1.
Moldova
–
Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova (Romanian, Republica Moldova, listen, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. In 1856, southern Bessarabia was returned to Moldavia, but Russian rule was restored over the whole of the region in 1878, Bessarabia remained a province of the Russian Empire until 1917, when during the Russian Revolution it became an autonomous and then nominally independent Moldavian Democratic Republic. In 1918, following a vote of its assembly, Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania, the decision was disputed by Soviet Russia, which in 1924, created within the Ukrainian SSR, on a territory east of Bessarabia, a so-called Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1940, as a consequence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Romania was compelled to cede Bessarabia to the Soviet Union, the Soviets decided to split the region between a newly established Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Ukrainian SSR. The Moldavian SSR included two-thirds of the territory of Bessarabia, on 27 August 1991, as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Moldavian SSR declared independence and took the name Moldova. The current Constitution of Moldova was adopted in 1994, the strip of the Moldovan territory on the east bank of the Dniester river has been under the de facto control of the breakaway government of Transnistria since 1990. Its economy is the poorest in Europe in per capita terms, Moldova is a parliamentary republic with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. The name Moldova derives from the Moldova River, the valley of this served as a political centre at the time of the foundation of the Principality of Moldavia in 1359. The origin of the name of the river remains unclear, the dogs name, given to the river, extended to the Principality. For a short time in the 1990s, at the founding of the Commonwealth of Independent States, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the country began to use the Romanian name, Moldova. Officially, the name Republic of Moldova is designated by the United Nations, in 2010, Oldowan flint tools were discovered at Bayraki that are 800, 000–1.2 million years old. This demonstrates that humans were present in Moldova during the early Paleolithic era. The inhabitants of this civilization, which lasted roughly from 5500 to 2750 BC, practiced agriculture, raised livestock, hunted, in antiquity, Moldovas territory was inhabited by Dacian tribes. Between the 1st and 7th centuries AD, the south was intermittently under the Roman, and then Byzantine Empires. The Principality of Moldavia, established in 1359, was bounded by the Carpathian Mountains in the west, the Dniester River in the east, and the Danube River and Black Sea to the south. Its territory comprised the territory of the Republic of Moldova, the eastern eight counties of Romania. Like the present-day republic and Romanias north-eastern region, it was known to the locals as Moldova, Moldavia was invaded repeatedly by Crimean Tatars and, beginning in the 15th century, by the Turks. In 1538, the principality became a tributary to the Ottoman Empire, the title used in the document of 6 July 1600 was The King of the country of Romania, Ardeal and of all of Moldavia
Moldova
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Stephen the Great, Prince of Moldavia between 1457 and 1504.
Moldova
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Flag
Moldova
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Soroca Fort was built on the site of the former
Genoese fortress Polihromia.
Moldova
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Monument to the villagers who died in
World War II, the village
Cojușna,
Strășeni District
2.
Human rights in Moldova
–
In February 2002, in response to severe censorship of the state broadcast station Teleradio-Moldova, hundreds of TVM journalists went on strike in solidarity with the anti-communist opposition. In retribution, a few journalists and staff members were dismissed or suspended from the station in March, however, in 2004 an improvement was made and the Moldovan Parliament removed Article 170 from the countrys Criminal Code. Article 170 called for up to five years imprisonment for defamation, according to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the media climate in Moldova remained restrictive as of 2004. Authorities continued a campaign to silence independent opposition voices and movements. In a case widely criticized by human rights defenders, opposition politician Valeriu Pasat was sentenced to a prison term. According to Amnesty Internationals 2007 annual report, the state of human rights in Moldova was poor, torture and ill-treatment were widespread and conditions in pre-trial detention were poor. A number of treaties protecting womens rights were ratified, but men, women and children continued to be trafficked for forcible sexual, measures to protect women against domestic violence were inadequate. Constitutional changes to abolish the penalty were made. Freedom of expression was restricted and opposition politicians were targeted, in 2009, when Moldova experienced its most serious civil unrest in a decade, several civilians like Valeriu Boboc were killed by police and many more injured. According to Human Rights Report of the United States Department of State, released in April 2011, In contrast to the previous year, during the year reports of government exercising undue influence over the media substantially decreased. But Transnistrian authorities continued to harass independent media and opposition lawmakers, restrict freedom of association, movement, and religion, crime in Moldova Human rights in Transnistria
Human rights in Moldova
–
Moldova
3.
Parliament of the Republic of Moldova
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The Parliament of the Republic of Moldova is the unicameral assembly of the Republic of Moldova. Its 101 MPs are elected by popular vote every 4 years, the parliament then elects a president, who functions as the head of state. The president appoints a minister as head of government who in turn assembles a cabinet. The structure and the record of the parliament staff are approved by the Parliament. According to the Constitution of Moldova, the Parliament is the supreme representative organ, the right of legislative initiative belongs to the Members of Parliament, to the Speaker and to the Government. In exercise of this right MPs and the President of the present to Parliament draft papers and legislative proposals. It is located on Stephen the Great Boulevard formerly known as Lenin Boulevard, the architects were Alexander Cerdanțev and Grigore Bosenco. The building was damaged during civil unrest in 2009 and repairs were carried out in 2012 and 2013, Parliament moved back into the restored building in February 2014. Official page Parliamentary Elections in the Republic of Moldova
Parliament of the Republic of Moldova
Parliament of the Republic of Moldova
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Parliament of the Republic of Moldova Parlamentul Republicii Moldova
Parliament of the Republic of Moldova
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Stephen the Great Boulevard
Parliament of the Republic of Moldova
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From the rear
4.
Andrian Candu
–
Andrian Candu is a Moldovan politician, member of the Moldovan Parliament since December 2014. Since January 23,2015 he serves as the Speaker of the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova. Before that, Candu was a Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Economy of the Republic of Moldova since July 3,2014 and he was member of the Parliament of Rebublic of Moldova between December 2010, and July 2014. After Andrian Candu finished his education at school No. 25, currently Lyceum Onisifor Ghibu, Chişinău, in 1991 he was enrolled at the School of Informatics “Tiberiu Popoviciu” in Cluj-Napoca, in 1994 he obtained a Baccalaureate diploma. In the autumn, Candu was admitted to the Faculty of Law of the University Babeș-Bolyai from Cluj-Napoca, after four years of study, he was awarded a Bachelor diploma. In 2001, Andrian Candu participated in the Human Rights and Programme Implementation course organized by the Institute of European Law in Birmingham, UK. A year later, at the University of Western Cape, he was attending the International Academy of Human Rights course, on Robben Island, Cape Town, South Africa. In 1998 he returns to Moldova, where for four years he was principal consultant within the parliamentary Commission for Foreign Policy of the Republic of Moldova, during that period, he began to teach international law at the Public Administration Academy under the President of the Republic of Moldova. He worked as a lecturer until 2004, in 2002 he became senior manager of PricewaterhouseCoopers Moldova, where he worked until 2010. He was responsible for managing a range of projects in the areas of taxation of individuals and businesses, expatriate tax consultancy, legal advice. At the end of the year he was elected member of the Parliament of Republic of Moldova and member of the Parliamentary Committee Legal, Appointments. Half a year later, on January 23,2015 he was elected President of the Moldovan Parliament with the votes of 59 low-makers. In 2012, the National Political Council of the Democratic Party of Moldova elected Andrian Candu as vice-president of the party, Candu was a member of the Moldovan International Law Association and CEO of the Moldovan Business People Association. Andrian Candu speaks fluent in English and Russian, abuses of double taxation treaties, Evolution of tax treaties – country report, Romania. Andrian Candu was born in November 27,1975, in 2006, while he was at an event organized by PricewaterhouseCoopers in Budapest, Hungary, he met Zuzana Stastna, engaged at PwC office in Prague, Czech Republic. Only after almost half a year, Andrian Candu decided to invite the beautiful czech to a dinner, in an interview, Candu told that their relationship has evolved very quickly, although their lives were always on luggage. I lived in Austria, in Czech Republic, but also in countries where we went because of my studies
Andrian Candu
–
Andrian Candu
5.
President of Moldova
–
The President of the Republic of Moldova is the head of state of Moldova. The current President of Moldova is Igor Dodon, who was elected in 2016 after a 2nd round run-off vote with 52. 2% over his opponent Maia Sandu with 47. 8% and his inauguration took place on December 27,2016. The Acting President of Moldova is a person who fulfills the duties of President of Moldova when cases of incapacity and it is a temporary post provided by the Constitution of Moldova. The motion requesting the suspension from office must be initiated by at least one third of the members, the President may give explanations on the actions for which he is being censured before parliament. If the motion requesting suspension from office meets with approval, a national referendum shall be organized within 30 days for removing the President from office. The request to remove the President of the Republic of Moldova from office will be forward in Parliament. Within 3 months from the date when the office was announced as vacant elections for a new President will be held in accordance with the law. Between 1994 and 2000, the President had been elected by popular vote for a term, if no candidate received a majority in the first round. Presidents are limited to two terms and it was constructed between 1984 and 1987 to the design of architects A. Zalțman and V. Iavorski. The distinctive building was originally the place of the Supreme Soviet of the Moldavian SSR. Prime Minister of Moldova President of Transnistria Official website of the President of Moldova
President of Moldova
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Incumbent
Nicolae Timofti since 23 March 2012
President of Moldova
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Standard of the President
President of Moldova
President of Moldova
6.
Igor Dodon
–
Igor Dodon is a Moldovan politician who has been 5th President of Moldova since 23 December 2016. Previously he was leader of the Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova, Igor Dodon was born on 18 February 1975 in Sadova village in the Călărași District of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. He studied economics at the Agricultural State University of Moldova and received a doctorate in 1998 from the Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova, from 1997 to 2005, he worked as an assistant professor and lecturer in the academic field. He is married and has three children, Dodon was appointed to the post of Associate Minister of Trade and Economics in May 2005, during the second Tarlev Cabinet. He assumed the position of Minister of Trade and Economics in September 2006 and he held the position until September 2009, when the government of Zinaida Greceanîi ended. Dodon also held the post of Associate Prime Minister under Greceanîi from 2008 until 2009, in June 2011, Dodon lost to Dorin Chirtoacă in the election for mayor of Chișinău. He took 49. 4% of the vote, Greceanîi and Veronica Abramciuc left at the same time. On 18 December 2011, Dodon joined the Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova and was elected chairman of the party, on 16 March 2012, three former communists voted for the Alliance for European Integration candidate Nicolae Timofti as President of Moldova. Later, Dodon stated that he regretted his vote for Timofti, after he was elected as the President of Moldova, due to specifics of Moldovan law, Dodon resigned as PSRM chairman and left the party, being replaced by Zinaida Greceanîi as interim leader. Igor Dodon is considered a pro-Russian politician and in favor of the federalization of Moldova, in 2010, the Party of Communists started promoting a new official flag for Moldova. In March 2012, Igor Dodon and the Party of Socialists invited PCRM to initiate a referendum to change the flag of Moldova from the original tricolour to a red-blue bicolor flag. The proposed flag is considered by the Academy of Sciences of Moldova as a pure political invention. In October 2016, during the election campaign, Igor Dodon affirmed that Crimea. In January 2017 Dodon stated that Moldova wil not officially recognize Crimea as Russian I did not change its position does not change, but we must understand that we need to build friendships with Ukraine, we need to solve the Transnistrian problem. Media related to Igor Dodon at Wikimedia Commons Official web site of Igor Dodon Igor Dodon
Igor Dodon
–
Igor Dodon
7.
Pavel Filip
–
Pavel Filip is a Moldovan politician. He is currently the Prime Minister of Moldova as of 20 January 2016 and he previously served as the Minister of Informational Technologies and Communications from 2011 until January 2016. He is a member of the Democratic Party of Moldova, and affiliated with the Alliance for European Integration III
Pavel Filip
–
Prime Minister
8.
Cabinet of Moldova
–
The Cabinet of Moldova is the chief executive body of the government of Moldova. Its function according to the Constitution of Moldova is to out the domestic and foreign policy of the State. The Constitution states that The Government consists of a Prime Minister, Moldova is a republic with a democratically elected government, acting according to the principles of parliamentarism. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament, executive affairs of government are decided by the cabinet. The composition of the cabinet is decided by the Prime Minister, the following is a list of all governments since 1917
Cabinet of Moldova
–
Moldova
9.
Administrative divisions of Moldova
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The cities of Comrat and Tiraspol also have municipality status, but are not among first-tier units of Moldova, they are the seats of Gagauzia and Transnistria, respectively. Moldova has a total of 982 incorporated localities, of which 5 have municipality status,61 have city status and they cover the entire area of the country. Another 699 villages are too small to have a separate administration and this makes for a total of 1,681 localities of Moldova, all but two of which are inhabited. By contrast, the villages that are part of the other cities do not retain self-rule. The city of Dubăsari, and these six communes, all controlled by the central authorities, Bender municipality, and three communes of Căușeni District are de facto controlled by the breakaway regime of Transnistria. The city of Bender has both a Moldovan police force and a Transnistrian militsiya force, the smallest entity electing a mayor is the commune of Salcia, in Taraclia District. It consists of the village of Salcia, population 382, the largest entity is the municipality of Chișinău, electing a mayor for 712,218 inhabitants. The largest number of localities governed by a commune or city government in Moldova is 6. Village Ivanovca, commune Natalievca, Fălești District, population 19, on the opposite end, one commune, Cigârleni, Ialoveni District, population 2,411, and 42 villages of sub-commune level, have 100% Moldovan population. Modification 37-XV-14.02.2003 Modification 124-XV-18.03.2003 Moldovan Law 431-XIII from April 19,1995, Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Moldova, no
Administrative divisions of Moldova
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Former counties of Moldova.
Administrative divisions of Moldova
–
Moldova
10.
Foreign relations of Moldova
–
After achieving independence from the Soviet Union, the Republic of Moldova established relations with other European countries. A course for European Union integration and neutrality define the foreign policy guidelines. In 1995, the became the first post-Soviet state admitted to the Council of Europe. In 2005, Moldova and EU established a plan that sought to improve the collaboration between the two neighboring structures. Moldova has established relations with 97 states, the Holy See, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. As regards energy policy, Moldova was an observer to the treaty establishing Energy Community from the outset, following its interest in full membership, the European Commission was mandated to carry out negotiations with Moldova in 2007. In December 2009, the Energy Community Ministerial Council decided on the accession, Moldova joined the Energy Community as a full-fledged member in March 2010. NATO relations with Moldova date back to 1992, when the country joined the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, Moldova works alongside NATO allies and partner countries in a wide range of areas through the Partnership for Peace and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. U. S. Secretary of State John Kerry made a visit to Moldova in December 2013 to support the former Soviet republics pro-Western moves in the face of Russian pressure, the United States remains committed to the 5+2 negotiations process as a means to resolving the Transnistria conflict. The United States supports a comprehensive settlement that affirms Moldova’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, Moldovas relations with its western neighbour, Romania, have been stressed since 1994. Todays Moldova and parts of the old Bassarabia Governorate currently in Ukraine, were part of Romania during the interwar period, linguists generally agree that the Moldovan language is in fact identical with Romanian. However, Moldovans have been ambivalent about whether they consider themselves Romanians or Moldovans, early signs that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule quickly faded. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, especially that countrys civil conflict with the republic of Transnistria. However, the two countries have been unable to reach agreement on a bilateral treaty, Romania is insistent that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania. Beginning in 1994, the two enjoyed a visa-free arrangement that ended on January 1,2007, with Romanias entry into the European Union. This prompted many Moldovan citizens to apply for Romanian citizenship, the Moldovan Parliament approved the countrys membership in the Commonwealth of Independent States and the CIS charter on economic union in April 1994. Moldova however has never participated in any aspects of CIS. In 1998, Moldova contributed to the founding of GUAM, a cooperation agreement made up of Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan
Foreign relations of Moldova
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Central European Initiative
Foreign relations of Moldova
–
Moldova
11.
NATO and Moldova
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Official NATO and Moldova relations began in 1992 when Moldova joined the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. However, as Moldovas neutrality is enshrined in its Constitution, there are no plans for Moldova to join the organization, in 1992, Moldova joined the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, renamed the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1997. Relations expanded when Moldova joined the Partnership for Peace programme in 1994, on July 8,1997, Petru Lucinschi and Mihai Popov, the Foreign Minister of Moldova attended the NATO summit in Madrid. The Mission of Moldova to NATO was established in 1997 with the appointment of the first Moldovan representative to the EAPC, the mission is located within the Embassy of Moldova in Brussels and has a liaison office in the premises of NATO headquarters in Brussels. Vladimir Voronin visited NATO headquarters in Brussels on 23 June 2003,7 June 2005,22 June 2006,18 June 2007, at the 2004 Istanbul summit, NATO accepted Russias military presence in Moldova and Georgia. US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld stopped, en route to Istanbul, in Moldova, the Individual Partnership Action Plan between NATO and Moldova was signed on 19 May 2006. With the support of NATOs Public Diplomacy Division, an Information and Documentation Centre on NATO was inaugurated at the Moldova State University in October 2007, on 3 April, at the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO announced its support for the territorial integrity, independence and sovereignty of Moldova. Voronin participated to the Working Lunch of the Heads of State, in 2009, Moldova cancelled its attendance of the Cooperative 09 in response to a troop mutiny in Georgia. The former communist government, which lost its majority in parliament in 2009 elections, was seen as allied with Russia and was already a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States
NATO and Moldova
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Information Center on NATO in Moldova
NATO and Moldova
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Partnership for Peace
NATO and Moldova
NATO and Moldova
12.
Parliamentary system
–
In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a different person from the head of government. Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders, eventually these councils have slowly evolved into the modern Parliamentary system. The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages, for example in 1188 Alfonso IX, the modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden. In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, in the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George Is inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the minister, literally the prime or first minister. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister, hence the use of phrases like Her Majestys government or His Excellencys government. Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism had already fueled the political struggle for democracy. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, a parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies, the Westminster and Consensus systems, the Westminster system is usually found in the Commonwealth of Nations and countries which were influenced by the British political tradition. These parliaments tend to have a more style of debate. The Australian House of Representatives is elected using instant-runoff voting, while the Senate is elected using proportional representation through single transferable vote, regardless of which system is used, the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a closed list. The Western European parliamentary model tends to have a more consensual debating system, Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use proportional representation with open party lists than the Westminster Model legislatures. The committees of these Parliaments tend to be more important than the plenary chamber, some West European countries parliaments implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers. In countries using this system, Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed minister, ministers in those countries usually actively participate in parliamentary debates, but are not entitled to vote. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, the head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament. The head of state appoints a minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time. The head of state appoints the leader of the party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister
Parliamentary system
–
The
Palace of Westminster in
London,
United Kingdom. The
Westminster system originates from the
British Houses of Parliament.
Parliamentary system
Parliamentary system
–
Statue of President
Nelson Mandela of
South Africa in
Parliament Square,
London
Parliamentary system
–
Parliament of Canada
13.
Representative democracy
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Representative democracy is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy. Representative democracy is often presented as the most efficient form of democracy possible in mass societies and it arguably allows for efficient ruling by a sufficiently small number of people on behalf of the larger number. Government efficiency can be judged based on metric of cost effectiveness, representatives voting on behalf of the people allows for a monetary benefit as there is lessened use of polling stations, vote counters, etc. The government is responsible for paying for the wages of the representatives. This system of governance is also time efficient as decisions can be made by a select few and it is a system in which people elect their lawmakers, who are then held accountable to them for their activity within government. It has been described by political theorists including Robert A Dahl, Gregory Houston. In it the power is in the hands of the representatives who are elected by the people in elections. Representatives are elected by the public, as in elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature. The constitution may also provide for some deliberative democracy or direct popular measures, however, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him, their opinion, high respect, their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs, and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man. These he does not derive from your pleasure, no, nor from the law and they are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his only, but his judgment. The Roman Republic was the first government in the world to have a representative government. In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787
Representative democracy
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Countries designated "electoral democracies" in Freedom House's 2015 survey "Freedom in the World", covering the year 2014.
14.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
Republic
–
Vaishali was the
capital of the
Vajjian Confederacy, an early republic.
Republic
–
A map of the
Roman Republic
Republic
–
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo,
Neptune offers the wealth of the sea to Venice, 1748–50. This painting is an allegory of the power of the Republic of
Venice.
Republic
–
Beginning of the Republic of
Metz. Election of the first Head-Alderman in 1289, by Auguste Migette.
Metz was then a
free imperial city of the
Holy Roman Emperor.
15.
Head of government
–
The term head of government is often differentiated from the term head of state, as they may be separate positions, individuals, and/or roles depending on the country. In parliamentary systems, including constitutional monarchies, the head of government is the de facto leader of the government. For example, in the United Kingdom, the prime minister advises the Queen on the appointment of the cabinet, advice she is required to accept. On the other hand, the Queens long service as the head of state enables her to provide the prime minister with information and insight into many matters to better run the government. However, because the United Kingdom is a monarchy, the Prime Minister uses his or her own discretion regarding whether or not to follow the Queens advice. The Queen also is entitled to appoint a new Prime Minister, in presidential republics or in absolute monarchies, the head of state is also usually the head of government. The relationship between that leader and the government, however, can vary greatly, ranging from separation of powers to autocracy, in semi-presidential systems, the head of government may answer to both the head of state and the legislature, with the specifics provided by each countrys constitution. A modern example is the present French government, which originated as the French Fifth Republic in 1958, in France, the president, the head of state, appoints the prime minister, who is the head of government. In some cases, the head of state may represent one political party, in this case, known as cohabitation, the prime minister, along with the cabinet, controls domestic policy, with the presidents influence is largely restricted to foreign affairs. In directorial systems, the executive responsibilities of the head of government are spread among a group of people, a prominent example is the Swiss Federal Council, where each member of the council heads a department and also votes on proposals relating to all departments. A common title for many heads of government is prime minister, various constitutions use different titles, and even the same title can have various multiple meanings, depending on the constitutional order and political system of the state in question. In addition to prime minister, titles used for the democratic model, some of these titles relate to governments below the national level. Have been used by various Empires, Kingdoms and Princely States of India as a title for the Prime Minister, maltese, In Malta, the head of government is Prim Ministru. In this case, the prime minister serves at the pleasure of the monarch, some such titles are diwan, mahamantri, pradhan, wasir or vizier. However, just because the head of state is the de jure dominant position does not mean that he/she will not always be the de facto political leader, in some cases, the head of state is a figurehead whilst the head of the government leads the ruling party. In some cases a head of government may even pass on the title in hereditary fashion, the ability to vote down legislative proposals of the government. Control over or ability to vote down fiscal measures and the budget, all of these requirements directly impact the Head of governments role. Many parliamentary systems require ministers to serve in parliament, while others ban ministers from sitting in parliament, heads of government are typically removed from power in a parliamentary system by Resignation, following, Defeat in a general election
Head of government
–
The heads of government of five members of the
Commonwealth of Nations at the 1944
Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. From left to right,
Mackenzie King (
Canada),
Jan Smuts (
South Africa),
Winston Churchill (
United Kingdom),
Peter Fraser (
New Zealand), and
John Curtin (
Australia).
16.
Multi-party system
–
First-past-the-post requires concentrated areas of support for large representation in the legislature whereas proportional representation better reflects the range of a populations views. Proportional systems have multi-member districts with more than one elected from a given district to the same legislative body. Duvergers Law states that the number of political parties is one plus the number of seats in a district. In these countries, usually no single party has a majority by itself. Instead, multiple political parties form coalitions for the purpose of developing power blocks for governing, a system where only two parties have the possibility of winning an election is called two-party system. A system where three parties have a realistic possibility of winning an election or forming a coalition is sometimes called a Third-party system. Usually this is because the electoral system penalises the third party, in the 2010 elections, the Liberal Democrats gained 23% of the total vote but won less than 10% of the seats due to the First-Past-The-Post electoral system. Despite this, they still had enough seats to form coalitions with one of the two parties, or to make deals in order to gain their support. An example is the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition formed after the 2010 general election, another is the Lib-Lab pact during Prime Minister James Callaghans Minority Labour Government, when Labour lost its three-seat majority in 1977, the pact fell short of a full coalition. Unlike a one-party system, a multi-party system encourages the general constituency to form distinct, officially recognized groups. Each party competes for votes from the enfranchised constituents, a multi-party system prevents the leadership of a single party from controlling a single legislative chamber without challenge. If the government includes an elected Congress or Parliament, the parties may share power according to proportional representation or the first-past-the-post system, in proportional representation, each party wins a number of seats proportional to the number of votes it receives. In first-past-the-post, the electorate is divided into a number of districts and this gravitation is known as Duvergers law. Proportional representation, on the hand, does not have this tendency. But, recent coalition governments, such as that in the U. K. represent two-party systems rather than multi-party systems and this is regardless of the number of parties in government. A two-party system requires voters to align themselves in large blocs, some theories argue that this allows centrists to gain control. On the other hand, if there are multiple parties, each with less than a majority of the vote. This also promotes centrism, as well as promoting coalition-building skills while discouraging polarization, coalition Polarized pluralism Political organisation Ingroups and outgroups
Multi-party system
–
Indian state governments led by various political parties and coalitions
17.
Legislative power
–
A legislature is a deliberative assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country or city. Legislatures form important parts of most governments, in the separation of model, they are often contrasted with the executive. Laws enacted by legislatures are known as legislation, legislatures observe and steer governing actions and usually have exclusive authority to amend the budget or budgets involved in the process. The members of a legislature are called legislators, each chamber of legislature consists of a number of legislators who use some form of parliamentary procedure to debate political issues and vote on proposed legislation. There must be a number of legislators present to carry out these activities. Some of the responsibilities of a legislature, such as giving first consideration to newly proposed legislation, are delegated to committees made up of small selections of the legislators. The members of a legislature usually represent different political parties, the members from each party generally meet as a caucus to organize their internal affairs, the internal organization of a legislature is also shaped by the informal norms that are shared by its members. Legislatures vary widely in the amount of power they wield, compared to other political players such as judiciaries, militaries. In 2009, political scientists M. Steven Fish and Matthew Kroenig constructed a Parliamentary Powers Index in an attempt to quantify the different degrees of power among national legislatures, such a system renders the legislature more powerful. Legislatures will sometime delegate their legislative power to administrative or executive agencies, legislatures are made up of individual members, known as legislators, who vote on proposed laws. For example, a legislature that has 100 seats has 100 members, by extension, an electoral district that elects a single legislator can also be described as a seat, as, for, example, in the phrases safe seat and marginal seat. In parliamentary systems of government, the executive is responsible to the legislature which may remove it with a vote of no confidence, names for national legislatures include parliament, congress, diet and assembly. A legislature which operates as a unit is unicameral, one divided into two chambers is bicameral, and one divided into three chambers is tricameral. In bicameral legislatures, one chamber is considered the upper house. In federations, the upper house typically represents the component states. This is a case with the legislature of the European Union. Tricameral legislatures are rare, the Massachusetts Governors Council still exists, tetracameral legislatures no longer exist, but they were previously used in Scandinavia. Legislatures vary widely in their size, among national legislatures, Chinas National Peoples Congress is the largest with 2987 members, while Vatican Citys Pontifical Commission is the smallest with 7
Legislative power
–
The
Congress of the Republic of Peru, the country's national legislature, meets in the
Legislative Palace in 2010.
18.
Judiciary
–
The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes, in some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, the Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review, Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive, the latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics and it is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary, the state, and the private. For instance, in France, the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law, in common law jurisdictions, courts interpret law, this includes constitutions, statutes, and regulations. They also make law based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law, for instance, the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions. The term common law refers to this kind of law, in civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are prohibited from creating law, and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged. Jurisprudence plays a role to case law. State courts, which try 98% of litigation, may have different names and organization, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts superior courts or commonwealth courts. The judicial system, whether state or federal, begins with a court of first instance, is appealed to an appellate court, and then ends at the court of last resort. In France, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases. In the Peoples Republic of China, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the National Peoples Congress. Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts, appeals courts, a cassation court, in this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority, but criminal cases have four stages, one more than civil law does. On the court sits a total of nine justices and this number has been changed several times. Japans process for selecting judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States, assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the Legal Training and Research Institute located in Wako. Once appointed, assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years, Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs, as a public prosecutor or practicing attorney
Judiciary
–
Justitia, symbol of the judiciary (statue at Shelby County Courthouse, Memphis, TN, United States)
19.
Transnistria
–
The region is considered by the UN to be part of Moldova. The PMR controls a narrow strip of territory to the east of the River Dniester, unrecognised by any United Nations member state, Transnistria is designated by the Republic of Moldova as the Transnistria autonomous territorial unit with special legal status, or Stînga Nistrului. As part of agreement, a three-party Joint Control Commission supervises the security arrangements in the demilitarised zone. Its authorities have adopted a constitution, flag, national anthem and it is the only country still using the hammer and sickle on its flag. After a 2005 agreement between Moldova and Ukraine, all Transnistrian companies that seek to export goods through the Ukrainian border must be registered with the Moldovan authorities and this agreement was implemented after the European Union Border Assistance Mission to Moldova and Ukraine took force in 2005. Most Transnistrians also have Moldovan citizenship, but many Transnistrians also have Russian and Ukrainian citizenship, the largest ethnic group is Moldovans, who historically had a higher share of the population, up to 49. 4% in 1926. Transnistria, Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia are post-Soviet frozen conflict zones and these four partially recognised states maintain friendly relations with each other and form the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations. The region is known in English as Trans-Dniestr or Transdniestria. Etymologically, these names are adaptations of the Romanian colloquial name of the region, the documents of the government of Moldova refer to the region as Stînga Nistrului meaning Left Bank of the Dniester. The name of the according to the Transnistrian authorities is Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. The short form of name is Pridnestrovie. Pridnestrovie is a transliteration of the Russian Приднестровье meaning by the Dniester, indo-European tribes had for millennia inhabited the area where Transnistria now is when it was a borderland between Dacia and Scythia. The Tyragetae inhabited the area around the River Dniester as well as the Scythians, early Germanic and Turkic tribes were present in the area during their attacks and invasions of the Roman Empire. From 56 AD, the area around the city of Tyras was occupied by the Romans for nearly four centuries. Tyras enjoyed great development during Roman times, there is a series of its coins with heads of emperors from Domitian to Alexander Severus, but in the second half of the fourth century the area was continuously attacked by barbarians and the Roman legionaries left Tyras. In the early Middle Ages, Slavic tribes of Tivertsi and Ulichs populated larger areas, including Transnistria, followed by Turkic nomads such as the Petchenegs and Cumans. Possibly an early part of Kievan Rus, after the Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241, prince of Moldavia George Ducas built a court at Țicanova on the east bank of the Dniester, and one at Nimirov on the Southern Bug, last mentioned in Moldavian hands in 1765. The localities Dubăsari, Rașcov, Vasilcău, as well as four other currently in Ukraine are mentioned in 17th–18th centuries as fairs for the Dniester-Bug region
Transnistria
–
Political map of Transnistria with the differences between the Autonomous Dniestrian Territory
de jure and the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic
de facto.
Transnistria
–
Flag
Transnistria
–
Igor Smirnov
Transnistria
–
Soviet symbols are still used in Transnistria.
20.
Dniester
–
The Dniester River, or Dnister River is a river in Eastern Europe. It runs first through Ukraine and then through Moldova, finally discharging into the Black Sea on Ukrainian territory again, the name Dniester derives from Sarmatian dānu nazdya the close river. The Dnieper, also of Sarmatian origin, derives from the opposite meaning, alternatively, according to V. Abaev Dniester would be a blend of Scythian dānu river and Thracian Ister, the previous name of the river, literally Dān-Ister. The Ancient Greek name of Dniester, Tyras, is from Scythian tūra, the names of the Don and Danube are also from the same Proto Indo-European word *dānu - river. In Russian, it is known as Днестр, translit, dnestr, in Yiddish, Nester נעסטער, in Turkish, Turla and during antiquity, it was called Tyras in Latin and Danastris in Greek. Classical authors have referred to it as Danaster. These early forms, without -i- but with -a-, contradict Abaevs hypothesis, edward Gibbon refers to the river both as the Niester and Dniester in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. The Dniester rises in Ukraine, near the city of Drohobych, close to the border with Poland, and flows toward the Black Sea. Its course marks part of the border of Ukraine and Moldova, after which it flows through Moldova for 398 kilometres and it later forms an additional part of the Moldova-Ukraine border, then flows through Ukraine to the Black Sea, where its estuary forms the Dniester Liman. Along the lower half of the Dniester, the bank is high and hilly while the eastern one is low. The river represents the de facto end of the Eurasian Steppe and its most important tributaries are Răut and Bîc. During the Neolithic, the Dniester River was the centre of one of the most advanced civilizations on earth at the time, the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture flourished in this area from roughly 5300 to 2600 BC, leaving behind thousands of archeological sites. Their settlements had up to 15,000 inhabitants, making them among the first large farming communities in the world, in antiquity, the river was considered one of the principal rivers of European Sarmatia, and it was mentioned by many Classical geographers and historians. According to Herodotus it rose in a lake, whilst Ptolemy places its sources in Mount Carpates. It ran in a direction parallel with the Ister. It fell into the Pontus Euxinus to the northeast of the mouth of the Ister, scymnus describes it as of easy navigation, and abounding in fish. Ovid speaks of its rapid course, Greek authors referred to the river as Tyras. At a later period it obtained the name of Danastris or Danastus, whence its name of Dniester
Dniester
–
Rîbniţa and the Dniester river
Dniester
–
Dniester's riverhead in
Staryi Sambir (western
Ukraine).
Dniester
–
The Dniester at the
Moldavian fortress of
Tighina.
Dniester
–
The Dniester in
Khotyn (southern
Ukraine). Another Moldavian fortress and an Orthodox church seen on foreground.
21.
Romania
–
Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
Romania
–
Neacșu's letter from 1521, the oldest surviving document written in
Romanian.
Romania
–
Flag
Romania
–
Writ issued on 14 October 1465 by
Radu cel Frumos, from his residence in
Bucharest, indicating
Ottoman victory.
Romania
–
A 1917 British map showing territories with majority Romanian populations.
22.
Russia
–
Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
Russia
–
Kievan Rus' in the 11th century
Russia
–
Flag
Russia
–
The
Baptism of Kievans, by
Klavdy Lebedev
Russia
–
Sergius of Radonezh blessing
Dmitry Donskoy in
Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the
Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by
Ernst Lissner
23.
Moldova and the European Union
–
Relations between Moldova and the European Union are currently shaped via the European Neighbourhood Policy, an EU foreign policy instrument dealing with countries bordering its member states. Moldova has strong ties to EU member state Romania, indeed, during the interbellum the two countries were united. They share a language, traditions and culture. The Moldovan flag is a version of the Romanian equivalent. The former period of union enables Romanian passports and concurrent EU citizenship to be granted to Moldovans on the basis of descent. A proportion of Moldovans currently identify as Romanian, the Republic of Moldova actively pursues EU membership. The level of poverty in Moldova is a block to accession. The Transnistrian dispute, concerning a self-proclaimed breakaway republic backed by the Russian Federation government, is also an obstacle, nevertheless, the EU is developing an increasingly close relationship with Moldova, going beyond cooperation, to gradual economic integration and a deepening of political cooperation. The EU has opened an office in Chişinău, and appointed on 23 March 2005, the European Commission opened up a new office in Moldova on 6 October 2005 headed by Cesare de Montis. The major strategic priority of Moldova now is membership in European institutions, Moldova is implementing its first three-year action plan within the framework of the ENP of the EU. The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement represents the legal framework for the Republic of Moldova–European Union relationship, the Agreement was signed on 28 November 1994 and entered into force on 1 July 1998 for the next 10 years. This arrangement provides for a basis of cooperation with the EU in the political, commercial, economic, legal, cultural, the EU Moldova Action Plan is a political document laying out the strategic objectives of cooperation between Moldova and the EU. It covers a timeframe of three years, implementation of the Action Plan will significantly advance the approximation of Moldovan legislation, norms and standards to those of the European Union. Moldova and the EU began negotiating an Association Agreement, including a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area, the AA was initialled at the summit, and signed on 27 June 2014. It must now be ratified by state party to the treaty. The parliament of Moldova ratified the agreement on 2 July 2014, on 24 January 2011 Moldova officially received an action plan toward the establishment of a visa-free regime for short-stay travel from the EUs Internal Affairs Commissioner. On 13 February 2014 the European Parliaments Civil Liberties, Justice, and Home Affairs Committee approved lifting the visa requirements, and the full parliament voted in favour on 27 February 2014. The European Parliament and Council gave their consent to visa free travel for Moldovan citizens on 3 April 2014
Moldova and the European Union
–
Pro-European manifestation in Chisinau, 6 April 2014.
Moldova and the European Union
–
European Union-Moldova relations
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