembly was Katalin Szili then Béla Katona of the MSZP
7.
Fidesz
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Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Alliance is a right-wing national conservative and populist political party in Hungary. Fidesz also retains current majorities in the county legislatures, almost all urban counties and it has been described as neo-fascist, and is a troubled member of the European Peoples Party. The party was founded in 1988, named simply Fidesz, originally as a youthful libertarian, Fidesz was founded by young democrats, mainly students, who were persecuted by the communist party and had to meet in small, clandestine groups. The movement became a force in many areas of modern Hungarian history. The membership had an age limit of 35 years. In 1989, Fidesz won the Rafto Prize, the Hungarian youth opposition movement was represented by one of its leaders, Dr Péter Molnár, who became a Member of Parliament in Hungary. In 1992, Fidesz joined the Liberal International, Fidesz received 8. 95%,7. 02% and 29. 48%. After its disappointing result in the 1994 elections, Fidesz changed its position from liberal to conservative. In 1995, it added Hungarian Civic Party to its shortened name, the conservative turn caused a severe split in the membership. Péter Molnár left the party, as well as Gábor Fodor and Klára Ungár, Fidesz gained power in 1998 under leader and Prime Minister Viktor Orbán, who governed Hungary in coalition with the smaller Hungarian Democratic Forum and the Independent Smallholders Party. In 2000, Fidesz joined the European Peoples Party and had its membership in the Liberal International terminated, Fidesz narrowly lost the 2002 elections to the Hungarian Socialist Party, by 41. 07% to the Socialists 42. 05%. Fidesz had 169 members of the Hungarian National Assembly, out of a total of 386, following the defeat, the municipal elections in October saw huge Fidesz losses. In the spring of 2003, Fidesz took its current name, the election of Dr. László Sólyom as the new President of Hungary as the most recent success of the party. He was endorsed by Védegylet, an NGO including people from the political spectrum. His activity does not entirely overlap with the ideals and he championed for elements of both political wings with a selective, but conscious choice of values. In 2005, Fidesz and the Christian Democratic Peoples Party formed an alliance for the 2006 elections, on October 1,2006, Fidesz won the municipal elections, which counterbalanced the MSZP-led governments power to some extent. In the 2009 European Parliament election, Fidesz won a landslide victory, in the final result, they won 263 seats, of which 173 are individual seats. Fidesz held 227 of these seats, giving it a majority in the National Assembly by itself
8.
Christian Democratic People's Party (Hungary)
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The Christian Democratic Peoples Party is a political party in Hungary. Without Fidesz, its support cannot be measured, and even a leading Fidesz politician, the party was founded under the name of KDNP on 13 October 1944 by Hungarian Catholic statesmen, intellectuals and clergy, and was a successor to the pre-war United Christian Party. Among the founders were Bishop Vilmos Apor, Béla Kovrig, László Varga, General József Pálffy, ethnographer Sándor Bálint and it was an offshoot of the Catholic Social Folk Movement, a civil organization. At the beginning of 1945 they elected Barankovics as principal secretary, the new KDNP enjoyed just four or five months of semi-legality towards the end of World War II. At the end of the war, the communist-dominated post-war authorities refused to legalize it or permit it to operate further, despite attempts by Varga and Barankovics, they were refused official permission to operate and take part in elections. Some of the founders, including Varga, were imprisoned for some days by detachments of the Arrow Cross Party. The left wing gained increasing ascendancy in the party, and on 8 May 1945, the 1947 elections saw the DNP finish second in the popular vote, winning 60 of the 411 seats. DNP was a democratic and anticommunist organisation, in 1949, Mátyás Rákosi asked Barankovics for the partys leaders to help him in the show trial against Cardinal Mindszenty, who was alreadyill in prison. Barankovics refused and, abandoning his party, escaped to Austria in an American diplomats car, many people followed his example, others were imprisoned by communists. The party was dissolved in January 1949. The party was refounded in 1989 with its present name, the link between the historical party and the present one is disputed, although prominent members of the original party, like László Varga, took part in its refoundatuon. It was part of the Hungarian National Assembly between 1990 and 1998, from 1998 on, it has been closely associated with the Hungarian party Fidesz. In 2005 Fidesz and the KDNP signed an agreement for election cooperation, in the 2006 elections this alliance gained strength, winning 42. 0% of the list votes and 164 representatives out of 386 in the National Assembly. The party decided to form a parliamentary faction with 23 representatives. It is the third largest faction in the National Assembly and co-operates closely with the Fidesz faction, as of 2017, the party leader is Zsolt Semjén, deputy prime minister. KDNP is a right-wing, conservative Christian party, KDNP has been a proponent of the severe restriction on Sunday shopping for a long time, citing Christian values. Parliament voted on the issue on December 14,2014 and the law came into effect on March 15,2015, public opinion was predominantly against the decision. Three polls done in the spring of 2015 registered an opposition of 64%, by the end of May, according to a poll by Medián, 72% of those polled disliked the new law, even the majority of Fidesz-KDNP voters were against it
9.
Jobbik
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Jobbik, the Movement for a Better Hungary, commonly known as Jobbik, is a Hungarian radical nationalist political party. The party describes itself as a principled, conservative and radically patriotic Christian party, whose purpose is the protection of Hungarian values. By contrast, the party has been described by others as neo-Nazi, after the Hungarian parliamentary elections on 6 April 2014, the party polled 1,020,476 votes, securing 20. 54% of the total, making them Hungarys third largest party in the National Assembly. The Movement for a Better Hungary more commonly goes under its abbreviated name Jobbik, the word jobb in Hungarian has two meanings, the adjective for better and the direction right, the comparative Jobbik therefore means both the more preferable choice and more to the right. This is similar to the English phrase right choice, which could mean both a choice on the side of the political spectrum and a correct choice. The party describes itself as a principled, conservative and radically patriotic Christian party, whose purpose is the protection of Hungarian values. For its part, Jobbik rejects the common classification of the spectrum in left. It prefers a distinction of political parties based on their stance towards globalisation, on this scheme, the party sees itself as patriotic. The party also rejects the term far-right, and instead labels itself as radical right-wing and it has also criticised media companies for labelling them as far-right and has threatened to take action towards those who do. Jobbik describes itself as rejecting global capitalism, European integration and Zionism, instead it adheres to Pan-Turanism, an ideology that asserts that Hungarians originate from the Ural–Altaic race. The movement is described by scholars and media outlets as fascist, neo-fascist, Neo-Nazi, extremist, racist, antisemitic, antiziganist. Jobbik rejects globalised capitalism, and the influence of foreign investors in Hungary, Jobbik specifically opposes Israeli and Jewish investment in Hungary. Jobbik officially maintains that it rejects violence and supports democracy, the party argues that the national police should be greatly strengthened and, along with the Fidesz, supports introducing a three strikes law. However, Jobbiks connections to the now-banned Magyar Gárda militia have raised concerns about the commitment to ensuring peace and order within Hungarian society. Jobbik supports bringing back the death penalty and have promised to restore capital punishment if they come to power. Jobbiks Hungarian irredentism can be found in pleas for cross-border ethnic self-determination, for example, the party demands territorial autonomy for the Székely Land in Romania and desires to make Carpathian Ruthenia an independent Hungarian district. Jobbik frequently calls for a return to pre-Treaty of Trianon borders in political rhetoric, a quarter of ethnic Hungarians live outside the country. Jobbik dedicates itself to supporting the cause of the significant Hungarian minorities residing in adjoining countries, the meaning of the partys 2009 election slogan Hungary belongs to the Hungarians was also the subject of considerable scrutiny
10.
Politics Can Be Different
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Politics Can Be Different is a green-liberal political party in Hungary. Founded in 2009, it was one of four parties to win seats in the National Assembly in the 2010 parliamentary election, the party is a member of the European Green Party. The party was preceded by a non-governmental organization social initiative founded in 2008, LMP shares common ideologies with most green parties. Key issues are environmental protection, sustainable development and the fight against corruption in the current political elite, in 2009, LMP received the official endorsement of the European Green Party. Gábor Ivády was the party member to be elected mayor of a town. For instance, during the by-election in the 2nd District of Budapest in 2011, MSZP urged the LMPs candidate Gergely Karácsony to withdraw in Katalin Lévais favor, but the Green party did not do this. The leadership of the LMP positioned the party to the centre, andrás Schiffer also criticized the previous Socialist cabinets, blaming Ferenc Gyurcsánys disastrous governance for having Fidesz won a two-thirds majority in 2010. However prominent politicians in LMP were divided on the issue of cooperation, in July 2011, Karácsony proposed an election coalition between Jobbik, LMP and MSZP, to change certain laws enacted by Fidesz. He cited Éva Tétényis case, as a precedent of how such a proposal could work, politics Can Be Different became a full member of the European Green Party in November 2011. During the partys congress in November 2012, LMP decided not to join Together 2014, as a result, Benedek Jávor, a proponent of the agreement, resigned from his position of parliamentary group leader. Jávor and his supporters founded a platform within the party, called Dialogue for Hungary on 26 November 2012, the platform argued in favour of conclusion of an electoral agreement with Bajnais movement in order to replace Orbáns regime. Later that day Schiffer, who did not support the cooperation with Bajnai, was elected leader of the LMP parliamentary group for second time, in January 2013, the LMPs congress rejected again the electoral cooperation with other opposition parties, including Together 2014. As a result, members of the partys Dialogue for Hungary platform left LMP to form a new political organization, Benedek Jávor announced the eight leaving MPs will not resign from their parliamentary seats. Seven parliamentarians remained in the party, Jávor said negotiations are required for the operation of the parliamentary group, according to the house rules. Schiffer did not call the secession as a party split, because, he argued, less than 10% of the LMPs membership decided to leave the party, the leaving MPs established Dialogue for Hungary as an officially registered party in March 2013. After the failed negotiations, the eight MPs also left the group which then broken up according to the house rules of the National Assembly. Party offered electoral alliance to the LMP, partys cooperation offer in September 2013. Schiffer and Bernadett Szél were elected co-presidents of the LMP during the congress on 24 March 2013
11.
Dialogue for Hungary
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The party had formed a coalition with the Together 2014 and they won together four seats in the national assembly and one seat in the European Parliament. The Dialogue for Hungary has taken one seat from the four in the Hungarian parliament and has one representative in Brussels, on 24 August 2016, spokesperson Bence Tordai announced that the shortened form of the partys name will change to Dialogue, and the Hungary word is removed. In September 2016, the logo is changed to Párbeszéd. For the Hungarian Parliament, For the European Parliament,1 In an electoral alliance with Together, Hungarian Socialist Party, Democratic Coalition,2 In an electoral alliance with Together. They gained one seat, PM politician Benedek Jávor, beintett Bajnainak az LMP, lemondott Jávor Benedek. LMP fails to elect new parliamentary leader as split in party continues. Ismét Schiffer András az LMP-frakció vezetője, LMP rejects proposals for new strategy at party congress. LMP splits over cooperation with Together 2014, caucus may remain intact, LMP rebels to establish Dialogue for Hungary as a full-fledged party. Eight breakaway LMP lawmakers to sit as independents, Jávor Benedek és Szabó Tímea vezetik a Párbeszéd Magyarországért tömörülést. Megszűntnek tekinti az LMP-frakciót a Fővárosi Közgyűlés, dunaújvárosi a Párbeszéd Magyarországért első helyi szervezete. Former PM Bajnais political movement officially forms political party, list of political parties in Hungary Official website
12.
Hungarian Socialist Party
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The Hungarian Socialist Party, known mostly by its acronym MSZP, is a social-democratic political party in Hungary. It was founded on 7 October 1989 as a democratic party by the reform wing of the ruling socialist Hungarian Socialist Workers Party. MSZP was one of the two parties in Hungarian politics until 2010, however, the party lost much of its popular support as a result of 2006 protests. Since then, the MSZP has been the strongest opposition party in the parliament since 2010 and it is the partial successor of the communist Hungarian Socialist Workers Party, which ruled Hungary between 1956 and 1989. The decision to declare the party a successor of the MSZMP was controversial, another source of controversy is that some members of the former communist elite maintained political influence in the MSZP. Indeed, many key MSZP politicians were members or held leadership positions within the MSZMP. The party is not to be confused with the Workers Party, the MSZP, in contrast, implemented a strong package of market reforms, austerity and privatization in 1995-96, called the Bokros package, when Hungary faced an economic and financial crisis. In contrast, issues like church and state and former communists show alignment along the traditional left-right spectrum and it is also noteworthy that, according to research, the MSZP elites positions used to be closer to voters of the SZDSZ than to their own. Besides Gyula Horn, the MSZPs most internationally recognized politicians were Ferenc Gyurcsány and László Kovács, at the 2006 elections, MSZP won with 43. 2% of party list votes, which gave it 190 representatives out of 386 in the Parliament. The MSZP was therefore able to retain its coalition government from the previous term, in earlier elections, the MSZP polled 10. 89%,32. 98%,32. 92% and 42. 05%. After the successful fees abolishment referendum, MSZP formed the first minority government of Hungary, on 21 March 2009 Gyurcsány announced his resignation as Prime Minister due to failure management of the economic crisis. Gordon Bajnai became the nominee of MSZP for the post of minister in March 2009. Gyurcsány also resigned from his position of party chairman, which he had occupied since 2007. MSZP has lost half of its supporters during the European Parliament election in 2009 and this electoral defeat marked the end of the de facto two-party system in Hungary, which lasted since 1998. The Hungarian Socialist Party suffered a defeat in the 2010 election, gaining only 19, 3% of the votes. Following the resignation of Ildikó Lendvai, the prime minister candidate Attila Mesterházy was elected Chairman of the Socialist Party. Nevertheless, MSZP became the biggest opposition party in Hungary, initially, the former PM wanted to reform the party, but his goals remained in the minority. As a result, Gyurcsány, along with nine members of the parliamentary group, left MSZP
13.
Democratic Coalition (Hungary)
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For the Greek party alliance see Democratic Coalition. The Democratic Coalition is a political party in Hungary led by former Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány. Founded in 2010 as a faction within the Hungarian Socialist Party and it has four MPs in the National Assembly, and two MEPs in the European Parliament. On 5 October 2010 Gyurcsány announced to the party executive that he is founding a platform named the Democratic Coalition within the party and he said he will organise a broad, open social community for 1989 democrats, and a political representation for them. The mood at the meeting was calm, but several party officials expressed disagreement with him, the Democratic Coalition held its inaugural meeting at 2 p. m. in the Szent István Park in the 13th District on 22 October 2010. The former Prime Ministers group became the Hungarian Socialist partys seventh platform, the latter idea was only supported by the Democratic Coalition Platform. He dismissed Gyurcsánys idea of embracing liberal and conservative trends, Gyurcsánys model would make the party dysfunctional, he said. The new Democratic Coalition party is to be a Western, Left-wing formation with ten lawmakers, Gyurcsány announced on the first anniversary that its forerunner, the Democratic Coalition Platform, was set up. He said the reason why he had decided to leave the MSZP was that the party had failed in its efforts to transform itself, Socialist representatives strongly condemned Gyurcsány, who had only last week signed a pledge to stay on in the party. The formerly existing Democratic Party changed its name to Democratic Coalition, at a press conference, Gyurcsány also announced that the renewed party had elected Tamás Bauer, József Debreczeni, Csaba Molnár and Péter Niedermüller deputy chairmen. The new formation, an offspring of Gyurcsánys former Democratic Coalition Platform within the MSZP, according to the parliamentary rules, any parliamentarian that leaves or is expelled from a party faction must sit as an independent candidate for six months before joining another faction. However, in April 2012, the ruling party Fidesz approved a new House rules under which DK may not form a parliamentary group, Gyurcsány described the change in the House rules as petty revenge on the part of the prime minister. Csaba Molnár said they might take the matter to the Constitutional Court, Attila Mesterházy told a forum held at the party headquarters, broadcast by commercial news channel ATV, that in order to win next years election, the MSZP need to win over uncertain voters. The party board decided that running with Gyurcsány would keep uncertain voters away, Gyurcsány said the MSZP had proposed cooperation in four instead of nine constituencies, all of which were impossible to win. In addition they offered every 25th place on their party list, another request was that DK should not present a platform of its own. The party could not accept these conditions, the politician said, on 14 January 2014, centre-left opposition parties agreed to submit a joint list for the spring 2014 general election, party leaders announced. The list was headed by MSZP leader Attila Mesterházy, who is the centre-left alliances candidate for Prime Minister, Mesterházy is followed by Gordon Bajnai as second and Ferenc Gyurcsány as third on the list. The Hungarian Liberal Party also received two places on the list
14.
Elections in Hungary
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Elections in Hungary are held at two levels, general elections to elect the members of the National Assembly, and local elections to elect local authorities. European Parliament elections are held every 5 years. The last National Assembly elected according to the old system was elected in 2010 and had been working until 2014, the National Assembly had 386 members, elected for a four-year term. 176 members were elected in single-seat constituencies,152 by proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies, for the latter two, an election threshold of 5% is in effect. Or in case of two parties joint list, the threshold is 10%, in case of three or more parties, 15%, general elections in Hungary were held in two rounds until 2010, with a second, run-off round taking place two weeks after the first. From 2014 a one-round system replaced the existing system. After the polls close, The result in single-seat constituencies where turnout was below 50% is declared invalid. Any single-seat constituency where turnout was over 50% and one received over 50% of the votes is won by that candidate. In all remaining single-seat constituencies, the candidates who finished the first three plus any more candidates having received at least 15% of votes may enter the second round, the result for multi-seat constituencies where the turnout was over 50% is produced. In the second round, each voter may cast one vote for one candidate standing in the single-seat constituency. After the polls close, Any seats in single-seat constituencies where turnout was below 25%, all other single-seat constituencies will be won by the candidate who received the most votes. The result of multi-seat constituencies where turnout was below 25% is declared invalid, the parties passing the threshold are identified based on multi-seat constituencies with a valid result. Seats from these constituencies are distributed, the electoral laws were changed in 2012. The first elections to be according to the new system were organized in 2014. The 2014 elections were held on the 6th of April, the following significant changes had been issued in the electoral system, One round system instead of the two round system. No 50%, nor 25% turnout is necessary and this minority spokesman solution gives the opportunity to minorities to speak in the National Assembly even if they cannot gain the approximately 1% of all votes. Practically German and Romani minorities have the chance to have MP-s, the average population of constituencies used to be 57089 and will be 94789 in 2014. The constituency borders do not coincide with city or district borders, however they have to coincide with county borders, Budapest used to consist of 32 constituencies and will consist of 18 in 2014
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Hungarian parliamentary election, 2010
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Parliamentary elections were held in Hungary on 11 and 25 April 2010 to choose MPs for the National Assembly. They were the free elections since the end of communist era. 386 members of parliament were elected in a system of party lists. In the first round of the elections, the conservative party Fidesz won the majority of seats. In the second round Fidesz-Christian Democratic Peoples Party candidates won seats to achieve a two-thirds majority required to modify major laws. This speech surfaced in the press in the Autumn of 2006, as polls showed both MDF and SZDSZ would be unlikely to make it into parliament on their own, they have agreed to a limited electoral cooperation. Following the EU elections of 2009, trends showed the rise of right-wing parties, in this vein, the foreign media cited ominous trends concerning the election results. Jobbik leader, Gábor Vona, also stirred up controversy with allegations of chauvinism by saying Hungary is for Hungarians, Molnar also claimed that the language of instruction in Jerusalem schools was Hungarian and they were learning the language of their future homeland. His party at the time, Fidesz, did not denounce his statement, adding that he would not even consider ousting Molnar from his party or parliamentary faction, as the remark did not violate the partys bylaws. However, in 2010 he was excluded from the Fidesz, due to these remarks, instead of him, a Lebanese-origin doctor, Pierre Daher became the Fidesz candidate. Molnár also claimed that pregnant Roma women deliberately try to induce birth defects so they can give birth to fools to receive higher family subsidies, I have checked this and it’s true, they hit their bellies with a rubber hammer so that they’ll give birth to handicapped kids. In 2011, he denounced Roma women at the Hungarian police authorities, according to Ékes, the demonstrations would harm youngsters, whose school season was to start on the same day. A Hungarian analyst was cited as saying Fidesz tolerates such provocative rhetoric from its members because of fears they would vote for Jobbik instead and this was answered by Richard Field, an American businessman living in Hungary, who is a large financial supporter of Politics Can Be Different. Staudt, a co-founder of the Magyar Gárda Society—that was banned in 2007—had been on the security committee. The four would, however, continue to be MPs, NSD - European Election Database - Hungary
16.
Hungarian parliamentary election, 2014
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The 2014 Hungarian parliamentary election took place on 6 April 2014. This parliamentary election was the 7th since the 1990 first multi-party election, the result was a victory for the Fidesz–KDNP alliance, preserving its two-thirds majority, with Viktor Orbán remaining Prime Minister. It was the first election under the new Constitution of Hungary which came into force on 1 January 2012, the new electoral law also entered into force that day. For the first time since Hungarys transition to democracy, the election had a single round, the voters elected 199 MPs instead of the previous 386 lawmakers. After the 2010 parliamentary election, Fidesz won a landslide victory, as a result of this election, his government was able to alter the National Constitution, as he garnered a two thirds majority. The government was able to write an article that favored traditional marriages. Orbán and his government remained popular in the months leading to the election. This was largely because of high GDP growth, increased output. The National Election Office announced that a total of 2,304 candidates submitted the required number of nominations for the election by the 3 p. m. deadline on 4 March. The candidacy of 1,531 people was accepted after completion of the registration process, on 21 February 2014, the National Election Committee registered at first the joint list of the governing Fidesz–KDNP party alliance, led by PM Viktor Orbán and KDNP president Zsolt Semjén. They have the rights as other parliamentarians to address the parliament. However the minorities could also set up national lists. If any such national list reached the 5% electoral threshold from minority votes, the Polish minority list was the first minority list to be successfully registered by the National Election Committee, on 25 February 2014. The officially recognized minority self-government organizations received a total of 298.5 million Ft of public support for campaign activity. The National Roma Council was awarded a significant portion of the funds – altogether 101 million forints – while the Bulgarians granted the lowest amount, the table below refers to the latter data. Fideszs leader Viktor Orbán celebrated in Budapest with thousands of supporters in the evening and said that Hungary was on the threshold of a new and wonderful epoch. Jobbik leader Gábor Vona said that the party is now the strongest national radical party in the EU, jobbik continuously increases it popularity and ahead of the European parliament elections it is important to make this clear. We outperformed pollsters’ expectations, but we were not able to achieve the goal we set for ourselves of winning the elections, one of the five party alliances leaders, Gordon Bajnai, said the result was a crushing defeat and a great disappointment for those who wanted change
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Hungarian presidential election, 2010
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An indirect presidential election was held in Hungary on 29 June 2010. The Prime Ministers nominee Pál Schmitt was elected by an absolute majority, following the Hungarian parliamentary election,2010, Fidesz came out with an overwhelming majority of seats. With a two-thirds majority requirement needed to elect the president, Fidesz was expected to win since it already had the necessary numbers. Nominations were due by midday of 25 June 2010, the Hungarian Socialist Party nominated university lecturer, Fidesz nominated speaker of parliament Pál Schmitt on 23 June 2010. Jobbik intended to nominate Krisztina Morvai, and Politics Can Be Different wished to nominate incumbent President László Sólyom, once elected, the new president would take office on 5 August 2010. Most Hungarians said they didnt think the President should be a member of any party, twenty-four percent said they would not vote for any of the candidates or declined to answer the question. The President of the European Parliament Jerzy Buzek welcomed the election of Schmitt
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Hungarian presidential election, 2012
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An early indirect presidential election was held in Hungary on 2 May 2012, following the resignation of Pál Schmitt as President of Hungary on 2 April 2012. János Áder was elected President with an absolute majority, as a result of an allegation of academic misconduct he was stripped by a legal session of the Senate of the SOTE of his doctorate degree on 29 March. On 2 April, Schmitt told Parliament he would resign as President saying that under the Constitution, I have unfortunately become a symbol of division, I feel it is my duty to leave my position. One of the five Deputy Speakers of the Parliament, Sándor Lezsák, was commissioned with exercising the Speakers rights, the Socialist Party, Politics Can Be Different and the Democratic Coalition agreed about the opposition parties guarantees for having a meaningful say in the presidential election. Jobbik nominated MEP Krisztina Morvai and former Minister of Defence Lajos Für as the candidates to the presidential position on 4 April. However, Für later announced that he would not accept the nomination, Fidesz announced that will nominate MEP János Áder. Áder was criticised for his relationship with Prime Minister Viktor Orbán on the grounds that he would not serve as a check on the power of the Prime Minister. MSZP boycotted the vote because they said the move would strengthen the hand of the party who have already appointed allies to the judiciary. LMP and the Democratic Coalition also joined the boycott, let me reach out to believers and to non-believers alike, and ask them to see in each other what unites us, as understanding one another will enrich us all. Prime Minister Viktor Orbán added that the best decision for setting in motion and we know the President, we respect him and think highly of him. For its part, the Democratic Coalitions Ágnes Vadai said that Áder was not trustworthy enough to safeguard the democratic nature of the state, lMPs Benedek Jávor also said that Áder should start a constitutional review of electoral and justice laws. Its also important that the president elected now will be in office until 2017, and the office will be held by someone from the innermost circles of Fidesz even if the party loses the 2014 elections
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Administrative divisions of Hungary
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Administratively, Hungary is divided into 19 counties. In addition, the capital, Budapest, is independent of any county government, the counties and the capital are the 20 NUTS third-level units of Hungary. Since 1996, the counties and City of Budapest have been grouped into 7 regions for statistical and these seven regions constitute NUTS second-level units of Hungary. There are also 23 towns with county rights, sometimes known as counties in English. The local authorities of these towns have extended powers, but these belong to the territory of the respective county instead of being independent territorial units. The counties are subdivided into 174 districts as of January 1,2015. 23 districts of the city of Budapest are both administrative and self-government units. NUTS, HU Postal codes in Hungary - including a map of two digit zones Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary
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Counties of Hungary
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Hungary is subdivided administratively into 19 counties and the capital city Budapest. The counties are subdivided into 174 districts. The capital Budapest is subdivided into 23 districts, there are 23 towns with countys rights, sometimes called urban counties. The local authorities of these towns have extended powers but they are not independent territorial units
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Foreign relations of Hungary
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Hungary wields considerable influence in Central and Eastern Europe and is a middle power in international affairs. The foreign policy of Hungary is based on four basic commitments, to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development, the Hungarian economy is fairly open and relies strongly on international trade. Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955 and member of European Union, the NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, the WTO, the World Bank, the AIIB and the IMF. Hungary took on the presidency of the Council of the European Union for half a year in 2011, Hungarys capital city, Budapest is home to more than 100 embassies and representative bodies as an international political actor. Since 1989, Hungarys top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic, Hungary joined the Partnership for Peace program in 1994 and has actively supported the IFOR and SFOR missions in Bosnia. Hungary since 1989 has also improved its often frosty neighborly relations by signing treaties with Romania, Slovakia. These renounce all outstanding claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Romania, Slovakia and Serbia periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare up, Hungary since 1989 has signed all of the OSCE documents, and served as the OSCEs Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungarys record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in Central and Eastern Europe. Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by the anti-Soviet leader Imre Nagy in November 1956 and it was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact and Comecon, and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those organizations, now defunct. After 1989, Hungary oriented more towards the West, joined NATO in 1999, as with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. Hungarys foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungarys top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic, Hungary joined the Partnership for Peace program in 1994 and has actively supported the IFOR and SFOR missions in Bosnia. The Horn government achieved Hungarys most important foreign policy successes of the post-communist era by securing invitations to join both NATO and the European Union in 1997, Hungary became a member of NATO in 1999, and a member of the EU in 2004. Hungary also has improved its often frosty neighborly relations by signing treaties with Romania, Slovakia. These renounce all outstanding claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare up. Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the CSCE/OSCE follow-on documents since 1989, Hungarys record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe
22.
Parliamentary system
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In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a different person from the head of government. Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders, eventually these councils have slowly evolved into the modern Parliamentary system. The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages, for example in 1188 Alfonso IX, the modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden. In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, in the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George Is inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the minister, literally the prime or first minister. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister, hence the use of phrases like Her Majestys government or His Excellencys government. Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism had already fueled the political struggle for democracy. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, a parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies, the Westminster and Consensus systems, the Westminster system is usually found in the Commonwealth of Nations and countries which were influenced by the British political tradition. These parliaments tend to have a more style of debate. The Australian House of Representatives is elected using instant-runoff voting, while the Senate is elected using proportional representation through single transferable vote, regardless of which system is used, the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a closed list. The Western European parliamentary model tends to have a more consensual debating system, Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use proportional representation with open party lists than the Westminster Model legislatures. The committees of these Parliaments tend to be more important than the plenary chamber, some West European countries parliaments implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers. In countries using this system, Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed minister, ministers in those countries usually actively participate in parliamentary debates, but are not entitled to vote. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, the head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament. The head of state appoints a minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time. The head of state appoints the leader of the party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister
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Representative democracy
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Representative democracy is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy. Representative democracy is often presented as the most efficient form of democracy possible in mass societies and it arguably allows for efficient ruling by a sufficiently small number of people on behalf of the larger number. Government efficiency can be judged based on metric of cost effectiveness, representatives voting on behalf of the people allows for a monetary benefit as there is lessened use of polling stations, vote counters, etc. The government is responsible for paying for the wages of the representatives. This system of governance is also time efficient as decisions can be made by a select few and it is a system in which people elect their lawmakers, who are then held accountable to them for their activity within government. It has been described by political theorists including Robert A Dahl, Gregory Houston. In it the power is in the hands of the representatives who are elected by the people in elections. Representatives are elected by the public, as in elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature. The constitution may also provide for some deliberative democracy or direct popular measures, however, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him, their opinion, high respect, their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs, and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man. These he does not derive from your pleasure, no, nor from the law and they are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his only, but his judgment. The Roman Republic was the first government in the world to have a representative government. In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787
24.
Parliamentary republic
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A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature. There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics, most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power, much like constitutional monarchies. Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems and this usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system, typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system, with the position of head of state given to a monarch. Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870, the President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940, following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. Additionally, the government proved unable to make decisions regarding decolonization. Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a Presidential one, since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations. In the case of republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General. This was the case in with South Africa, Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, in many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan, others became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence. List of countries by system of government Parliamentary system Republic Republicanism Semi-presidential system
25.
Head of government
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The term head of government is often differentiated from the term head of state, as they may be separate positions, individuals, and/or roles depending on the country. In parliamentary systems, including constitutional monarchies, the head of government is the de facto leader of the government. For example, in the United Kingdom, the prime minister advises the Queen on the appointment of the cabinet, advice she is required to accept. On the other hand, the Queens long service as the head of state enables her to provide the prime minister with information and insight into many matters to better run the government. However, because the United Kingdom is a monarchy, the Prime Minister uses his or her own discretion regarding whether or not to follow the Queens advice. The Queen also is entitled to appoint a new Prime Minister, in presidential republics or in absolute monarchies, the head of state is also usually the head of government. The relationship between that leader and the government, however, can vary greatly, ranging from separation of powers to autocracy, in semi-presidential systems, the head of government may answer to both the head of state and the legislature, with the specifics provided by each countrys constitution. A modern example is the present French government, which originated as the French Fifth Republic in 1958, in France, the president, the head of state, appoints the prime minister, who is the head of government. In some cases, the head of state may represent one political party, in this case, known as cohabitation, the prime minister, along with the cabinet, controls domestic policy, with the presidents influence is largely restricted to foreign affairs. In directorial systems, the executive responsibilities of the head of government are spread among a group of people, a prominent example is the Swiss Federal Council, where each member of the council heads a department and also votes on proposals relating to all departments. A common title for many heads of government is prime minister, various constitutions use different titles, and even the same title can have various multiple meanings, depending on the constitutional order and political system of the state in question. In addition to prime minister, titles used for the democratic model, some of these titles relate to governments below the national level. Have been used by various Empires, Kingdoms and Princely States of India as a title for the Prime Minister, maltese, In Malta, the head of government is Prim Ministru. In this case, the prime minister serves at the pleasure of the monarch, some such titles are diwan, mahamantri, pradhan, wasir or vizier. However, just because the head of state is the de jure dominant position does not mean that he/she will not always be the de facto political leader, in some cases, the head of state is a figurehead whilst the head of the government leads the ruling party. In some cases a head of government may even pass on the title in hereditary fashion, the ability to vote down legislative proposals of the government. Control over or ability to vote down fiscal measures and the budget, all of these requirements directly impact the Head of governments role. Many parliamentary systems require ministers to serve in parliament, while others ban ministers from sitting in parliament, heads of government are typically removed from power in a parliamentary system by Resignation, following, Defeat in a general election
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Plurality voting
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The plurality voting system is a system in which each voter is allowed to vote for only one candidate, and the candidate who polls the most among their counterparts is elected. In a system based on single-member districts, it may be called first-past-the-post, single-choice voting, in a system based on multi-member districts, it may be referred to as winner-takes-all or bloc voting. The system is used to elect members of a legislative assembly or executive officers. It is the most common form of the system, and is used in Canada, the house in India, the United Kingdom. Plural voting is distinguished from a majority voting system, in which, to win, more votes than all other candidates combined. In some countries such as France a two-ballot or runoff election plurality system is used and this may require two rounds of voting. If on the first round no candidate receives over 50% of the votes, then a second round takes place and this ensures that the winner gains a majority of votes in the second round. Alternatively, all candidates above a threshold in the first round may compete in the second round. If there are more than two standing, then a plurality vote may decide the result. In political science, the use of the plurality voting system with multiple and this combination is also variously referred to as winner-takes-all to contrast it with proportional representation systems. This term is also used to refer to elections for multiple winners in a particular constituency using bloc voting. Plurality voting is particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom and former British colonies, including the United States, Canada and this makes the plurality voting system among the simplest of all voting systems for voters and vote counting officials. Under the plurality system, the winner of the election becomes the representative of the entire electoral district. In an election for a seat, such as for president in a presidential system, the same style of ballot is used. In the two-round voting system, usually the two highest polling candidates in the first ballot progress to the second round Run-off ballot, in a multiple member plurality election, with n seats available, the winners are the n candidates with the highest numbers of votes. The rules may allow the voter to vote for one candidate, or for up to n candidates, generally plurality ballots can be categorized into two forms. The simplest form is a ballot where the name of a candidate is written in by hand. A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark to be next to the name of a single candidate
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Multi-party system
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First-past-the-post requires concentrated areas of support for large representation in the legislature whereas proportional representation better reflects the range of a populations views. Proportional systems have multi-member districts with more than one elected from a given district to the same legislative body. Duvergers Law states that the number of political parties is one plus the number of seats in a district. In these countries, usually no single party has a majority by itself. Instead, multiple political parties form coalitions for the purpose of developing power blocks for governing, a system where only two parties have the possibility of winning an election is called two-party system. A system where three parties have a realistic possibility of winning an election or forming a coalition is sometimes called a Third-party system. Usually this is because the electoral system penalises the third party, in the 2010 elections, the Liberal Democrats gained 23% of the total vote but won less than 10% of the seats due to the First-Past-The-Post electoral system. Despite this, they still had enough seats to form coalitions with one of the two parties, or to make deals in order to gain their support. An example is the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition formed after the 2010 general election, another is the Lib-Lab pact during Prime Minister James Callaghans Minority Labour Government, when Labour lost its three-seat majority in 1977, the pact fell short of a full coalition. Unlike a one-party system, a multi-party system encourages the general constituency to form distinct, officially recognized groups. Each party competes for votes from the enfranchised constituents, a multi-party system prevents the leadership of a single party from controlling a single legislative chamber without challenge. If the government includes an elected Congress or Parliament, the parties may share power according to proportional representation or the first-past-the-post system, in proportional representation, each party wins a number of seats proportional to the number of votes it receives. In first-past-the-post, the electorate is divided into a number of districts and this gravitation is known as Duvergers law. Proportional representation, on the hand, does not have this tendency. But, recent coalition governments, such as that in the U. K. represent two-party systems rather than multi-party systems and this is regardless of the number of parties in government. A two-party system requires voters to align themselves in large blocs, some theories argue that this allows centrists to gain control. On the other hand, if there are multiple parties, each with less than a majority of the vote. This also promotes centrism, as well as promoting coalition-building skills while discouraging polarization, coalition Polarized pluralism Political organisation Ingroups and outgroups
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Head of state
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A head of state is the public persona that officially represents the national unity and legitimacy of a sovereign state. In some countries, the head of state is a figurehead with limited or no executive power, while in others. Former French president Charles de Gaulle, while developing the current Constitution of France, some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of models. An independent nation state normally has a head of state, the non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role. In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature and it also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. In parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system, usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament. For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, so, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure presidential system. These officials are excluded completely from the executive, they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, hence their states governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majestys Government or His/Her Excellencys Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist, the constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister and responsible to the Diet. The emperor is defined in the constitution as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people and he is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints the prime minister, Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. In contrast, the contact the President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the court to test its constitutionality. The most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the President of Israel, semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a minister who is chosen by the president
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Legislature
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A legislature is a deliberative assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country or city. Legislatures form important parts of most governments, in the separation of model, they are often contrasted with the executive. Laws enacted by legislatures are known as legislation, legislatures observe and steer governing actions and usually have exclusive authority to amend the budget or budgets involved in the process. The members of a legislature are called legislators, each chamber of legislature consists of a number of legislators who use some form of parliamentary procedure to debate political issues and vote on proposed legislation. There must be a number of legislators present to carry out these activities. Some of the responsibilities of a legislature, such as giving first consideration to newly proposed legislation, are delegated to committees made up of small selections of the legislators. The members of a legislature usually represent different political parties, the members from each party generally meet as a caucus to organize their internal affairs, the internal organization of a legislature is also shaped by the informal norms that are shared by its members. Legislatures vary widely in the amount of power they wield, compared to other political players such as judiciaries, militaries. In 2009, political scientists M. Steven Fish and Matthew Kroenig constructed a Parliamentary Powers Index in an attempt to quantify the different degrees of power among national legislatures, such a system renders the legislature more powerful. Legislatures will sometime delegate their legislative power to administrative or executive agencies, legislatures are made up of individual members, known as legislators, who vote on proposed laws. For example, a legislature that has 100 seats has 100 members, by extension, an electoral district that elects a single legislator can also be described as a seat, as, for, example, in the phrases safe seat and marginal seat. In parliamentary systems of government, the executive is responsible to the legislature which may remove it with a vote of no confidence, names for national legislatures include parliament, congress, diet and assembly. A legislature which operates as a unit is unicameral, one divided into two chambers is bicameral, and one divided into three chambers is tricameral. In bicameral legislatures, one chamber is considered the upper house. In federations, the upper house typically represents the component states. This is a case with the legislature of the European Union. Tricameral legislatures are rare, the Massachusetts Governors Council still exists, tetracameral legislatures no longer exist, but they were previously used in Scandinavia. Legislatures vary widely in their size, among national legislatures, Chinas National Peoples Congress is the largest with 2987 members, while Vatican Citys Pontifical Commission is the smallest with 7
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Government
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A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the Commonwealth of Nations, the government is also used more narrowly to refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state. This usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English, finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways, in political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities. as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the science fields of comparative politics. On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be simple, the United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, for example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not free and fair and took place in a one-party state. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, many governments that officially call themselves a democratic republic are not democratic, nor a republic, they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been prone to use this term. For example, the name of North Vietnam was The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. China uses a variant, The Peoples Republic of China, thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. Experience with those movements in power, and the ties they may have to particular forms of government. For example, The meaning of conservatism in the United States has little in common with the way the words definition is used elsewhere, as Ribuffo notes, what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability
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Judiciary
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The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes, in some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, the Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review, Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive, the latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics and it is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary, the state, and the private. For instance, in France, the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law, in common law jurisdictions, courts interpret law, this includes constitutions, statutes, and regulations. They also make law based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law, for instance, the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions. The term common law refers to this kind of law, in civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are prohibited from creating law, and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged. Jurisprudence plays a role to case law. State courts, which try 98% of litigation, may have different names and organization, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts superior courts or commonwealth courts. The judicial system, whether state or federal, begins with a court of first instance, is appealed to an appellate court, and then ends at the court of last resort. In France, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases. In the Peoples Republic of China, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the National Peoples Congress. Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts, appeals courts, a cassation court, in this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority, but criminal cases have four stages, one more than civil law does. On the court sits a total of nine justices and this number has been changed several times. Japans process for selecting judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States, assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the Legal Training and Research Institute located in Wako. Once appointed, assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years, Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs, as a public prosecutor or practicing attorney
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Democracy
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Democracy, in modern usage, is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as rule of the majority, Democracy was originally conceived in Classical Greece, where political representatives were chosen by a jury from amongst the male citizens, rich and poor. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French, in the 5th century BC, to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, the term is an antonym to aristocracy, meaning rule of an elite. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically, the political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In 1906, Finland became the first government to harald a more inclusive democracy at the national level. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders, No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law, other uses of democracy include that of direct democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom which originated the Westminster system, in the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review, though the term democracy is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organisations. Majority rule is listed as a characteristic of democracy. Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of a representative democracy is competitive elections that are substantively and procedurally fair, i. e. just. It has also suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the form of government. Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. The word comes from demos, common people and kratos, strength, led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC
33.
Constitution
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A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i. e. constitute, some constitutions are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from states to companies. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a states rulers cannot cross, the term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments. Later, the term was used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope. The Latin term ultra vires describes activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall outside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. Ultra vires gives a justification for the forced cessation of such action. A violation of rights by an official would be ultra vires because a right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore that official would be exercising powers they do not have. It was never law, even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, in such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered, for example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich. After that, many governments ruled by codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur, some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law. In 621 BC a scribe named Draco codified the cruel oral laws of the city-state of Athens, in 594 BC Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the class was to be based on wealth. Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a footing in 508 BC. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was the arrangement of the offices in a state
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European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
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Economist Intelligence Unit
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The EIU provides country, industry, and management analysis worldwide and incorporates the former Business International Corporation, a UK company acquired by its parent company in 1986. The EIU has several offices across the globe including two offices in China and one in Hong Kong, the Economist Intelligence Unit also produces regular reports on liveability and cost of living of the worlds major cities that receive wide coverage in international media. The Economist Intelligence Units Quality-of-Life Index is another noted report and its current Managing Director is Robin Bew, formerly the companys Editorial Director and Chief Economist. Headquartered in London, Bazian was founded by Vivek Muthu and Anna Donald in 1999, clearstate was founded in 2006 and is headquartered in Singapore. In July 2015, the Economist Intelligence Unit acquired Canback & Company, renamed EIU Canback, the firm was founded in 2004 and is headquartered in Boston. It was created to support a report conducted by The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Access China Service, CHAMPS, the report coined the acronym CHAMPS. In January 2011, the Unit released the Government Broadband Index that assesses countries on the basis of government planning, with ambitious targets for both the speed and coverage of next-generation broadband networks, the developed countries of Southeast Asia scored highest. According to the index, Greece is the country measured, due to its relatively low coverage target. Greece also suffers due to the size of its public-funding commitment as a percentage of overall government budget revenues. The goal of the study was to identify the most creative models used by businesses to hire. A full list of The EIUs special reports can be downloaded on their website, in November 2015 the Economist Intelligence Unit launched Market Explorer in Collaboration with EIU Canback. It is a tool which was designed to scan markets in various countries and cities across the globe
36.
Democracy Index
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The index was first produced in 2006, with updates for 2008,2010 and the following years since then. The index is based on 60 indicators grouped in five different categories measuring pluralism, civil liberties, in addition to a numeric score and a ranking, the index categorizes countries as one of four regime types, full democracies, flawed democracies, hybrid regimes and authoritarian regimes. As described in the report, the index is a weighted average based on the answers of 60 questions. Some answers are provided by public-opinion surveys from the respective countries, in the case of countries for which survey results are missing, survey results for similar countries and expert assessments are used in order to fill in gaps. The questions are distributed in the five categories, electoral process and pluralism, civil liberties, functioning of government, political participation, each answer is translated to a mark, either 0 or 1, or for the three-answer alternative questions,0.5. With the exceptions mentioned below, the sums are added within each category, multiplied by ten, there are a few modifying dependencies, which are explained much more precisely than the main rule procedures. Is not considered, but automatically marked zero, the four category indices, which are listed in the report, are then averaged to find the democracy index for a given country. Finally, the index, rounded to one decimal, decides the regime type classification of the country. The report discusses other indices of democracy, as defined e. g. by Freedom House, the report is widely cited in the international press as well as in peer reviewed academic journals. Full democracies are nations where civil liberties and basic freedoms are not only respected. These nations have only limited problems in democratic functioning, flawed democracies are nations where elections are fair and free and basic civil liberties are honored but may have issues. Hybrid regimes are nations where consequential irregularities exist in elections regularly preventing them from being fair, authoritarian regimes are nations where political pluralism has vanished or is extremely limited. North Korea scored the lowest with 1.08, remaining at the bottom in 167th place, there was no significant improvement or regression in democracy between 2011 and 2012. In 2012 the index score stayed the same for 73 out of 167 countries, improved for 54 countries, libya experienced the biggest increase of any country in its score in 2012. Average regional scores in 2012 were very similar to scores in 2011. An exception is the Middle East and North Africa where the average increased by more than a tenth of a point, from 3.62 to 3.73. The Democracy Index score was lower in 2011 than in 2010 in 48 countries out of the 167 that are covered and it was higher in 41 ranked countries, and it stayed the same in 78. In nine countries there was a change in type between 2010 and 2011, in four of these there was regression
37.
Commander-in-chief
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A commander-in-chief is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nations military forces or significant elements of those forces. In the latter case, the element is those forces within a particular region. Often, a given countrys commander-in-chief need not be or have been an officer or even a veteran. This follows the principle of civilian control of the military, the role of commander-in-chief derives from the Latin, imperator. Imperatores of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire possessed imperium powers, in its modern use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War, a nations head of state usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the forces within their territory. A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship. The term is used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch. According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces, the incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Bujar Nishani. The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces, the Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. The Constitution states, in Article 80, that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Armed Forces. e, the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Federal Chancellor, as defined in Article 69. The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister and he retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh. Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the command of the President of the Republic. The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces, the powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all related to national defence
38.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
7.86
6.27
0
