Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican R
1.
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
A29 autoroute
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The A29 is a motorway in Normandy and Picardy, northwestern and northern France. The road is part of European route E44. The road connects the port of Le Havre with the A26 at Saint-Quentin and it also has junctions with the A13, A131, A16, A28, and A1 autoroutes. 01 Exchange A 13-A29 Autoroute starts with junction on the A13,09 km 72 Caillebourg Towns served, Yerville Rest Area, Saint-Martin-aux-Arbres 05 km 89 A151, A151 and N27 Dieppe Rouen to A150. Péage Cottevrard 05 km 105 A28, Motorway merges with the A28 northbound
Seine
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The Seine is a 777-kilometre-long river and an important commercial waterway within the Paris Basin in the north of France. It rises at Source-Seine,30 kilometres northwest of Dijon in northeastern France in the Langres plateau, flowing through Paris and it is navigable by ocean-going vessels as far as Rouen,120 kilometres from the sea. There are 37 bridges within Paris and dozens more spanning the river outside the city, examples in Paris include the Pont Alexandre III and Pont Neuf, the latter of which dates back to 1607. Outside the city, examples include the Pont de Normandie, one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world, the Seine rises in the commune of Source-Seine, about 30 kilometres northwest of Dijon. The source has been owned by the city of Paris since 1864, a number of closely associated small ditches or depressions provide the source waters, with an artificial grotto laid out to highlight and contain a deemed main source. The grotto includes a statue of a nymph, o
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The Seine in Paris
2.
Seine source
4.
The Seine and Eiffel Tower
Le Havre
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Le Havre is an urban French commune and city in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region of northwestern France. It is situated on the bank of the estuary of the river Seine on the Channel southwest of the Pays de Caux. Modern Le Havre remains deeply influenced by its employment and maritime traditions and its port is the second largest in France, after that of Marseille, for total traffic, and the largest French container port. The name Le Havre means the harbour or the port and its inhabitants are known as Havrais or Havraises. Administratively the commune is located in the Normandy region and, with Dieppe, is one of the two sub-prefectures of the Seine-Maritime department, Le Havre is the capital of the canton and since 1974 has been the see of the diocese of Le Havre. Le Havre is the most populous commune of Upper Normandy, although the population of the greater Le Havre conurbation is smaller than that of Rouen. It is also the second largest subprefecture in France, th
1.
Le Havre
3.
Map of Le Havre: to the south the Seine estuary; to the west the
English Channel.
4.
Le Havre under snow
Honfleur
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Honfleur is a commune in the Calvados department in northwestern France. It is located on the bank of the estuary of the Seine across from le Havre. The Sainte-Catherine church, which has a bell tower separate from the building, is the largest church made out of wood in France. The first written record of Honfleur is a reference by Richard III, Duke of Normandy, by the middle of the 12th century, the city represented a significant transit point for goods from Rouen to England. The towns defences were strengthened by Charles V in order to protect the estuary of the Seine from attacks from the English and this was supported by the nearby port of Harfleur. However, Honfleur was taken and occupied by the English in 1357, when under French control, raiding parties often set out from the port to ransack the English coasts, including partially destroying the town of Sandwich, in Kent, England, in the 1450s. At the end of the Hundred Years War, Honfleur benefited from the boom in maritime trad
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Honfleur harbour
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Bell tower of the Church of Saint Catherine, Honfleur
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Clocktower of the Church of Saint Catherine, Honfleur
4.
The farmhouse of Saint-Siméon, used by many painters
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French cult
1.
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
Cable-stayed bridge
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A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers, from which cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables run directly from the tower to the deck. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and this is the range where cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier if the span were lengthened, while suspension bridge cabling would not be more economical if the span were shortened. Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th, early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, Cable-stayed bridges date back to 1595, where designs were found in Machinae Novae, a book by Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio. Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge, john A. Roebling too
Michel Virlogeux
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Dr. Michel Virlogeux FREng is a French structural engineer and bridge specialist. Virlogeux graduated from the École Polytechnique in 1967 and from the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in 1970, from 1970 to 1973 he served in Tunisia on road projects and at the same time gained his Engineering Doctorate from the Pierre et Marie Curie University. In January 1974 he joined the Bridge Department of SETRA, the service of the French Highway Administration. In 1980 he became Head of the Large Concrete Bridge Division, during twenty years he designed more than 100 bridges, including the Normandy Bridge which held the world record for longest cable-stayed bridge for four years. Several of his bridges have received architectural awards, a member of the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering since 1974, Dr. Virlogeux received the inaugural IABSE Prize in Venice in 1983. He is a member of the French Academy of Technology, the Award Presentation took place during the
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Michel Virlogeux (2011)
Bouygues
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Bouygues S. A. is an industrial group headquartered in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France. Bouygues is listed on Euronext Paris exchange and is a chip in the CAC40 stock market index. The company was founded in 1952 by Francis Bouygues and since 1989 has been led by his son Martin Bouygues, in 2015 it had over approximately 120,000 employees in 100 countries, generating €32.428 billion in revenue. The group specialises in construction, real development, media. The company was founded by Francis Bouygues in 1952, in 1970 Bouygues became listed on the Paris Stock Exchange. In 1985 and 1986 Bouygues acquired road construction groups Screg, Sacer and Colas, in 1987 the company started operating the television channel TF1 and in 1988 Bouygues moved into its new head office, the Challenger complex, in Saint-Quentin en Yvelines. In 1996 the company launched Bouygues Télécom and in 2006 the company acquired 23. 26% of Alstom, TF1 also owns 100% of Publications Metro France, a free-distrib
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Bouygues head office, avenue Hoche
2.
Bouygues S.A.
Vinci (construction)
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Vinci, corporately styled VINCI, is a French concessions and construction company founded in 1899 as Société Générale dEnterprises. It employs over 179,000 people and is the largest construction company in the world by revenue, Vinci is listed at Euronexts Paris stock exchange and is a member of the Euro Stoxx 50 index. Its head office is in Rueil-Malmaison, the company was founded by Alexandre Giros and Louis Loucheur as Société Générale d’Entreprises S. A. in 1899. In 1986 SGE acquired Sogea, a business founded in 1878, started building Yanggakdo International Hotel in Pyongyang, DPR of Korea. In 1988 the company acquired Campenon Bernard, a business founded in 1920, in 1991 SGE acquired Norwest Holst, a company founded in 1969. In 2000 it changed its name to Vinci, in 2001 it acquired Groupe GTM, which was a combination of Dumez, founded in 1880, and GTM founded in 1891. In 2006 the company acquired Autoroutes du Sud de la France, in February 2007 Vinci completed the acquisition of
Spie Batignolles
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Spie Batignolles is a French construction company based in Neuilly-sur-Seine. The company provides building and infrastructure construction in France, Germany, Ernest Goüin founded Ernest Goüin & Cie in 1846. It later became Société de Construction des Batignolles, as early as 1954, SPIE acquired part of SCBs capital and in 1968 the two companies merged to form Spie Batignolles. In 1989 the rail construction company Drouard was acquired, forming the foundation of the rail construction engineering company Spie Rail. The 1990s brought several waves of restructuring, in 1990, Spie Batignolles created Spie Construction, the building and civil engineering branch of the company. In 1992, Spie Construction merged with CITRA to become SPIE CITRA, in 1997 the company was bought from the Schneider group with the help of a management buyout supported by AMEC. In 2004, Financière Spie Batignolles purchased the remaining Spie Batignolles shares owned by Amec Spie, the two other former divisions bec
Viaduct
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A viaduct is a bridge composed of several small spans for crossing a valley, dry or wetland, or forming a flyover. The term viaduct is derived from the Latin via for road and ducere, the ancient Romans did not use the term, it is a modern derivation from an analogy with aqueduct. Like the Roman aqueducts, many early viaducts comprised a series of arches of equal length. Viaducts may span land, water or both, a viaduct is a bridge composed of several small spans for crossing a valley or a gorge. The term is conventional for a flyover as opposed to a flying junction or a rail bridge which crosses one feature. In Romance languages, the word refers to a bridge which spans only land. A bridge spanning water is called ponte, the longest viaduct in antiquity may have been the Pont Serme which crossed wide marshes in southern France. Viaducts are commonly used in cities that are railroad centers, such as Chicago, Atlanta, Birmingham, London. These viaducts cross the railroad yards that are nee
Normandy
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Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy
3.
Allied invasion of Normandy,
D-Day, 1944
4.
A typical northeastern Norman village
Motorway
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A controlled-access highway is a type of highway which has been designed for high-speed vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow and ingress/egress regulated. Common English terms are freeway, motorway and expressway, other similar terms include Interstate and parkway. Some of which may be limited-access highways, although this term can refer to a class of highway with somewhat less isolation from other traffic. In countries following Vienna convention, the motorway qualification implies they are forbidden for walking or parking, a controlled-access highway provides an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic signals, intersections or property access. They are free of any at-grade crossings with roads, railways, or pedestrian paths. Entrances and exits to the highway are provided at interchanges by slip roads, on the controlled-access highway, opposing directions of travel are generally separated by a median strip or central reservation containing a traffic barrier or grass. Elimina
1.
The interchange between US-131, M-6 and 68th Street in
Wyoming, Michigan, shows many of the features of controlled-access highways—opposing traffic on separate carriageways, no
at-grade intersections and no direct access to properties.
2.
French A10 near Orléans showing hard shoulder and emergency telephone. The broken demarcation line for the hard shoulder is specific to France, and serves as a safety reference mark for drivers: the advisory distance from the vehicle ahead is two dashes minimum.
3.
De Lucht Rest Area on the Dutch A2 - A typical rest area with services (fuel, refreshments and toilets). The only access is via the highway that it serves.
Toll bridge
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A toll bridge is a bridge over which traffic may pass upon payment of a toll, or fee. The practice of collecting tolls on bridges harks back to the days of ferry crossings where people paid a fee to be ferried across stretches of water, as boats became impractical to carry large loads, ferry operators looked for new sources of revenue. Having built a bridge, they hoped to recoup their investment by charging tolls for people, animals, vehicles, and goods to cross it. The original London Bridge across the river Thames opened as a toll bridge, using interest on its capital assets, the trust now owns and runs all seven central London bridges at no cost to taxpayers or users. In the United States, private ownership of toll bridges peaked in the mid-19th century, in some instances, a quasi-governmental authority was formed, and toll revenue bonds were issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility. Peters and Kramer observed that. little research has been done to qua
2.
Paying toll on passing a bridge.--From a painted window in the
Tournai Cathedral (15th century).
List of longest cable-stayed bridge spans
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This list ranks the worlds cable-stayed bridges by the length of main span. The length of the span is the most common way to rank cable-stayed bridges. If one bridge has a longer span than another it does not mean that the bridge is the longer from shore to shore or from anchorage to anchorage. However, the size of the main span does often correlate with the height of the towers, cable-stayed bridges with more than three spans are generally more complex, and bridges of this type generally represent a more notable engineering achievement even where their spans are shorter. Cable-stayed bridges have the second-longest spans of bridge types and they are practical for spans up to around 1 kilometer. This list of largest cable-stayed bridges includes all bridges with a span of at least 500 metres. This list only includes bridges that carry automobiles or trains and it does not include suspension bridges, footbridges or pipeline bridges. The definition of cable-stayed deck length that here h
Tatara Bridge
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The Tatara Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge that is part of the Nishiseto Expressway, commonly known as the Shimanami Kaidō しまなみ海道. The bridge has a span of 890 metres. As of 2010 it has the fourth longest main span of any cable-stayed bridge after the Sutong Bridge. The expressway is a series of roads and bridges that is one of the three routes of the Honshū-Shikoku Bridge Project connecting the islands of Honshū and Shikoku across the Seto Inland Sea in Japan, the Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge is on the same route. The bridge, which opened on May 1,1999, carries two lanes of traffic in each direction and has additional lanes for bicycles, motor bikes, the Tatara Bridge was originally planned as a suspension bridge in 1973. In 1989, the design was changed to a bridge with the same span. By building a bridge a large excavation for an anchorage would not be needed. The steel towers are 220 metres high and shaped like an inverted Y, the side-spans are 164.5 metres and 257.5 metres respectively,
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, t
Rio-Antirrio bridge
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It crosses the Gulf of Corinth near Patras, linking the town of Rio on the Peloponnese peninsula to Antirrio on mainland Greece by road. The bridge accommodates both pedestrian and motor vehicle traffic and its official name is the Charilaos Trikoupis Bridge. Charilaos Trikoupis was a 19th-century prime minister of Greece, he suggested the idea of building a bridge between Rio and Antirrio, the project was too expensive at the time, when Greece was trying to get a late start in the Industrial Revolution. The Greek word gefyra also refers to the Rio-Antirio bridge in informal everyday speech, the 2,880 m long bridge dramatically improves access to and from the Peloponnese, which could previously be reached only by ferry or via the isthmus of Corinth in the east. Its width is 28 m — it has two lanes per direction, an emergency lane and a pedestrian walkway. Its five-span four-pylon cable-stayed portion of length 2,252 m is the second longest cable-stayed deck. However, as the latter is s
1.
The bridge on a windy day
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Pylon construction
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A carnival float in celebration of the bridge.
4.
The bridge at night: various color combinations for the bridge's illuminations are used.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earli
3.
The
Manhattan Bridge, connecting
Manhattan and
Brooklyn in New York City, opened in 1909 and is considered to be the forerunner of modern suspension bridges; its design served as the model for many of the long-span suspension bridges around the world.
List of crossings of the River Seine
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This page is a list of present-day bridges over the River Seine and its channels, sorted by département, and then sorted from downstream to upstream. After each bridge is listed the name of the communes which it links together, the list does not include bridges over its tributaries. Ponts dOissel, Tourville-la-Rivière – Oissel, two bridges over the two channels of the Seine separated by Île Mayeux. Viaduc dOissel, Tourville-la-Rivière – Oissel, bridge over the two channels of the Seine separated by Île Sainte-Catherine, three link Île Saint-Louis to the rest of Paris,8 do the same for Île de la Cité and one links the 2 islands to each other
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Pont de Normandie
2.
Pont Clémenceau at Vernon
3.
The old pont de Poissy
4.
Viaduc of the A15
List of tallest bridges in the world
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The list of the worlds tallest bridges ranks bridges by the height of their structure. Structural height should not be confused with deck height, which measures the vertical drop distance from the bridge deck down to the ground or water surface beneath the bridge span. A separate list of the worlds highest bridges ranks bridges by deck height, the rankings of the worlds tallest and highest bridges differ in part because some of the highest bridges are built across deep valleys or gorges. The Duge Bridge, connecting the Yunnan and Guizhou provinces of China, is a Cable-stayed bridge that spans a river gorge. The Millau Viaduct, a bridge that spans the Tarn River Valley in southern France, is a bridge that is both tall and high. The viaducts bridge deck soars 270 m above the valley floor, placing the bridge among the twenty highest bridges in the world
List of largest cable-stayed bridges
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This list ranks the worlds cable-stayed bridges by the length of main span. The length of the span is the most common way to rank cable-stayed bridges. If one bridge has a longer span than another it does not mean that the bridge is the longer from shore to shore or from anchorage to anchorage. However, the size of the main span does often correlate with the height of the towers, cable-stayed bridges with more than three spans are generally more complex, and bridges of this type generally represent a more notable engineering achievement even where their spans are shorter. Cable-stayed bridges have the second-longest spans of bridge types and they are practical for spans up to around 1 kilometer. This list of largest cable-stayed bridges includes all bridges with a span of at least 500 metres. This list only includes bridges that carry automobiles or trains and it does not include suspension bridges, footbridges or pipeline bridges. The definition of cable-stayed deck length that here h
Yangpu Bridge
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The Yangpu Bridge, in Shanghai, China, sister bridge to the Nanpu Bridge, is among the worlds longest bridges, with a total length of 8354 meters. Its longest span of 602 m makes it one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world and it carries the Inner Ring Road from the Yangpu District in Puxi to the Pudong New Area. It was completed in September 1993 and opened in October and it was built by the Shanghai Huangpujiang Bridge Engineering Construction company. It is a double-tower and double-cable-stayed bridge, with the bridge proper 1172 m long and its 30.35 m width carries six lanes of traffic. Its two pylons reach 223 m in height, the highest ship clearance is 48 m, a necessity due to the heavy river traffic. As of 2006, it more than 100,000 vehicles per day. The two main abutments support high, upside-down Y-shaped towers from which the cables are strung. There are two two-meter-wide sightseeing sidewalks on both sides of the river, the bridge was originally unpainted, it wa
1.
Yangpu Bridge
2.
East pylon
