1.
The Bahamas
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The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
2.
Monarchy of the Bahamas
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The monarchy of the Bahamas is a system of government in which a hereditary monarch is the sovereign of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas. The current monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since the country became independent on 10 July 1973, the Bahamas share the Sovereign with the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen does not personally reside in the islands, and most of her roles are therefore delegated to her representative in the country. Royal succession is governed by the English Act of Settlement of 1701, the Bahamas are one of sixteen independent nations, known as Commonwealth realms, which separately recognise the Queen as their individual monarch and head of state. Despite sharing the same person as their monarch, each of the Commonwealth realms — including the Bahamas — is sovereign. The Monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it has often been called British since this time for historical, legal. The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act,1927 was the first indication of this shift in law and this situation applies symmetrically in all the other realms, including the UK. On all matters of the Bahamian State, the Monarch is advised solely by Bahamian ministers. In the Bahamas, the Queens official title is, Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. Typically, the Sovereign is styled Queen of the Bahamas, and is addressed as such when in the Bahamas, the Monarch is informed of the Prime Ministers decision before the Governor General gives Royal Assent. The current constitution for the Commonwealth of the Bahamas is part of the Schedule to the Bahamas Independence Order of 1973, the Order came into operation on 10 July 1973. The first section declares, The Commonwealth of The Bahamas shall be a sovereign democratic State, most of the Queens domestic duties are performed by the Governor-General. The Governor-General represents the Queen on ceremonial occasions such as the opening of Parliament, under the Constitution, he or she is given authority to act in some matters, for example in appointing and disciplining officers of the civil service, in proroguing Parliament. It has been said since the death of Queen Anne in 1714, the last monarch to head the British cabinet, in exceptional circumstances, however, the Monarch or vice-regal can act against such advice based upon his or her reserve powers. There are also a few duties which must be performed by. These include, signing the appointment papers of Governors General, the confirmation of awards of honours, and approving any change in her title. Succession to the throne is by absolute primogeniture, and governed by the provisions of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, as well as the Act of Settlement and English Bill of Rights. These documents, though passed by the Parliament of England
3.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
4.
Governor-General of the Bahamas
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The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas is the viceregal representative of the Bahamian monarch. As the Queen cannot reside in all of her realms, she appoints representatives to carry out her duties as Queen of the Bahamas, governors-General serve their term as such at Her Majestys pleasure, but usually end their term within five years. They are also responsible for appointing the Prime Minister as well as other government Ministers after consultations with the Prime Minister, government House in Nassau is the official residence of governors-general. The current Governor-General is Dame Marguerite Pindling, List of governors of the Bahamas List of Prime Ministers of the Bahamas Georgetown University
5.
Marguerite Pindling
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Dame Marguerite Matilda Pindling, GCMG is the Governor-General of the Bahamas since 8 July 2014. She is the second female Governor-General after Ivy Dumont and she was born to Reuben and Viola McKenzie in South Andros on 26 June 1932. She moved to Nassau in 1946 to live with her sister and she later became an assistant to photographer Stanley Toogood. Soon after she and Lynden Pindling met, the couple married on 5 May 1956, dame Marguerite is the widow of Sir Lynden Pindling, Prime Minister of the Bahamas from 1969-1992
6.
Cabinet of the Bahamas
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The Cabinet constitutes the executive branch and has general direction and control of the Government of The Bahamas. It is necessary for the Cabinet to comprise at least nine Ministers inclusive of the Prime Minister, all Ministers are Members of Parliament of either the House of Assembly or the Senate. The number of Ministers from the Senate is limited to three, in addition the Prime Minister and the Minister of Finance are required to be members of the House of Assembly. The functions of the Cabinet entail the final determination of government policy, control of government activities and coordination of government Ministries, the Cabinet meets at least once per week to consider various issues. All taken from, Hon. Michael Halkitis Minister of State in the Ministry of Finance Hon, hope Strachan Minister of State in the Ministry of Transport and Aviation Hon. Khaalis Rolle Minister of State for Investments in the Office of the Prime Minister Hon. Sen. Keith Bell Minister of State in the Ministry of National Security The Hon. Damien Gomez Minister of State in the Ministry of Legal Affairs
7.
Parliament of the Bahamas
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The Parliament of The Bahamas is the bicameral national parliament of Commonwealth of The Bahamas. The parliament is made up by the Queen, an appointed Senate. It currently sits at Nassau, the national capital, the structure, functions, and procedures of the parliament are based on the Westminster system. Originally inhabited by the Lucayans, a branch of the Arawakan-speaking Taino people, although the Spanish never colonized the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. Bahamians achieved self-government in 1964 and full independence within the Commonwealth of Nations on July 10,1973, the Parliament as presently constituted was established by Chapter 5 of the Constitution of The Bahamas, which came into effect upon the countrys independence from the United Kingdom. The House of Assembly is the lower chamber and it consists of 38 members, elected from individual constituencies for five-year terms. As under the Westminster system, the government may dissolve the parliament, the House of Assembly performs all major legislative functions. The Prime Minister is the leader of the party controlling the majority of the House of Assembly seats, the speaker of the House of Assembly is currently Dr. Kendal Major. The Senate consists of 16 members appointed by the Governor-General, the Senate is authorised by the Constitution to pass Bills in the same manner as passed by the House or it can make such amendments to the Bill should it consider it necessary. Those amendments will then have to be approved by the House of Assembly, the Senate may even reject a Bill outrightly that had been passed by the House. She previously served as President of the Senate from 2002 to 2007, and succeeded Lynn Holowesko, Parliament is empowered by Article 52 of the Constitution to make laws for the peace, order and good government of The Bahamas. Parliament also maintains oversight of the Governments finances through the Public Accounts Committee, Parliament is also the forum where public policy and matters of national importance are debated. Most of the laws passed by Parliament are for the modification or amendment of existing laws, Article 52 of the Constitution empowers Parliament to make laws by the passing of a bill. Most bills are introduced into Parliament by a Government minister, a bill must be passed by both the House of Assembly and Senate, and then must be formally assented to by the Governor-General, before it becomes law. There are currently four main classifications of Bills, public, money, private member, a bill must pass through a series of stages in order to be passed by each chamber, with a vote taken at each stage. After the first reading, the Speaker orders the bill to be printed, it is numbered, circulated to members of Parliament. At the second reading, the principle of the bill is debated, at the committal stage, the entire House of Assembly sits as a Committee of the Whole House, with the Speaker leaving the chair and the Deputy Speaker presiding as Chairperson
8.
Judiciary of the Bahamas
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The basis of the Bahamian Law and legal system lies within the English Common Law tradition. Once appointed, the salaries and other terms of appointment of the Chief Justice, Justices of Appeal and Justices of the Supreme Court cannot be altered to their disadvantage. Justices of the Supreme Court can serve until the age of 65 years and, where agreed among the judge, the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, may serve until the age of 67. Justices of Appeal can serve until the age of 68 years and, where agreed among the judge, the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, may serve until the age of 70 years. The Chief Justice, as Head of the Judiciary, is an ex member of the Court of Appeal. Proceedings are all instituted in the name of the Queen in the Supreme Court, the Magistrates Court hears summary matters or indictable matters, which may be heard summarily. Stipendiary and Circuit Magistrates have jurisdiction to impose a sentence of five years. They also conduct inquiries in indictable matters to determine whether a prima facie case has been made against an accused person. If a prima facie case is out, the accused is committed to the Supreme Court to stand trial. If the person is tried and convicted in the Magistrates Court, an appeal may lie from the Court of Appeal to the Judicial Committee of Her Majestys Privy Council, which is the highest Court of Appeal in The Bahamas. Most civil cases are heard solely by a judge, stipendiary and Circuit Magistrates can also hear and determine Civil cases if the amount claimed does not exceed BS$5,000.00. The Court has jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from judgments, orders, the Supreme Court is third highest court in the adjudicative hierarchy of the Bahamas. The Supreme Court is made up of a Chief Justice and not more than eleven, the Chief Justice is appointed by The Governor-General on the recommendation of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by The Governor-General on the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission, the Magistrates Court is the lowest court in The Bahamas. This Court is the court for many civil and criminal cases. Magistrates are appointed by the Governor-General acting in accordance with the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission, there are also dedicated Magistrates Courts for juvenile cases, family/domestic matters, drug offences and gun offences. The Industrial Tribunal is made up of three members that have been appointed by the Governor-General acting on the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission. Laws of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas Official website of the Court of Appeal of The Bahamas Official website of the Supreme Court of The Bahamas Bahamas Bar Association website
9.
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
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The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is one of the highest judicial bodies in the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Councillors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. It is often referred to as the Privy Council, as in most cases appeals are made to Her Majesty in Council. The panel of judges hearing a case is known as the Board. The report of the Board is always accepted by the Queen in Council as judgment, in Commonwealth republics retaining the JCPC as their final court of appeal, appeals are made directly to the Judicial Committee itself. In the case of Brunei, appeals are made to the Sultan of Brunei, formerly the Judicial Committee gave a unanimous report, but since the Judicial Committee Order 1966 dissenting opinions have been allowed. The Judicial Committees permanent home is in London, in the United Kingdom, in this renovated building, Court 3 is used for Privy Council sittings. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has jurisdiction in the domestic matters. Appeals from the courts in non-doctrinal faculty cases. Appeals from the High Court of Chivalry, Appeals from the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports. Appeals from the Disciplinary Committee of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975. Additionally, the government may refer any issue to the committee for consideration, in other courts in the United Kingdom, judgments of the Judicial Committee are only of persuasive authority and are not binding as a matter of law. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal for the Church of England. It hears appeals from the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York, except on matters of doctrine, ritual or ceremony, which go to the Court for Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved. By the Church Discipline Act 1840 and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 all archbishops and bishops of the Church of England became eligible to be members of the Judicial Committee. Prior to the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, on 1 October 2009 this jurisdiction was transferred to the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The New Zealand associated states of Cook Islands and Niue, the Crown Dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey, including Guernseys own dependencies of Alderney and Sark, and appeals from the Staff of Government Division on the Isle of Man. The United Kingdoms Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, in Cyprus, Appeal is directly to the Judicial Committee from three independent Commonwealth republics, Mauritius and Trinidad and Tobago, and also, if the case involves constitutional rights, Kiribati
10.
Court of Appeal of the Bahamas
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The basis of the Bahamian Law and legal system lies within the English Common Law tradition. Once appointed, the salaries and other terms of appointment of the Chief Justice, Justices of Appeal and Justices of the Supreme Court cannot be altered to their disadvantage. Justices of the Supreme Court can serve until the age of 65 years and, where agreed among the judge, the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, may serve until the age of 67. Justices of Appeal can serve until the age of 68 years and, where agreed among the judge, the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, may serve until the age of 70 years. The Chief Justice, as Head of the Judiciary, is an ex member of the Court of Appeal. Proceedings are all instituted in the name of the Queen in the Supreme Court, the Magistrates Court hears summary matters or indictable matters, which may be heard summarily. Stipendiary and Circuit Magistrates have jurisdiction to impose a sentence of five years. They also conduct inquiries in indictable matters to determine whether a prima facie case has been made against an accused person. If a prima facie case is out, the accused is committed to the Supreme Court to stand trial. If the person is tried and convicted in the Magistrates Court, an appeal may lie from the Court of Appeal to the Judicial Committee of Her Majestys Privy Council, which is the highest Court of Appeal in The Bahamas. Most civil cases are heard solely by a judge, stipendiary and Circuit Magistrates can also hear and determine Civil cases if the amount claimed does not exceed BS$5,000.00. The Court has jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from judgments, orders, the Supreme Court is third highest court in the adjudicative hierarchy of the Bahamas. The Supreme Court is made up of a Chief Justice and not more than eleven, the Chief Justice is appointed by The Governor-General on the recommendation of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by The Governor-General on the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission, the Magistrates Court is the lowest court in The Bahamas. This Court is the court for many civil and criminal cases. Magistrates are appointed by the Governor-General acting in accordance with the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission, there are also dedicated Magistrates Courts for juvenile cases, family/domestic matters, drug offences and gun offences. The Industrial Tribunal is made up of three members that have been appointed by the Governor-General acting on the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission. Laws of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas Official website of the Court of Appeal of The Bahamas Official website of the Supreme Court of The Bahamas Bahamas Bar Association website
11.
Supreme Court of the Bahamas
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The Supreme Court of the Bahamas is the third highest court in the adjudicative hierarchy of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The court was created by Article 93 of the Constitution, before that, the Supreme Court was governed by the Supreme Court Act of 1896. The Neo-Georgian style building which is home to the Supreme Court in New Providence is located on Bank Lane, ground was broken for the building in 1921 by then Governor of the Colony of the Bahamas, Sir Harry Cordeaux. The courthouse is similar in design to the Central Public Building which is north of the building, on April 18,1994, the first sitting of the Supreme Court in Grand Bahama was held at the Grant Levarity Justice Center in Freeport. The Supreme Court of the Bahamas has unlimited jurisdiction in general, civil, on the advice of the Prime Minister, and after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition, the Governor General of the Bahamas appoints the Chief Justice. The Chief Justice is the head of the Judicature in the Bahamas and he cannot sit in the Court of Appeal unless invited by the President of the Court of Appeal. The current Chief Justice of the Bahamas is the The Hon, other justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Justice and Legal Services Commission. Article 94 of the Constitution states that there are to be no more than eleven justices, the Article also states that only two justices may bear the title Senior Justice. At least ten years experience as a counsel or attorney is also required, once a justice has been appointed, the salary and other terms cannot be changed to his or her disadvantage. A Supreme Court justice may serve up until the age of 65, the Supreme Court is third in the adjudicative hierarchy of the Bahamas. Discussions over the security of the Supreme Court building in Nassau came after thieves broke into it, the thieves gained access to the building through the chambers of Justice Jon Isaacs, and exited the building with several personal items on hand. They also wrote The PLP must win the next election, all FNM must die on the entry door to Justice Isaacs chambers, together with a drawing of a gun. After these break-ins, it was announced there would be new security upgrades to the building
12.
Magistrates' Court of the Bahamas
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The basis of the Bahamian Law and legal system lies within the English Common Law tradition. Once appointed, the salaries and other terms of appointment of the Chief Justice, Justices of Appeal and Justices of the Supreme Court cannot be altered to their disadvantage. Justices of the Supreme Court can serve until the age of 65 years and, where agreed among the judge, the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, may serve until the age of 67. Justices of Appeal can serve until the age of 68 years and, where agreed among the judge, the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, may serve until the age of 70 years. The Chief Justice, as Head of the Judiciary, is an ex member of the Court of Appeal. Proceedings are all instituted in the name of the Queen in the Supreme Court, the Magistrates Court hears summary matters or indictable matters, which may be heard summarily. Stipendiary and Circuit Magistrates have jurisdiction to impose a sentence of five years. They also conduct inquiries in indictable matters to determine whether a prima facie case has been made against an accused person. If a prima facie case is out, the accused is committed to the Supreme Court to stand trial. If the person is tried and convicted in the Magistrates Court, an appeal may lie from the Court of Appeal to the Judicial Committee of Her Majestys Privy Council, which is the highest Court of Appeal in The Bahamas. Most civil cases are heard solely by a judge, stipendiary and Circuit Magistrates can also hear and determine Civil cases if the amount claimed does not exceed BS$5,000.00. The Court has jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from judgments, orders, the Supreme Court is third highest court in the adjudicative hierarchy of the Bahamas. The Supreme Court is made up of a Chief Justice and not more than eleven, the Chief Justice is appointed by The Governor-General on the recommendation of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by The Governor-General on the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission, the Magistrates Court is the lowest court in The Bahamas. This Court is the court for many civil and criminal cases. Magistrates are appointed by the Governor-General acting in accordance with the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission, there are also dedicated Magistrates Courts for juvenile cases, family/domestic matters, drug offences and gun offences. The Industrial Tribunal is made up of three members that have been appointed by the Governor-General acting on the advice of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission. Laws of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas Official website of the Court of Appeal of The Bahamas Official website of the Supreme Court of The Bahamas Bahamas Bar Association website
13.
Local government in the Bahamas
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Local government in the Bahamas exists in two forms, namely second-schedule and third-schedule district councils. There are a total of 32 local government districts,13 second-schedule districts, which are further sub-divided into town areas, and 19 third-schedule districts, the second and third schedules together make up the first schedule. Local government policy is formulated and administered by the Department of Lands, the day-to-day policy handling of the portfolio falls to the Minister of Local Government who also is empowered to create new local government areas from time to time based on demographics. The administrative and financial management is overseen by the permanent secretary. Local government previously existed in the Bahamas in the form of appointed Board of Works, here towns and villages held their influence over these Board of Works, but almost all final decisions were made by the central government through that islands Commissioner. The modern system of government that is in use today was implemented on 8 March 1996. The act that implemented local government had described all districts as either being Second-Schedule or Third-Schedule districts, the Districts of the Bahamas provide a system of Local Government everywhere in The Bahamas except New Providence. The current system dates from 1996 when 23 districts were created by The Bahamas Local Government Act of 1996– a further 9 have been added since 1999. Local Government in The Bahamas has seen success since its introduction. New Providence Every district in the Bahamas has a districts council, district Councillors are elected by the population of that district in accordance with Local Government Act. As stated in The Bahamas Local Government Act 1996, Districts councillors shall within two weeks of their election, elect from themselves a Chief Councillor. The Chief Councillor shall be the representative of a Districts Council for all affairs and he or she is to preside over all meetings and also themselves co-ordinate these meetings. All districts councils are classed as first-schedule councils and they share responsibility with second-schedule district councils for a number of the schedule local government functions. They also have responsibility for local regulation and licensing within their jurisdiction. Third-schedule districts councils are unique within the Bahamas because they combine the responsibilities of the second-schedule districts and it should be noted that both second- and third-schedule district councils carry out a building control function. Local government elections take place every three years in the Bahamas with the most recent elections taking place in June 2011 in which 391 positions were contested. The voting system used in government elections is the first-past-the-post system. Both councillors of third-schedule district councils and members of committees are directly elected
14.
Bahamian general election, 2002
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General elections were held in the Bahamas on 2 May 2002. The opposition Progressive Liberal Party won 29 of the 40 seats in the House of Assembly to defeat the governing Free National Movement, in the 1992 election the Free National Movement came to power after defeating the then governing Progressive Liberal Party. Their leader Hubert Ingraham served as Prime Minister from 1992 until he announced his intention to step down as Prime Minister at the 2002 general election. Tommy Turnquest was then elected as the next leader of the FNM. The FNM government suffered a setback in February 2002 when an attempt to amend the constitution was rejected in a referendum, the referendum had been contested between the two main parties after the PLP reversed their earlier support and campaigned against the changes. A record 132 candidates stood in the election for the 40 seats in the House of Assembly that were being contested and these were from 4 political parties and included 40 from the governing FNM and 37 from the opposition PLP. As well as the candidates from political parties there were also 14 independents, the FNM defended their time in government, pointing to the strong economic growth over the period and the large amount of foreign investment that had come into the Bahamas. Their new leader Tommy Turnquest pledged to continue as they had been doing under Hubert Ingraham, however the opposition PLP criticised the FNM as being out of touch and attacked them for being too quick to comply with the OECDs Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering. The PLP said that they would help the less well off, both parties made fierce attacks on each other with the FNM reminding voters of the scandals over drug money that had led to the PLP losing power back in 1992. Meanwhile, the PLP accused the FNMs Tommy Turnquest of corruption over the awarding of government contracts, despite the harsh campaign, outside commentators expected little change in policies whichever party was successful in the election. There was no trouble on election day, with schools and liquor stores being closed, the results saw the PLP win over half of the vote and 29 of the seats in the House of Assembly. The FNM conceded defeat, with their leader Tommy Turnquest being one of several ministers to lose their seats. The leader of the PLP, Perry Christie, became the new Prime Minister of the Bahamas on 3 May 2002
15.
Bahamian general election, 2007
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General elections were held in the Bahamas on 2 May 2007. The result was a victory, with the Free National Movement, led by former Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham. Incumbent Prime Minister Perry Christie conceded defeat in a call to his rival. Ingraham was sworn into the office of Prime Minister on 4 May, the Bahamas is dominated by two parties, the left of center Progressive Liberal Party, and the right of center Free National Movement. The Free National Movement party came to power in the 1992 election, after winning the 1997 election and having now served 10 years as prime minister, Ingraham announced that he would step down from the FNM before the start of the 2002 election. The 2002 election saw a PLP victory with Perry Christie becoming prime minister, after their victory, the PLP focussed and worked on improving and attracting foreign investments for the islands as well as further growing the all important tourism sector within the Bahamas. Many were confident that a PLP victory in 2007 was possible as the GDP had grown 4% since they control of the government in 2002. During the FNM partys November 2005 convention, Hubert Ingraham was elected leader of the party after he had expressed that he would like to return to the party ahead of the 2007 election. Back under the leadership of Ingraham, the FNM party became energized when scandal emerged within the PLP. American celebrity Anna-Nicole Smith was photographed in an embrace with Immigration Minister, allegations also emerged that Gibson had received money and gifts from Smith as well. Shane Gibson finally resigned in February of 2007 after the photos of him, reuters in March of 2007 reported, “Opposition leaders charged that the governments handling of Smiths case shows its incompetence, and two political commentators said the race had tightened. ‘The Anna Nicole debacle and all the publicity regarding that, has energized the base of the and hurt the PLP. They are losing ground and something needs to happen to swing the momentum back, dAndre Wright,18, a first-time voter, said the Smith story was simply a distraction. ‘That is fine and dandy but we need to focus on what the FNM can do better than the government, Ingraham was voted over Christie because people wanted change. The rumors of election fraud also did not appeal to voters, many people believed that the PLP did have a clear plan, and that they did a poor job with public relations. Some thought that House of Assembly did not listen to their constituents, and they were indecisive and “reluctant to act on critical issues. ”Many people did not like that their land policy favored white foreigners. However, others believed the PLP was attempting to establish a “true and sustained democracy, in general, Bahamian voters favored Ingraham over Christie. Females did not favor him as much as males, however, * indicates White district, and + indicates district winner
16.
Bahamian general election, 2012
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A general election was held in the Bahamas on 7 May 2012. Elections in the Bahamas take place in the framework of a parliamentary democracy and this was the first general election in which a third party offered a full slate of candidates along with the two major parties. The opposition Progressive Liberal Party won a majority in the election making Perry Christie prime minister, an opinion poll was carried out by Public Domain, a market research and public opinion polling company, between 2 and 12 March 2012 that involved 501 respondents. A sample of this only represented a maximum margin of error of 4.4 per cent. A total of 12.2 per cent of the sample were undecided voters, also the poll revealed that the PLPs swing voters constituted 6.6 per cent of the sample, the largest swing voter percentage. They were followed by the DNA and the FNM, therefore, the total support for the FNM was around 34.2 per cent, which was followed by the PLPs 30.3 per cent and the DNAs 21.7 per cent. It should be noted that if any of the two leading parties were to win the support of the entire 12.2 per cent undecided voters, a question was asked during the polling process that went, According to you, which party will win the next election. The results were that the FNM would, the PLP would, the poll also reported that 52% of the electorate was against reelecting the incumbent Free National Movement, while 55. 9% opposed electing the PLP and 64. 5% rejected electing the DNA. The opposition Progressive Liberal Party won a majority in an election victory. PLP leader Perry Christie, who had served as Prime Minister, was sworn into office on 8 May 2012. Outgoing Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham announced his retirement from politics following the defeat of his Free National Movement and he had served in Parliament for thirty-five years, winning re-election seven times, including 2012. Ingraham told supporters, I gave it the best I could, Ingraham then confirmed his retirement, saying, I am going to go back to my little law office and enjoy life with my family. The Democratic National Alliance lost the seat it held in the prior parliament. All percentages are rounded to the nearest tenth of a percent, source = http, //www. bahamaselections. com/BahamasElections2012ResultsSummary. pdf Nassau Guardian,2012 Election results map of the Bahamas
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Free National Movement
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The Free National Movement is a liberal political party in The Bahamas formed in the 1970s, led by Cecil Wallace Whitfield. The current leader of the party is Dr. Hubert Minnis and his deputy is Peter Turnquest and it is the largest opposition party in the Bahamas by number of seats in the Legislature. The FNM, led at the time by Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham, the Progressives won 29 of the seats in the legislature and thus the government, compared to the FNMs 9. Ingraham subsequently resigned, both as party leader as well as the Member of Parliament for North Abaco, the FNM was established at Jimmy Shepherd’s house on Spring Hills Farms in Fox Hill in 1971. The Free-PLP were a group of eight MPs from the then governing Progressive Liberal Party. Following meetings held at Spring Hill Farms, the FNM officially became a party in October 1971. The UBP partys leadership was predominantly white while blacks made up most of the citizenry, once out of power, its leaders decided that the partys time was at an end and they looked to the Free-PLP to form a new party that would follow a conservative party line. The fusion was called the Free National Movement, the party grew in part by uniting independent black voters and the old UBP voter base. However, these were heady days for the governing PLP, who led the country to independence in 1973, in 1990, Hubert Ingraham took over the leadership of the party after the death of Sir Cecil Wallace Whitfield. The FNM attacked the governing PLP on corruption charges and published a Manifesto, in the General Election of 1992, the FNM defeated its rival, the PLP, by wide margins, winning 32 of the then 49 seats. The FNM Government privatized the government-owned hotels, which had fallen into decline since nationalization, private radio stations were allowed to operate, ending the governments broadcast monopoly. The FNM also introduced local government and encouraged inward investment to grow the economy, the elections of 1997 saw the FNM re-elected in a landslide, with 35 of the 40 seats in a reduced House. After Ingraham vowed not to seek a third term in office, The party lost the 2002 elections, many voters, including FNM supporters felt that Turnquest was much weaker than Perry Christie, leader of the Progressive Liberal Party. At the FNMs party convention the following the elections of 2002. The FNM went on to control of the House of Assembly in the elections of 2007. The FNM lost government to the Progressive Liberal Party once again in the 2012 general elections, outgoing Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham announced his retirement from politics following the defeat. He had served in Parliament for 35 years, winning seven times. Ingraham told supporters, I gave it the best I could and we had no indication from the general public they would go that way
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Foreign relations of the Bahamas
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The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United Kingdom, represented by a High Commissioner in London. The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community, the Commonwealth of The Bahamas became a member of the United Nations in 1973 and the Organization of American States in 1982. The Bahamas has diplomatic relations with Cuba, a repatriation agreement was signed with Cuba in 1996, and there are commercial and cultural contacts between the two countries. The two countries signed accords on diplomatic relations on January 14,2004, since both countries have signed a joint communiqué, Sergey Lavrov states that the Bahamas and Russia decided to sign diplomatic missions on the Ambassadorial level. Both countries are members of the United Nations, Russia is represented in the Bahamas through its embassy in New York City. Both countries have established relations in July 1988. A number of agreements have been concluded and are in force between both countries. Diplomatic relations between the Bahamas and the Republic of Korea were established on 8 July 1985, the Bahamas and the United States historically have had close economic and commercial relations. The countries share ethnic and cultural ties, especially in education, in addition, there are about 110 U. S. -related businesses in The Bahamas and, in 2005, 87% of the 5 million tourists visiting The Bahamas were American. As a neighbour, The Bahamas and its political stability are important to the United States. The U. S. and the Bahamian governments have worked together on reducing crime, with the closest island only 45 miles from the coast of Florida, The Bahamas often is used as a gateway for drugs and illegal aliens bound for the United States. The United States and The Bahamas cooperate closely to handle these threats, U. S. assistance and resources have been essential to Bahamian efforts to mitigate the persistent flow of illegal narcotics and migrants through the archipelago. The United States and The Bahamas also actively cooperate on law enforcement, civil aviation, marine research, meteorology, the U. S. Navy operates an underwater research facility on Andros Island. The Department of Homeland Securitys Bureau of Customs and Border Protection maintains preclearance facilities at the airports in Nassau, travelers to the U. S. are interviewed and inspected before departure, allowing faster connection times in the U. S. The U. S. Embassy for the Bahamas is located in Nassau, New Providence, the Bahamas has been an independent Commonwealth realm with Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of The Bahamas since 1973. The Queen is represented locally by the Governor-General of the Bahamas. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index. html and this article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of State website http, //www. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm. S. Federal Bureau of Investigation History of Bahamas - U. S. relations
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Representative democracy
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Representative democracy is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy. Representative democracy is often presented as the most efficient form of democracy possible in mass societies and it arguably allows for efficient ruling by a sufficiently small number of people on behalf of the larger number. Government efficiency can be judged based on metric of cost effectiveness, representatives voting on behalf of the people allows for a monetary benefit as there is lessened use of polling stations, vote counters, etc. The government is responsible for paying for the wages of the representatives. This system of governance is also time efficient as decisions can be made by a select few and it is a system in which people elect their lawmakers, who are then held accountable to them for their activity within government. It has been described by political theorists including Robert A Dahl, Gregory Houston. In it the power is in the hands of the representatives who are elected by the people in elections. Representatives are elected by the public, as in elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature. The constitution may also provide for some deliberative democracy or direct popular measures, however, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him, their opinion, high respect, their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs, and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man. These he does not derive from your pleasure, no, nor from the law and they are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his only, but his judgment. The Roman Republic was the first government in the world to have a representative government. In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787
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Head of government
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The term head of government is often differentiated from the term head of state, as they may be separate positions, individuals, and/or roles depending on the country. In parliamentary systems, including constitutional monarchies, the head of government is the de facto leader of the government. For example, in the United Kingdom, the prime minister advises the Queen on the appointment of the cabinet, advice she is required to accept. On the other hand, the Queens long service as the head of state enables her to provide the prime minister with information and insight into many matters to better run the government. However, because the United Kingdom is a monarchy, the Prime Minister uses his or her own discretion regarding whether or not to follow the Queens advice. The Queen also is entitled to appoint a new Prime Minister, in presidential republics or in absolute monarchies, the head of state is also usually the head of government. The relationship between that leader and the government, however, can vary greatly, ranging from separation of powers to autocracy, in semi-presidential systems, the head of government may answer to both the head of state and the legislature, with the specifics provided by each countrys constitution. A modern example is the present French government, which originated as the French Fifth Republic in 1958, in France, the president, the head of state, appoints the prime minister, who is the head of government. In some cases, the head of state may represent one political party, in this case, known as cohabitation, the prime minister, along with the cabinet, controls domestic policy, with the presidents influence is largely restricted to foreign affairs. In directorial systems, the executive responsibilities of the head of government are spread among a group of people, a prominent example is the Swiss Federal Council, where each member of the council heads a department and also votes on proposals relating to all departments. A common title for many heads of government is prime minister, various constitutions use different titles, and even the same title can have various multiple meanings, depending on the constitutional order and political system of the state in question. In addition to prime minister, titles used for the democratic model, some of these titles relate to governments below the national level. Have been used by various Empires, Kingdoms and Princely States of India as a title for the Prime Minister, maltese, In Malta, the head of government is Prim Ministru. In this case, the prime minister serves at the pleasure of the monarch, some such titles are diwan, mahamantri, pradhan, wasir or vizier. However, just because the head of state is the de jure dominant position does not mean that he/she will not always be the de facto political leader, in some cases, the head of state is a figurehead whilst the head of the government leads the ruling party. In some cases a head of government may even pass on the title in hereditary fashion, the ability to vote down legislative proposals of the government. Control over or ability to vote down fiscal measures and the budget, all of these requirements directly impact the Head of governments role. Many parliamentary systems require ministers to serve in parliament, while others ban ministers from sitting in parliament, heads of government are typically removed from power in a parliamentary system by Resignation, following, Defeat in a general election
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Legislature
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A legislature is a deliberative assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country or city. Legislatures form important parts of most governments, in the separation of model, they are often contrasted with the executive. Laws enacted by legislatures are known as legislation, legislatures observe and steer governing actions and usually have exclusive authority to amend the budget or budgets involved in the process. The members of a legislature are called legislators, each chamber of legislature consists of a number of legislators who use some form of parliamentary procedure to debate political issues and vote on proposed legislation. There must be a number of legislators present to carry out these activities. Some of the responsibilities of a legislature, such as giving first consideration to newly proposed legislation, are delegated to committees made up of small selections of the legislators. The members of a legislature usually represent different political parties, the members from each party generally meet as a caucus to organize their internal affairs, the internal organization of a legislature is also shaped by the informal norms that are shared by its members. Legislatures vary widely in the amount of power they wield, compared to other political players such as judiciaries, militaries. In 2009, political scientists M. Steven Fish and Matthew Kroenig constructed a Parliamentary Powers Index in an attempt to quantify the different degrees of power among national legislatures, such a system renders the legislature more powerful. Legislatures will sometime delegate their legislative power to administrative or executive agencies, legislatures are made up of individual members, known as legislators, who vote on proposed laws. For example, a legislature that has 100 seats has 100 members, by extension, an electoral district that elects a single legislator can also be described as a seat, as, for, example, in the phrases safe seat and marginal seat. In parliamentary systems of government, the executive is responsible to the legislature which may remove it with a vote of no confidence, names for national legislatures include parliament, congress, diet and assembly. A legislature which operates as a unit is unicameral, one divided into two chambers is bicameral, and one divided into three chambers is tricameral. In bicameral legislatures, one chamber is considered the upper house. In federations, the upper house typically represents the component states. This is a case with the legislature of the European Union. Tricameral legislatures are rare, the Massachusetts Governors Council still exists, tetracameral legislatures no longer exist, but they were previously used in Scandinavia. Legislatures vary widely in their size, among national legislatures, Chinas National Peoples Congress is the largest with 2987 members, while Vatican Citys Pontifical Commission is the smallest with 7
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Judiciary
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The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes, in some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, the Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review, Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive, the latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics and it is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary, the state, and the private. For instance, in France, the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law, in common law jurisdictions, courts interpret law, this includes constitutions, statutes, and regulations. They also make law based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law, for instance, the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions. The term common law refers to this kind of law, in civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are prohibited from creating law, and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged. Jurisprudence plays a role to case law. State courts, which try 98% of litigation, may have different names and organization, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts superior courts or commonwealth courts. The judicial system, whether state or federal, begins with a court of first instance, is appealed to an appellate court, and then ends at the court of last resort. In France, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases. In the Peoples Republic of China, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the National Peoples Congress. Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts, appeals courts, a cassation court, in this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority, but criminal cases have four stages, one more than civil law does. On the court sits a total of nine justices and this number has been changed several times. Japans process for selecting judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States, assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the Legal Training and Research Institute located in Wako. Once appointed, assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years, Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs, as a public prosecutor or practicing attorney
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Freedom of speech
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Freedom of speech is the right to articulate ones opinions and ideas without fear of government retaliation or censorship, or societal sanction. The term freedom of expression is used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas. The right to freedom of expression includes the right to take, concepts of freedom of speech can be found in early human rights documents. Englands Bill of Rights 1689 legally established the right of freedom of speech in Parliament which is still in effect. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted during the French Revolution in 1789, specifically affirmed freedom of speech as an inalienable right. The Declaration provides for freedom of expression in Article 11, which states that, The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, Today, freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognized in international and regional human rights law. This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right not only the content. The right to freedom of speech and expression is related to other rights. As a general freedom of expression may not limit the right to privacy, as well as the honor. However greater latitude is given when criticism of public figures is involved, the right to freedom of expression is particularly important for media, which plays a special role as the bearer of the general right to freedom of expression for all. However, freedom of the press is not necessarily enabling freedom of speech, lichtenberg argues that freedom of the press is simply a form of property right summed up by the principle no money, no voice. Freedom of speech is understood to be fundamental in a democracy, the norms on limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not be completely suppressed even in times of emergency. One of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy is Alexander Meiklejohn and he argues that the concept of democracy is that of self-government by the people. For such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary, in order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power are able to manipulate the electorate by withholding information, Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. However, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, eric Barendt has called this defense of free speech on the grounds of democracy probably the most attractive and certainly the most fashionable free speech theory in modern Western democracies. Emerson expanded on this defense when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change, Freedom of speech acts as a safety valve to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution
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Freedom of the press
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Freedom of the press or freedom of the media through various mediums, such as electronic media and published materials. Wherever such freedom exists mostly implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state, with respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public. Many governments are subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest. This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of research, publishing. The depth to which laws are entrenched in a countrys legal system can go as far down as its constitution. The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th century American journalist, A. J. Liebling, Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author cannot reach a agreement with a publisher to produce the authors work. CPJ shares information on breaking cases with other press freedom organizations worldwide through the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, CPJ also tracks journalist deaths and detentions. CPJ staff applies strict criteria for each case, researchers independently investigate, so the concept of independence of the press is one closely linked with the concept of press freedom. Every year, Reporters Without Borders establishes a ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press, the survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups. RWB is careful to note that the only deals with press freedom. In 2016, the countries where press was the most free were Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Denmark and New Zealand, followed by Costa Rica, Switzerland, Sweden, Ireland and Jamaica. The country with the least degree of freedom was Eritrea, followed by North Korea, Turkmenistan, Syria, China, Vietnam. The problem with media in India, the worlds largest democracy, is enormous, India doesnt have a model for a democratic press. The report written by Ravi S Jha says Indian journalism, with its lack of freedom and self-regulation, cannot be trusted now—it is currently known for manipulation, levels of freedom are scored on a scale from 1 to 100. Depending on the basics, the nations are then classified as Free, Partly Free, in 2009 Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden topped the list with North Korea, Turkmenistan, Myanmar, Libya, Eritrea at the bottom. According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the people live in countries where there is no press freedom
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Freedom of religion
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It also includes the freedom to change ones religion or belief. Freedom of religion is considered by people and most of the nations to be a fundamental human right. Historically, freedom of religion has been used to refer to the tolerance of different theological systems of belief, each of these have existed to varying degrees. Compare examples of individual freedom in Italy or the Muslim tradition of dhimmis, in Antiquity, a syncretic point of view often allowed communities of traders to operate under their own customs. When street mobs of separate quarters clashed in a Hellenistic or Roman city, Cyrus the Great established the Achaemenid Empire ca.550 BC, and initiated a general policy of permitting religious freedom throughout the empire, documenting this on the Cyrus Cylinder. Some of the exceptions have been in regions where one of the revealed religions has been in a position of power, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity. This was the core for resentment and the persecution of early Christian communities, Freedom of religious worship was established in the Buddhist Maurya Empire of ancient India by Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC, which was encapsulated in the Edicts of Ashoka. Greek-Jewish clashes at Cyrene in 73 AD and 117 AD and in Alexandria in 115 AD provide examples of cities as scenes of tumult. Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups. ISIS re-established the punitive jizya tax and forbade Christians in Syria from building places of worship, ringing bells, wearing crosses or criticizing Islam, ancient Jews fleeing from persecution in their homeland 2,500 years ago settled in India and never faced anti-Semitism. Freedom of religion edicts have been written during Ashoka the Greats reign in the 3rd century BC. Freedom to practise, preach and propagate any religion is a right in Modern India. Most major religious festivals of the communities are included in the list of national holidays. Although India is an 80% Hindu country, India is a state without any state religions. Many scholars and intellectuals believe that Indias predominant religion, Hinduism, has long been a most tolerant religion, rajni Kothari, founder of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies has written, is a country built on the foundations of a civilisation that is fundamentally non-religious. The Dalai Lama, the Tibetan leader in exile, said that religious tolerance of Aryabhoomi, not only Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism which are the native religions but also Christianity and Islam have flourished here. Religious tolerance is inherent in Indian tradition, the Dalai Lama said, Freedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi. One of King Ashokas main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a just and humane society
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Freedom of movement
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The right includes not only visiting places, but changing the place where the individual resides or works. Such a right is provided in the constitutions of numerous states, some people and organizations advocate an extension of the freedom of movement to include a freedom of movement – or migration – between the countries as well as within the countries. This include Libertarian Party of the United States, the International Society for Individual Liberty, uniquely, the Norwegian special territory of Svalbard is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty. Restrictions on international travel on people are commonplace, within countries, freedom of travel is often more limited for minors, and penal law can modify this right as it applies to persons charged with or convicted of crimes. In some countries, freedom of movement has historically been limited for women, circumstances, both legal and practical, may operate to limit this freedom. For example, a nation that is generally permissive with respect to travel may restrict that right during time of war, in some instances, the laws of a nation may assert a guarantee of this peace. Freedom of movement is not construed as a right to permit an individual to enter private property of another. In some jurisdictions, questions have arisen as to the extent to which an owner of land can exclude certain persons from land used for public purposes. There is a duty for a private person not to impede the free movement of another. Employers may legally set some restrictions on the movements of employees, Governments may generally sharply restrict the freedom of movement of persons who have been convicted of crimes, most conspicuously in the context of imprisonment. Restrictions may also be placed on convicted criminals who are on probation or have released on parole. Persons who have charged with crimes and have been released on bail may also be prohibited from traveling. A material witness may also be denied the right to travel, Governments sometimes also restrict access to disaster-stricken areas, or to places where public health threats exist. Where an individual presents a threat due to infection with a contagious disease. In a child custody dispute, a court may place restrictions on the movement of a minor child, the Visa Restrictions Index ranks countries based on the number of other countries its citizens are free to enter without visa. Most countries require that their citizens leave the country on a passport, travel document issued by an international organization or, in some cases. Conditions of issuance and the authority to deny issuance of a passport vary from country to country. Under certain circumstances, countries may issue travel documents to aliens, having a passport issued does not guarantee the right to exit the country
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Roland Symonette
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Sir Roland Theodore Symonette achieved high office as a Bahamian political figure. He was leader of the United Bahamian Party, which represented the interests of the oligarchy known as the Bay Street Boys and was the ruling party between 1958 and 1967. When the country achieved self-government in 1964 Symonette was the first premier, Roland Pop Symonette was one of the many children of Methodist minister Edwin Symonette and his wife Lavania on the small island settlement of Current, Eleuthera. Although he had six years of formal education, Symonette became one of the wealthiest men of his generation. An autodidact and lifelong advocate of education, he was a school teacher early in his career, with the profits from rum-running, he invested in real estate, liquor stores and eventually, a shipyard. The Symonette familys holdings have never publicly confirmed, but public speculation has placed it between $700 million and $2.5 billion USD. In 1925, Symonette campaigned successfully for a seat in the Bahamas House of Assembly and he served in the House, representing the Shirlea district until his retirement in 1977. His 52 years as a Member of Parliament is the longest record of service in the House of Assembly. Symonette served as the head of government of the Bahama Islands from 1955 to 1964 and in 1964, in 1959, he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II. The 1967 British Royal Commission of Inquiry reported that Symonette, along with other high Bahamian officials, by his first wife Nellie, Symonette had one son, Basil Harcourt. By his second wife, the former Thelma Bell Clepper of Andalusia, Alabama, Symonette had a one son, Robert Bobby, and one daughter, Zelda. In the late 1940s, Symonette married Canadian Margaret Frances, the producing one daughter, Margaret, who died in infancy. Symonettes son Bobby served as Speaker of the House of Assembly and his youngest son Brent Symonette was the Deputy Prime Minister of The Bahamas, Free National Movement and Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Ingraham led government. Sir Roland Symonette died on 13 March 1980 at his home in Nassau, his widow, symonettes portrait appears on the Bahamian $50 note. A community park in the settlement of Current, Eleuthera, Bahamas, a Little Bit of Independent, Time Magazine,24 January 1964. Consultants Paradise Lost, Time Magazine,8 September 1967, bad News for the Bay Street Boys, Time Magazine,20 January 1967
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