1.
Polysomy
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Most eukaryotic species are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes, whereas prokaryotes are haploid, containing a single chromosome in each cell. Aneuploids possess chromosome numbers that are not exact multiples of the haploid number, a karyotype is the set of chromosomes in an organism and the suffix -somy is used to name aneuploid karyotypes. This is not to be confused with the suffix -ploidy, referring to the number of sets of chromosomes. Polysomy is usually caused by non-disjunction during meiosis, but may also be due to a translocation mutation, Polysomy is found in many diseases, including Down syndrome in humans where affected individuals possess three copies of chromosome 21. Polysomic inheritance occurs during meiosis when chiasmata form between more than two partners, producing multivalent chromosomes. Autopolyploids may show polysomic inheritance of all the groups. In tetrasomic inheritance, four copies of a group rather than two assort two-by-two. Polysomy types are categorized based on the number of chromosomes in each set. For example, a polysomy with three chromosomes is called a trisomy, a polysomy with four chromosomes is called tetrasomy, etc, Polysomy plays a role in canine leukemia, hemangiopericytomas, and thyroid tumors. Abnormalities of chromosome 13 have been observed in canine osteoid chondrosarcoma and lymphosarcoma, Trisomy 13 in dogs with lymphosarcoma show a longer duration of first remission and survival, responding well to treatments with chemotherapeutic agents. Polysomy of chromosome 13 is significant in the development of cancer and is often caused by centric fusions. Since canine chromosome 13 is similar to human chromosome 8q, research could provide insight to treatment for cancer in humans. Polysomy of chromosomes 1,2,4,5, and 25 are also involved in canine tumors. Chromosome 1 may contain a gene responsible for development and lead to changes in the karyotype, including fusion of the centromere. Aneuploidy due to nondisjunction is a feature in tumor cells. Some of the most frequent genetic disorders are abnormalities of sex chromosomes,49, XXXXY chromosome polysomy occurs every 1 in 85,000 newborn males. The incidence of other X polysomies is more rare than 49, Polysomy Y occurs in 1 out of 975 males and may cause psychiatric, social, and somatic abnormalities. Polysomy X may cause mental and developmental retardation and physical malformation, klinefelter syndrome is an example of human polysomy X with the karyotype 47, XXY
2.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
3.
Sign (semiotics)
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Two major theories describe the way signs acquire the ability to transfer information. Both theories understand the defining property of the sign as a relation between a number of elements, in the tradition of semiotics developed by Ferdinand de Saussure the sign relation is dyadic, consisting only of a form of the sign and its meaning. Saussure saw this relation as being essentially arbitrary, motivated only by social convention, Saussures theory has been particularly influential in the study of linguistic signs. The other major semiotic theory, developed by C. S, according to Peirce signs can be divided by the type of relation that holds the sign relation together as either icons, indices or symbols. According to Saussure, a sign is composed of the signifier, and these cannot be conceptualized as separate entities but rather as a mapping from significant differences in sound to potential differential denotation. The Saussurean sign exists only at the level of the system, in which signs are defined by their relative. It is thus a common misreading of Saussure to take signifiers to be anything one could speak, in fact, the relationship of language to parole is and always has been a theoretical problem for linguistics. A famous thesis by Saussure states that the relationship between a sign and the thing it denotes is an arbitrary one. For example, there is nothing about the quality of paper that requires denotation by the phonological sequence ‘paper’. There is, however, what Saussure called ‘relative motivation’, the possibilities of signification of a signifier are constrained by the compositionality of elements in the linguistic system. In other words, a word is only available to acquire a new meaning if it is different from all the other words in the language. Structuralism was later based on idea that it is only within a given system that one can define the distinction between the levels of system and use, or the semantic value of a sign. Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a different theory and he considered word to be only one particular kind of sign, and characterized sign as any mediational means to understanding. He covered not only artificial, linguistic, and symbolic signs, but also all semblances and he counted as symbols all terms, propositions, and arguments whose interpretation is based upon convention or habit, even apart from their expression in particular languages. He held that all this universe is perfused with signs, if it is not composed exclusively of signs. The result is a theory not of language in particular, but rather of the production of meaning, Peirce believed that signs are meaningful through recursive relationships that arise in sets of three. A sign depends on an object in a way that enables an interpretation, the interpretant, then, is a further sign of the object, and thus enables and determines still further interpretations, further interpretant signs. The process, called semiosis, is irreducibly triadic, Peirce held and it is what defines sign, object, and interpretant in general
4.
Word
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In linguistics, a word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. This contrasts deeply with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning, a word may consist of a single morpheme, or several, whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word. A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes, words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term word may refer to a word or to a written word. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, the difficulty of deciphering a word depends on the language. Dictionaries categorize a languages lexicon into lemmas and these can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a word in the opinion of the writers of that language. The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes, when a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion. Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of Minimal Free Forms in 1926, words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. However, some words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves. Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes, according to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations. In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax, words are construed as bundles of features that are united into a structure with form. For example, the word koalas has semantic features, category features, number features, phonological features, the task of defining what constitutes a word involves determining where one word ends and another word begins—in other words, identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the boundaries of spoken language should be placed, Potential pause, A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly. The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries, however, this method is not foolproof, the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words, or fail to separate two or more closely linked words. Indivisibility, A speaker is told to say a sentence out loud, thus, I have lived in this village for ten years might become My family and I have lived in this little village for about ten or so years. These extra words will tend to be added in the boundaries of the original sentence. However, some languages have infixes, which are put inside a word, similarly, some have separable affixes, in the German sentence Ich komme gut zu Hause an, the verb ankommen is separated. Phonetic boundaries, Some languages have rules of pronunciation that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be
5.
Phrase
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In everyday speech, a phrase may be any group of words, often carrying a special idiomatic meaning, in this sense it is roughly synonymous with expression. In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words that functions as a constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a phrase typically appears within a clause, but it is possible also for a phrase to be a clause or to contain a clause within it. There is a difference between the use of the term phrase and its technical use in linguistics. In common usage, a phrase is usually a group of words with some special meaning or other significance, such as all rights reserved, economical with the truth, kick the bucket. It may be a euphemism, a saying or proverb, a fixed expression, in grammatical analysis, particularly in theories of syntax, a phrase is any group of words, or sometimes a single word, which plays a particular role within the grammatical structure of a sentence. It does not have to have any meaning or significance, or even exist anywhere outside of the sentence being analyzed. This means that expressions that may be called phrases in everyday language are not phrases in the technical sense. In grammatical analysis, most phrases contain a key word that identifies the type and linguistic features of the phrase, this is known as the head-word, or the head. The syntactic category of the head is used to name the category of the phrase, for example, the remaining words in a phrase are called the dependents of the head. Most theories of syntax view most phrases as having a head, a phrase lacking a head is known as exocentric, and phrases with heads are endocentric. When a noun is used in a sentence without an explicit determiner, for full discussion, see Determiner phrase. See the Generative approaches section of the article for details. Many theories of syntax and grammar illustrate sentence structure using phrase trees, trees show the words, phrases, and, at times, clauses that make up sentences. Any word combination that corresponds to a complete subtree can be seen as a phrase, there are two established and competing principles for constructing trees, they produce constituency and dependency trees and both are illustrated here using an example sentence. The node labels in the two trees mark the syntactic category of the different constituents, or word elements, of the sentence, in the constituency tree each phrase is marked by a phrasal node, and there are eight phrases identified by phrase structure analysis in the example sentence. On the other hand, the tree identifies a phrase by any node that exerts dependency upon, or dominates. And, using dependency analysis, there are six phrases in the sentence, the trees and phrase-counts demonstrate that different theories of syntax differ in the word combinations they qualify as a phrase. Here the constituency tree identifies three phrases that the tree does not, namely, house at the end of the street, end of the street
6.
Symbol
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A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences, all communication is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to other ideas. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for STOP, on a map, a blue line might represent a river. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds, personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion, the variable x, in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space. In cartography, a collection of symbols forms a legend for a map The word derives from the Greek symbolon meaning token or watchword. It is an amalgam of syn- together + bole a throwing, a casting, the sense evolution in Greek is from throwing things together to contrasting to comparing to token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine. The meaning something which stands for something else was first recorded in 1590, later, expanding on what he means by this definition Campbell says, a symbol, like everything else, shows a double aspect. We must distinguish, therefore between the sense and the meaning of the symbol. The term meaning can only to the first two but these, today, are in the charge of science – which is the province as we have said, not of symbols. The ineffable, the unknowable, can be only sensed. Heinrich Zimmer gives an overview of the nature, and perennial relevance. Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. They are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own, in the book Signs and Symbols, it is stated that A symbol. Is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth, Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. This separates symbols from signs, as signs have only one meaning, human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture
7.
Homonym
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In linguistics, a homonym is one of a group of words that share the same pronunciation but have different meanings, whether spelled the same or not. A more restrictive definition sees homonyms as words that are simultaneously homographs and homophones – that is to say they have same pronunciation and spelling, the relationship between a set of homonyms is called homonymy. Examples of homonyms are the pair stalk and stalk and the left and left. In non-technical contexts, the term homonym may be used to refer to words that are either homographs or homophones. The words row and row and row are considered homographs, while the read and reed would be considered homophones, under this looser definition. The adjective homonymous can additionally be used wherever two items share the name, independent of how close they are or arent related in terms of their meaning or etymology. The word homonym comes from the Greek ὁμώνυμος, meaning having the same name, thus, it refers to two or more distinct concepts sharing the same name or signifier. Note, for the h sound, see rough breathing and smooth breathing, several similar linguistic concepts are related to homonymy. These include, Homographs are usually defined as words that share the same spelling, if they are pronounced the same then they are also homophones – for example, bark and bark. If they are pronounced differently then they are also heteronyms – for example, homophones are usually defined as words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of how they are spelled. If they are spelled the same then they are also homographs, homographic examples include rose and rose. Heterographic examples include to, too, two, and there, their, they’re, due to their similar yet non-identical pronunciation in American English, ladder and latter do not qualify as homophones, but rather synophones. Heteronyms are the subset of homographs that have different pronunciations, such words include desert and desert, tear and tear, row and row. Heteronyms are also sometimes called heterophones, polysemes are words with the same spelling and distinct but related meanings. The distinction between polysemy and homonymy is often subtle and subjective, and not all sources consider polysemous words to be homonyms. Words such as mouth, meaning either the orifice on ones face, or the opening of a cave or river, are polysemous, capitonyms are words that share the same spelling but have different meanings when capitalized. Such words include polish and Polish, march and March, however, both polish and march at the beginning of sentences still need to be capitalized. A further example of a homonym, which is both a homophone and a homograph, is fluke, fluke can mean, A fish, and a flatworm
8.
Homophone
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A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, and may differ in spelling. The words may be spelled the same, such as rose and rose, or differently, such as carat, caret, homophones that are spelled the same are also both homographs and homonyms. Homophones that are spelled differently are also called heterographs, the term homophone may also apply to units longer or shorter than words, such as phrases, letters or groups of letters that are pronounced the same as another phrase, letter or group of letters. A word or unit with this property is said to be homophonous, homophone derives from the Greek homo-, same, and phōnḗ, voice, utterance. Homophones are often used to create puns and to deceive the reader or to suggest multiple meanings, the last usage is common in poetry and creative literature. An example of this is seen in Dylan Thomass radio play Under Milk Wood, some examples from English are, pin and pen in many southern American accents. Merry, marry, and Mary in most American accents, the pairs do, due and forward, foreword are homophonous in most American accents but not in most English accents. Wordplay is particularly common in English because the multiplicity of linguistic influences offers considerable complication in spelling and meaning, malapropisms, which often create a similar comic effect, are usually near-homophones. Homophones of multiple words or phrases are known as oronyms. This term was coined by Gyles Brandreth and first published in his book The Joy of Lex, and it was used in the BBC programme Never Mind the Full Stops, examples of oronyms include, ice cream vs. Notable examples include, Initiate, My wife ate two sandwiches, initiate a bag o tater chips, Mayonnaise, Mayonnaise a lot of people here tonight. Innuendo, Hey dude I saw a bird fly innuendo, Moustache, I Moustache you a question. There are differences in such lists due to dialect pronunciations and usage of old words, in English, there are approximately 88 triples,24 quadruples,2 quintuples,1 sextet and 1 septet. If proper names are allowed then a nonet is Ayr, Aire, Eyre, heir, air, err, ere, eer, are. An extreme example is kikō, which is the pronunciation of at least 22 words, including, 機構, 紀行, 稀覯, 騎行, 貴校 (, 奇功, 貴公, 起稿, 奇行, 機巧, 寄港, 帰校, 気功, 寄稿, 機甲, 帰航, 奇効, 季候, 気孔, 起工, 気候, 帰港. The Korean language contains a combination of words that belong to Korean. For example, 화장하다, to put on makeup and 화장하다, also, 유산, inheritance and 유산, miscarriage. There are heterographs, but far fewer, contrary to the tendency in English, for example, 학문, learning, and 항문, anus
9.
Bear
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Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. Bears are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans, although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere. Bears are found on the continents of North America, South America, Europe, common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, small rounded ears, shaggy hair, plantigrade paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails. While the polar bear is mostly carnivorous, and the giant panda feeds almost entirely on bamboo, with the exception of courting individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically solitary animals. They may be diurnal or nocturnal and have an excellent sense of smell, despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they are adept runners, climbers, and swimmers. Bears use shelters, such as caves and logs, as their dens, most species occupy their dens during the winter for a period of hibernation. Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur, they have used for bear-baiting and other forms of entertainment. With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology, in modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market. The IUCN lists six species as vulnerable or endangered, and even least concern species. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and Ursus come from Latin Ursus/Ursa, he-bear/she-bear. The female first name Ursula, originally derived from a Christian saints name, in Switzerland, the male first name Urs is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of Bern is derived from Bär, German for bear. The Germanic name Bernard means bear-brave, bear-hardy, or bold bear, the Old English name Beowulf is a kenning, bee-wolf, for bear, in turn meaning a brave warrior. The family Ursidae is one of nine families in the suborder Caniformia, or doglike carnivorans, Bears closest living relatives are the pinnipeds, canids, and musteloids. Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies, Ailuropodinae, Tremarctinae, and Ursinae, the earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including Parictis and the slightly younger Allocyon, both from North America. These animals looked very different from bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall appearance. Parictis does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene, european genera morphologically are very similar to Allocyon, and to the much younger American Kolponomos, are known from the Oligocene, including Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon. The raccoon-sized, dog-like Cephalogale is the member of the subfamily Hemicyoninae. The subfamily includes the younger genera Phoberocyon, and Plithocyon, a Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the genus Ursavus during the early Oligocene, this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears
10.
Media studies
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Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media, in particular, the mass media. Media is studied as a subject in most states in Australia. Media studies in Australia was first developed as an area of study in Victorian universities in the early 1960s, today, almost all Australian universities teach media studies. In secondary schools, a film studies course first began being taught as part of the Victorian junior secondary curriculum during the mid 1960s. And, by the early 1970s, a media studies course was being taught. The course became part of the secondary curriculum in the 1980s. It has since become, and continues to be, a component of the VCE. Notable figures in the development of the Victorian secondary school curriculum were the long time Rusden College media teacher Peter Greenaway, Trevor Barr, Media studies does not appear to be taught in the state of New South Wales at a secondary level. Media studies also form a part of the primary and junior secondary curriculum. Victoria also hosts the peak media teaching body known as ATOM which publishes Metro, there are two universities in China that specialize in media studies. Communication University of China, formerly known as the Beijing Broadcasting Institute, CUC has 15,307 full-time students, including 9264 undergraduates,3512 candidates for doctor and masters degrees and 16780 students in programs of continuing education. The other university known for studies in China is Zhejiang University of Media and Communications which has campuses in Hangzhou. Almost 10,000 full-time students are studying in over 50 programs at the 13 Colleges. Both institutions have produced some of Chinas brightest broadcasting talents for television as well as leading journalists at magazines, one prominent French media critic is the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu who wrote among other books On Television. Bourdieus analysis is that television provides far less autonomy, or freedom, in his view, the market not only imposes uniformity and banality, but also a form of invisible censorship. In Germany two main branches of theory or media studies can be identified. The first major branch of media theory has its roots in the humanities and cultural studies, such as theater studies and German language and this branch has broadened out substantially since the 1990s. And it is on this basis that media studies in Germany has primarily developed and established itself
11.
Linguistics
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Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning, phonetics is the study of speech and non-speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound as well as meaning, and include componential sub-sets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology, morphology, modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar are largely based within Noam Chomskys ideological school of generative grammar. In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles. This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance in his theory of transformative or generative grammar. According to Chomsky, competence is an innate capacity and potential for language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used by individuals, groups. The study of parole is the domain of sociolinguistics, the sub-discipline that comprises the study of a system of linguistic facets within a certain speech community. Discourse analysis further examines the structure of texts and conversations emerging out of a speech communitys usage of language, Stylistics also involves the study of written, signed, or spoken discourse through varying speech communities, genres, and editorial or narrative formats in the mass media. In the 1960s, Jacques Derrida, for instance, further distinguished between speech and writing, by proposing that language be studied as a linguistic medium of communication in itself. Palaeography is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of scripts in language. Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic, research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focus on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time. Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages, lexicography involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a dictionary. Computational linguistics is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective, specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of translation and interpretation, as well as in language education – the teaching of a second or foreign language. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education, related areas of study also includes the disciplines of semiotics, literary criticism, translation, and speech-language pathology. Before the 20th century, the philology, first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the science of language
12.
Synonym
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A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy, the word comes from Ancient Greek sýn and ónoma. An example of synonyms are the words begin, start, commence, words can be synonymous when meant in certain senses, even if they are not synonymous in all of their senses. For example, if one talks about a time or an extended time, long. Some academics call the former type cognitive synonyms to distinguish them from the latter type, some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason, feline is more formal than cat, long and extended are only synonyms in one usage, synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. In the figurative sense, two words are said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation. a widespread impression that. Metonymy can sometimes be a form of synonymy, as when, for example, thus a metonym is a type of synonym, and the word metonym is a hyponym of the word synonym. The analysis of synonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and hypernymy is inherent to taxonomy and it has applications in pedagogy and machine learning, because they rely on word-sense disambiguation and schema. Synonyms can be any part of speech, as long as both words belong to the part of speech. Such like, he expired means the same as he died, in English, many synonyms emerged in the Middle Ages, after the Norman conquest of England. While Englands new ruling class spoke Norman French, the lower classes continued to speak Old English, thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. For more examples, see the list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English, the purpose of a thesaurus is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words, these are often, but not always, synonyms. The word poecilonym is a synonym of the word synonym. It is not entered in most major dictionaries and is a curiosity or piece of trivia for being a word because of its meta quality as a synonym of synonym. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings, for example, hot ↔ cold, large ↔ small, thick ↔ thin, synonym ↔ antonym Hypernyms and hyponyms are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle, homophones are words that have the same pronunciation, but different meanings. For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents, homographs are words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations
13.
Hyponymy and hypernymy
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In linguistics, a hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is included within that of another word, its hyperonym or hypernym. In simpler terms, a hyponym shares a relationship with its hypernym. For example, pigeon, crow, eagle and seagull are all hyponyms of bird, hyponymy shows the relationship between a generic term and a specific instance of it. A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is more specific than its hypernym, the semantic field of a hypernym, also known as a superordinate, is broader than that of a hyponym. An approach to the relationship between hyponyms and hypernyms is to view a hypernym as consisting of hyponyms and this, however, becomes more difficult with abstract words such as imagine, understand and knowledge. While hyponyms are typically used to refer to nouns, it can also be used on parts of speech. Like nouns, hyponyms in verbs are words that refer to a category of actions. For example, verbs such as stare, gaze, view, hyponymy can be tested by substituting X and Y in the sentence ‘X is a kind of Y’ and determining if it makes sense. For example, ‘A screwdriver is a kind of makes sense. Strictly speaking, the relation between hyponyms and hypernyms applies to lexical items of the same word class, and holds between senses rather than words. For instance, the word used in the previous example refers to the tool for turning a screw. Hyponymy is a relation, if X is a hyponym of Y. For example, violet is a hyponym of purple and purple is a hyponym of color, the hierarchical structure of semantic fields can be mostly seen in hyponymy. They could be observed from top to bottom, where the level is more general. For example, living things will be the highest level followed by plants and animals, under the relations of hyponymy and incompatibility, taxonomic hierarchical structures too can be formed. It consists of two relations, the first one being exemplified in An X is a Y while the second relation is An X is a kind/type of Y, the second relation is said to be more discriminating and can be classified more specifically under the concept of taxonomy. If the hypernym Z consists of hyponyms X and Y, X and Y are identified as co-hyponyms, co-hyponyms are labelled as such when separate hyponyms share the same hypernym but are not hyponyms of one another, unless they happen to be synonymous. For example, screwdriver, scissors, knife, hammer are all co-hyponyms of tool, co-hyponyms are often but not always related to one another by the relation of incompatibility
14.
Information science
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Information science should not be confused with information theory or library science. Information theory is the study of the types of communications we use, such as verbal, signal transmission, encoding, Information science as an academic discipline is often taught in combination with Library science as Library and Information Science. Library science as such is a related to the dissemination of information through libraries making use of the principles of information science. Information science focuses on understanding problems from the perspective of the involved and then applying information. In other words, it tackles systemic problems first rather than individual pieces of technology within that system and it must therefore be regarded as an autonomous system controlling and ultimately permeating all other subsystems of society. Several institutions have formed an I-School Caucus, but numerous others besides these also have comprehensive information foci and it is concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the origination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and utilization of information. It has both a pure science component, which inquires into the subject without regard to its application, and an applied science component, some authors use informatics as a synonym for information science. This is especially true when related to the concept developed by A. I, Mikhailov and other Soviet authors in the mid-1960s. The Mikhailov school saw informatics as a related to the study of scientific information. Informatics is difficult to define because of the rapidly evolving. Definitions reliant on the nature of the used for deriving meaningful information from data are emerging in Informatics academic programs. Regional differences and international terminology complicate the problem, some people note that much of what is called Informatics today was once called Information Science – at least in fields such as Medical Informatics. Brian Campbell Vickerys Information Systems places information systems within IS, ellis, Allen, & Wilson, on the other hand, provide a bibliometric investigation describing the relation between two different fields, information science and information systems. Philosophy of information studies conceptual issues arising at the intersection of science, information technology. In computer science and information science, an ontology formally represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain, and it can be used to reason about the entities within that domain and may be used to describe the domain. More specifically, an ontology is a model for describing the world consists of a set of types, properties. Exactly what is provided around these varies, but they are the essentials of an ontology, there is also generally an expectation that there be a close resemblance between the real world and the features of the model in an ontology. In theory, an ontology is a formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualisation, an ontology renders shared vocabulary and taxonomy which models a domain with the definition of objects and/or concepts and their properties and relations
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Pedagogy
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Pedagogy is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice of education, it thus concerns the study of how best to teach. Spanning a broad range of practice, its aims range from furthering liberal education to the specifics of vocational education. Instructive strategies are governed by the background knowledge and experience, situation. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought, the teaching of adults, as a specific group, is referred to as andragogy. Johann Friedrich Herbart is the father of the conceptualization of pedagogy, or. Herbarts educational philosophy and pedagogy highlighted the correlation between personal development and the benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens, herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbarts theoretical perspectives. Referring to the process, Herbart suggested 5 steps as crucial components. Specifically, these 5 steps include, preparation, presentation, association, generalization, Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind. The word is a derivative of the Greek παιδαγωγία, from παιδαγωγός, itself a synthesis of ἄγω, I lead and it is pronounced variously, as /ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi/, /ˈpɛdəɡoʊdʒi/, or /ˈpɛdəɡɒɡi/. Negative connotations of pedantry have sometimes been intended, or taken, doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers. The term is used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field. The word pedagogue means leading children some say to the teacher and other leading them, in Denmark, a pedagogue is a practitioner of pedagogy. The term is used for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education in Scandinavia. But a pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, e. g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages and these are often recognized as social pedagogues as they perform on behalf of society. The pedagogues job is usually distinguished from a teachers by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social skills, there is also a very big focus on care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion, the pedagogues work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development. In Denmark all pedagogues are educated at a series of institutes for social educators located in all major cities
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Machine learning
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Machine learning is the subfield of computer science that, according to Arthur Samuel in 1959, gives computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning is related to computational statistics, which also focuses on prediction-making through the use of computers. It has strong ties to optimization, which delivers methods, theory. Machine learning is sometimes conflated with data mining, where the latter subfield focuses more on data analysis and is known as unsupervised learning. Machine learning can also be unsupervised and be used to learn and establish baseline behavioral profiles for various entities, tom M. be replaced with the question Can machines do what we can do. In the proposal he explores the characteristics that could be possessed by a thinking machine. Machine learning tasks are typically classified into three categories, depending on the nature of the learning signal or feedback available to a learning system. These are Supervised learning, The computer is presented with example inputs and their outputs, given by a teacher. Unsupervised learning, No labels are given to the learning algorithm, unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself or a means towards an end. Reinforcement learning, A computer program interacts with an environment in which it must perform a certain goal. The program is provided feedback in terms of rewards and punishments as it navigates its problem space, between supervised and unsupervised learning is semi-supervised learning, where the teacher gives an incomplete training signal, a training set with some of the target outputs missing. Transduction is a case of this principle where the entire set of problem instances is known at learning time. Among other categories of machine learning problems, learning to learn learns its own inductive bias based on previous experience and this is typically tackled in a supervised way. Spam filtering is an example of classification, where the inputs are email messages, in regression, also a supervised problem, the outputs are continuous rather than discrete. In clustering, a set of inputs is to be divided into groups, unlike in classification, the groups are not known beforehand, making this typically an unsupervised task. Density estimation finds the distribution of inputs in some space, dimensionality reduction simplifies inputs by mapping them into a lower-dimensional space. Topic modeling is a problem, where a program is given a list of human language documents and is tasked to find out which documents cover similar topics. As a scientific endeavour, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence, already in the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data
17.
Cheque
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A cheque or check is a document that orders a bank to pay a specific amount of money from a persons account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued. The person writing the cheque, the drawer, has a banking account where their money is held. Cheques are a type of bill of exchange and were developed as a way to make payments without the need to carry large amounts of money, both the drawer and payee may be natural persons or legal entities. Cheques are order instruments, and are not in general payable simply to the bearer as bearer instruments are, in some countries, such as the US, the payee may endorse the cheque, allowing them to specify a third party to whom it should be paid. By the second half of the 20th century, as cheque processing became automated, billions of cheques were issued annually, since then cheque usage has fallen, being partly replaced by electronic payment systems. In an increasing number of countries cheques have either become a marginal payment system or have been phased out. The spellings check, checque, and cheque were used interchangeably from the 17th century until the 20th century, in American English, the usual spelling for both is check. The cheque had its origins in the ancient banking system, in which bankers would issue orders at the request of their customers, such an order was referred to as a bill of exchange. The use of bills of exchange facilitated trade by eliminating the need for merchants to carry large quantities of currency to purchase goods, the ancient Romans are believed to have used an early form of cheque known as praescriptiones in the 1st century BC. Muslim traders are known to have used the cheque or ṣakk system since the time of Harun al-Rashid of the Abbasid Caliphate, transporting a paper saqq was more secure than transporting money. In the 9th century, a merchant in country A could cash a saqq drawn on his bank in country B. In the 13th century in Venice the bill of exchange was developed as a device to allow international trade without the need to carry large amounts of gold. Their use subsequently spread to other European countries, in the early 1500s in the Dutch Republic, to protect large accumulations of cash, people began depositing their money with cashiers. These cashiers held the money for a fee, competition drove cashiers to offer additional services including paying money to any person bearing a written order from a depositor to do so. They kept the note as proof of payment and this concept went on to spread to England and elsewhere. By the 17th century, bills of exchange were being used for payments in England. Cheques, a type of bill of exchange, then began to evolve, initially they were called drawn notes, because they enabled a customer to draw on the funds that he or she had in the account with a bank and required immediate payment. These were handwritten, and one of the earliest known still to be in existence was drawn on Messrs Morris and Clayton, scriveners and bankers based in the City of London, in 1717, the Bank of England pioneered the first use of a pre-printed form
18.
Chess
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Chess is a two-player strategy board game played on a chessboard, a checkered gameboard with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. Chess is played by millions of people worldwide, both amateurs and professionals, each player begins the game with 16 pieces, one king, one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, and eight pawns. Each of the six piece types moves differently, with the most powerful being the queen, the objective is to checkmate the opponents king by placing it under an inescapable threat of capture. To this end, a players pieces are used to attack and capture the opponents pieces, in addition to checkmate, the game can be won by voluntary resignation by the opponent, which typically occurs when too much material is lost, or if checkmate appears unavoidable. A game may result in a draw in several ways. Chess is believed to have originated in India, some time before the 7th century, chaturanga is also the likely ancestor of the Eastern strategy games xiangqi, janggi and shogi. The pieces took on their current powers in Spain in the late 15th century, the first generally recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886. Since 1948, the World Championship has been controlled by FIDE, the international governing body. There is also a Correspondence Chess World Championship and a World Computer Chess Championship, online chess has opened amateur and professional competition to a wide and varied group of players. There are also many variants, with different rules, different pieces. FIDE awards titles to skilled players, the highest of which is grandmaster, many national chess organizations also have a title system. However, these are not recognised by FIDE, the term master may refer to a formal title or may be used more loosely for any skilled player. Until recently, chess was a sport of the International Olympic Committee. Chess was included in the 2006 and 2010 Asian Games, since the 1990s, computer analysis has contributed significantly to chess theory, particularly in the endgame. The computer IBM Deep Blue was the first machine to overcome a reigning World Chess Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov in 1997, the rise of strong computer programs that can be run on hand-held devices has led to increasing concerns about cheating during tournaments. The official rules of chess are maintained by FIDE, chesss international governing body, along with information on official chess tournaments, the rules are described in the FIDE Handbook, Laws of Chess section. Chess is played on a board of eight rows and eight columns. The colors of the 64 squares alternate and are referred to as light, the chessboard is placed with a light square at the right-hand end of the rank nearest to each player
19.
Mole (unit)
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The mole is the unit of measurement in the International System of Units for amount of substance. This number is expressed by the Avogadro constant, which has a value of 6. 022140857×1023 mol−1, the mole is one of the base units of the SI, and has the unit symbol mol. The mole is used in chemistry as a convenient way to express amounts of reactants and products of chemical reactions. For example, the chemical equation 2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O implies that 2 moles of dihydrogen and 1 mole of dioxygen react to form 2 moles of water. The mole may also be used to express the number of atoms, ions, the concentration of a solution is commonly expressed by its molarity, defined as the number of moles of the dissolved substance per litre of solution. For example, the relative molecular mass of natural water is about 18.015, therefore. The term gram-molecule was formerly used for essentially the same concept, the term gram-atom has been used for a related but distinct concept, namely a quantity of a substance that contains Avogadros number of atoms, whether isolated or combined in molecules. Thus, for example,1 mole of MgBr2 is 1 gram-molecule of MgBr2 but 3 gram-atoms of MgBr2, in honor of the unit, some chemists celebrate October 23, which is a reference to the 1023 scale of the Avogadro constant, as Mole Day. Some also do the same for February 6 and June 2, thus, by definition, one mole of pure 12C has a mass of exactly 12 g. It also follows from the definition that X moles of any substance will contain the number of molecules as X moles of any other substance. The mass per mole of a substance is called its molar mass, the number of elementary entities in a sample of a substance is technically called its amount. Therefore, the mole is a convenient unit for that physical quantity, one can determine the chemical amount of a known substance, in moles, by dividing the samples mass by the substances molar mass. Other methods include the use of the volume or the measurement of electric charge. The mass of one mole of a substance depends not only on its molecular formula, since the definition of the gram is not mathematically tied to that of the atomic mass unit, the number NA of molecules in a mole must be determined experimentally. The value adopted by CODATA in 2010 is NA =6. 02214129×1023 ±0. 00000027×1023, in 2011 the measurement was refined to 6. 02214078×1023 ±0. 00000018×1023. The number of moles of a sample is the sample mass divided by the mass of the material. The history of the mole is intertwined with that of mass, atomic mass unit, Avogadros number. The first table of atomic mass was published by John Dalton in 1805
20.
Book
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
21.
Milk
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Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
22.
Aberrant decoding
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The concept was proposed by Umberto Eco in an article published first in 1965 in Italian and in 1972 in English. Every communication act requires that the messages must be encoded into a set of signs by the sender and these signs must then be transmitted and decoded by the receiver to understand the contained messages. The code system must be shared by both the sender and the receiver in order for the communication to succeed, for example, thoughts must be encoded into words, transmitted through air, and then be decoded back to thoughts. Often the sender has a meaning to convey with his message. This right interpretation can be called the preferred decoding or preferred reading, when the interpretation of the message is different from what was intended, this can be called aberrant decoding. According to Eco, aberrant decodings were rare in pre-industrial societies and he lists four classes of exceptions where aberrant decodings could have happened, People who did not share the same language. People trying to interpret the meanings of past cultures, for example, Medieval people looking at Roman art. People who did not share the belief system. For example, Christians looking at pagan art, People who came from different cultures. For example, white Europeans looking at Aboriginal art, Eco continues that in contemporary media, instead of being exceptions, aberrant decodings have become the norm. For example, TV broadcasters know beforehand that their messages will be interpreted in various ways and he speculated that because of this freedom of interpretation, the power of media over individuals might be much less influential than is thought. This idea of examining the messages contained in the media and how the audience interprets them has become one of the core concepts of academic media research. Ecos article influenced, among others, Stuart Halls encoding/decoding theory, john Fiske has argued that aberrant decoding occurs mainly with iconic codes, referring to visual messages. As an example, he explains how prehistoric cave paintings of animals are seen as graceful. However, in 1960 Margaret Abercrombie claimed that the paintings are, in fact, thus if we accept Abercrombies claim, we can argue that our modern culture, where we value living animals and only rarely encounter dead ones, has led us to aberrant decoding of the paintings
