1.
Twickenham
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Twickenham is a leafy suburban area of south west London, on the River Thames in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames 10 miles southwest of the centre of London. It has a town centre and is famous as being the home of rugby union, with hundreds of thousands of spectators visiting Twickenham Stadium. The historic riverside area is famous for its network of 18th-century buildings and pleasure grounds and this area has three grand period mansions with public access, York House, Marble Hill and Strawberry Hill House. Another has been lost, that belonging to 18th-century aphoristic poet Alexander Pope, excavations have revealed settlements in the area dating from the Early Neolithic, possibly Mesolithic periods. Occupation seems to have continued through the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the area was first mentioned in an 8th-century charter to cede the area to Waldhere, Bishop of London, for the salvation of our souls. The charter, dated 13 June 704, is signed with 12 crosses, the signatories included Swaefred of Essex, Cenred of Mercia and Earl Paeogthath. In Norman times Twickenham was part of the Manor of Isleworth – itself part of the Hundred of Hounslow, Middlesex. The manor had belonged to Ælfgār, Earl of Mercia in the time of Edward the Confessor, the area was then farmed for several hundred years, while the river provided opportunities for fishing, boatbuilding and trade. Bubonic plague spread to the town in 1665 and 67 deaths were recorded and it appears that Twickenham had a pest house in the 17th century, although the location is not known. In 1633 construction began on York House and it was occupied by Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester in 1656 and later by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. 1659 saw the first mention of the Twickenham Ferry, although ferrymen had already operating in the area for many generations. Sometime before 1743 a pirate ferry appears to have started by Twickenham inhabitants. There is speculation that it operated to serve The Folly, a floating hostelry of some kind, several residents wrote to the Lord Mayor of the City of London. In 1713 the nave of the ancient St Marys Church collapsed, the process generates an extremely unpleasant smell, which caused objections from local residents. The area was soon home to the worlds first industrial production facility for gunpowder. There were frequent explosions and loss of life, on 11 March 1758, one of two explosions was felt in Reading, Berkshire, and in April 1774 another explosion terrified people at church in Isleworth. In 1772 three mills blew up, shattering glass and buildings in the neighbourhood, the powder mills remained in operation until 1927 when they were closed. Much of the site is now occupied by Crane Park, in which the old Shot Tower, mill sluices, much of the area along the river next to the Shot Tower is now a nature reserve
2.
Alexander Pope
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Alexander Pope was an 18th-century English poet. He is best known for his verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the second-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations after Shakespeare, Alexander Pope was born to Alexander Pope Senior, a linen merchant of Plough Court, Lombard Street, London, and his wife Edith, who were both Catholics. Ediths sister Christiana was the wife of the miniature painter Samuel Cooper. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, and went to Twyford School in about 1698/99 and he then went to two Catholic schools in London. Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas, in 1700, his family moved to a small estate at Popeswood in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest. This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles of either London or Westminster, Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. He also studied languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, at Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll, was twenty years older than the poet and had many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the ageing playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet and he also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends. From the age of 12, he suffered health problems, such as Potts disease. His tuberculosis infection caused other problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes. He grew to a height of only 1.37 m. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic, although he never married, he had many female friends to whom he wrote witty letters. Allegedly, his lifelong friend Martha Blount was his lover, in May,1709, Popes Pastorals was published in the sixth part of Tonsons Poetical Miscellanies. This brought Pope instant fame, and was followed by An Essay on Criticism, published in May 1711, around 1711, Pope made friends with Tory writers John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Thomas Parnell and John Arbuthnot, who together formed the satirical Scriblerus Club. The aim of the club was to satirise ignorance and pedantry in the form of the fictional scholar Martinus Scriblerus and he also made friends with Whig writers Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. In March 1713, Windsor Forest was published to great acclaim, during Popes friendship with Joseph Addison, he contributed to Addisons play Cato, as well as writing for The Guardian and The Spectator
3.
Middlesex
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Middlesex is a historic county in south-east England. It is now entirely within the wider urbanised area of London and its area is now also mostly within the ceremonial county of Greater London, with small sections in other neighbouring ceremonial counties. It was established in the Anglo-Saxon system from the territory of the Middle Saxons, the largely low-lying county, dominated by clay in its north and alluvium on gravel in its south, was the second smallest county by area in 1831. The City of London was a county in its own right from the 12th century and was able to exert control over Middlesex. Westminster Abbey dominated most of the financial, judicial and ecclesiastical aspects of the county. As London grew into Middlesex, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to expand the city boundaries into the county, in the 18th and 19th centuries the population density was especially high in the southeast of the county, including the East End and West End of London. From 1855 the southeast was administered, with sections of Kent and Surrey, the City of London, and Middlesex, became separate counties for other purposes and Middlesex regained the right to appoint its own sheriff, lost in 1199. In the interwar years suburban London expanded further, with improvement and expansion of public transport, after the Second World War, the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline, with high population growth continuing in the outer parts. Since 1965 various areas called Middlesex have been used for cricket, Middlesex was the former postal county of 25 post towns. The name means territory of the middle Saxons and refers to the origin of its inhabitants. The word is formed from the Anglo-Saxon, i. e. Old English, middel, in an 8th-century charter the region is recorded as Middleseaxon and in 704 it is recorded as Middleseaxan. The Saxons derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known, the seax has a lasting symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex, both of which feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem. Their names, along with those of Sussex and Wessex, contain a remnant of the word Saxon, there were settlements in the area of Middlesex that can be traced back thousands of years before the creation of a county. Middlesex was formerly part of the Kingdom of Essex It was recorded in the Domesday Book as being divided into the six hundreds of Edmonton, Elthorne, Gore, Hounslow, Ossulstone and Spelthorne. The City of London has been self-governing since the century and became a county in its own right. Middlesex also included Westminster, which also had a degree of autonomy. Of the six hundreds, Ossulstone contained the districts closest to the City of London, during the 17th century it was divided into four divisions, which, along with the Liberty of Westminster, largely took over the administrative functions of the hundred. The divisions were named Finsbury, Holborn, Kensington and Tower, the county had parliamentary representation from the 13th century
4.
Grotto
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A grotto is a natural or artificial cave used by humans in both modern times and antiquity, and historically or prehistorically. Naturally occurring grottoes are often small caves near water that are usually flooded or liable to flood at high tide, sometimes, artificial grottoes are used as garden features. The Grotta Azzurra at Capri and the grotto at the villa of Tiberius in the Bay of Naples are examples of popular natural seashore grottoes, the word grotto comes from Italian grotta, Vulgar Latin grupta, and Latin crypta. It is also related by an accident to the word grotesque. The rooms had sunk underground over time, the Romans who discovered this historical monument found it very strange, a sentiment enhanced by the fact that it was uncovered from an underworld source. This led the Romans to give it the name grottesche, or grotesque, grottoes were very popular in Greek and Roman culture. Spring-fed grottoes were a feature of Apollos oracles at Delphi, Corinth, the Hellenistic city of Rhodes was designed with rock-cut artificial grottoes incorporated into the city, made to look natural. According to tradition, Praenestes sacred spring had a native nymph, Tiberius, the Roman emperor, filled his grotto with sculptures to create a sense of mythology, perhaps channeling Polyphemus cave in the Odyssey. The numinous quality of the grotto is still more ancient, in a grotto near Knossos in Crete, Eileithyia was venerated, even farther back in time, the immanence of the divine in a grotto is seen in the sacred caves of Lascaux. The popularity of artificial grottoes introduced Mannerist style to Italian and French gardens of the mid-16th century, two famous grottoes in the Boboli Gardens of Palazzo Pitti were begun by Vasari and completed by Ammanati and Buontalenti between 1583 and 1593. One of these grottoes originally housed the Prisoners of Michelangelo, before Boboli grotto, a garden was laid out by Niccolò Tribolo at the Medici Villa Castello, near Florence. At Pratolino, in spite of the dryness of the site, there was a Grotto of Cupid, with water tricks for the unsuspecting visitor. The Fonte di Fata Morgana at Grassina, not far from Florence, is a garden building. It is decorated with sculptures in the Giambolognan manner, the outside of garden grottoes are often designed to look like an enormous rock, a rustic porch or a rocky overhang. Damp grottoes were cool places to retreat from the Italian sun, in Kuskovo at the Sheremetev estate there is a Summer Grotto, built in 1775. Grottoes could also serve as baths, an example of this is at the Palazzo del Te, in the Casino della Grotta, courtiers once bathed in the small cascade that splashed over the pebbles and shells encrusted in the floor and walls. Grottoes have also served as chapels, or at Villa Farnese at Caprarola and they were often combined with cascading fountains in Renaissance gardens. The grotto designed by Bernard Palissy for Catherine de Medicis château in Paris, there are also grottoes in the gardens designed by André Le Nôtre for Versailles
5.
Tudor Revival architecture
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It later became an influence in some other countries, especially the British colonies. For example, in New Zealand, the architect Francis Petre adapted the style for the local climate, elsewhere in Singapore, then a British colony, architects such as R. A. J. Bidwell pioneered what became known as the Black and White House. The earliest examples of the style originate with the works of such eminent architects as Norman Shaw and George Devey and this was generally modelled on the grand prodigy houses built by the courtiers of Elizabeth I and James VI. It was associated with the Arts and Crafts Movement, outside North America, Tudorbethan is also used synonymously with Tudor revival and mock Tudor. The emphasis was on the simple, rustic, and the less impressive aspects of Tudor architecture, the Tudor revival style was a reaction to the ornate Victorian Gothic revival of the second half of the 19th century. Confusingly, it was promptly named Queen Anne style, when in reality it combined a revival of Elizabethan and Jacobean design details including mullioned. The style later began to incorporate the classic pre-Georgian features that are understood to represent Queen Anne in Britain. The term Queen Anne for this style of architecture tends to be commonly used in the USA than in Britain. In the USA it evolved into a form of architecture not instantly recognisable as that constructed in either the Tudor or Queen Anne period, in Britain the style remained closer to its Tudor roots. Large and small houses alike with half-timbering in their upper storeys and gables were completed with tall ornamental chimneys and it was here that the influences of the arts and crafts movement became apparent. However, Tudor Revival cannot really be likened to the structures of the originals. An example of this is the cottage style of Ascott House in Buckinghamshire. This was designed by Devey for the Rothschild family, who were among the earliest patrons, the Tudor revival, though, now concentrated on the picturesque. A very well known example of the idealised half-timbered style is Liberty & Co. department store in London, the store specialised, among other goods, in fabrics and furnishings by the leading designers of the Arts and Crafts movement. In the early part of the century, one of the exponents who developed the style further was Edwin Lutyens and this is Tudorbethan at its best, free in ground plan, stripped of cuteness, yet warmly vernacular in effect, familiar though new, eminently liveable. An example of Tudorbethan architecture was seen at Greaves Hall. Many of the features of the building could still be seen until it was demolished in 2009. Later came Mackey Hugh Baillie Scott and Blair Imrie who made their names as Tudor style architects, Lutyens though took the style away from what is generally understood as Tudor revival creating a further highly personalised style of his own
6.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
7.
Historic England
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Historic England is an executive non-departmental public body of the British Government sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. It is tasked with protecting the environment of England by preserving and listing historic buildings, ancient monuments. The body was created by the National Heritage Act 1983. Historic England has a remit to and complements the work of Natural England which aims to protect the natural environment. Historic England inherits English Heritages position as the UK governments statutory adviser and this includes archaeology on land and under water, historic buildings sites and areas, designated landscapes and the historic elements of the wider landscape. It monitors and reports on the state of Englands heritage and publishes the annual the Heritage at Risk survey which is one of the UK Governments Official statistics and it is tasked to secure the preservation and enhancement of the man-made heritage of England for the benefit of future generations. Giving grants national and local organisations for the conservation of buildings, monuments. In 2013/14 over £13 million worth of grants were made to support heritage buildings, advising central UK government on which English heritage assets are nationally important and should be protected by designation. Administering and maintaining the register of Englands listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered battlefields, conservation areas and protected parks and this is published as an online resource as The National Heritage List for England. Advising local authorities on managing changes to the most important parts of heritage, providing expertise through advice, training and guidance to improve the standards and skills of people working in heritage, practical conservation and access to resources. In 2009–2010 it trained around 200 professionals working in local authorities, consulting and collaborating with other heritage bodies, local and national planning organisations e. g. It is not responsible for approving alterations to listed buildings, the management of listed buildings is the responsibility of local planning authorities and the Department for Communities and Local Government. It also owns the National Heritage Collection of nationally important historic sites, however they do not run these sites as this function is instead carried out by the English Heritage Trust under licence until 2023. Britain from Above, presents the unique Aerofilms collection of photographs from 1919-1953. Images of England website Heritage Explorer, Education site for teachers Department for Culture Media and Sport
8.
Samuel Scott (painter)
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Samuel Scott was a British landscape painter known for his riverside scenes and seascapes. Scott was born in London, and began painting in around 1720 and he started as a maritime artist, painting men-of-war and other ships on calm seas in the style of Willem van de Velde, many of whose drawings he owned. He also painted a set of six pictures of settlements owned by the East India Company in collaboration with George Lambert, Scott painted the ships, Lambert the buildings and landscape. Writing in 1733, George Vertue included Scott among Londons most elevated men in art, from 27–31 May 1732 he made a celebrated Five days Peregrination to the Isle of Sheppey in company with William Hogarth and others. An account of their trip was written by Ebenezer Forrest and published in 1782, illustrated with drawings by Hogarth and he painted at least eleven versions of a view of Old London Bridge, the earliest dating from 1747. Scott continued to paint copies of it after 1757, when the lining the bridge. The London Bridge pictures were painted as one of a pair. Between 1761 and 1771 he exhibited three works at the Society of Artists, one at the Free Society of artists, and one, A View of the Tower of London, at the Royal Academy in 1771. He was one of the early draughtsmen in watercolours, and was called the father of English watercolour, some of Scotts most celebrated paintings were his depictions of scenes during the War of Jenkins Ear. Scott earned a reputation for his shore and river scenes, which were well-drawn and painted. Horace Walpole, who had a collection of his works, said that they will charm in every age. His views of London Bridge, the Custom-house Quay, and other pictures of the Thames earned him the name the English Canaletto, Scott lived at number 2 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, overlooking the Piazza at Covent Garden, from 1747 to 1758. He moved to Twickenham in 1758, and then to Ludlow, where his daughter was living, before retiring to Bath and his collection of drawings, prints etc. was sold by Langford in January 1773. William Marlow and the animal painter Sawrey Gilpin were his pupils, references Sources Manners and Morals, Hogarth and British Painting1700–1760. Action Action of Cartagena,1708 Samuel Scott online Peter Monamy & Samuel Scott Scott biography + paintings Sotts paintings A view of Covent garden Piazza The building of Westminster Bridge
9.
J. M. W. Turner
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Joseph Mallord William Turner, RA was an English Romanticist landscape painter. Turner was considered a figure in his day, but is now regarded as the artist who elevated landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting. Although renowned for his oil paintings, Turner is also one of the greatest masters of British watercolour landscape painting and he is commonly known as the painter of light. Joseph Mallord William Turner was baptised on 14 May 1775, and it is generally believed he was born between late April and early May. Turner himself claimed he was born on 23 April, but there is no proof and he was born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, in London, England. His father, William Turner, was a barber and wig maker and his mother, Mary Marshall, came from a family of butchers. A younger sister, Mary Ann, was born in September 1778, the earliest known artistic exercise by Turner is from this period—a series of simple colourings of engraved plates from Henry Boswells Picturesque View of the Antiquities of England and Wales. Around 1786, Turner was sent to Margate on the north-east Kent coast, here he produced a series of drawings of the town and surrounding area foreshadowing his later work. Turner returned to Margate many times in later life, by this time, Turners drawings were being exhibited in his fathers shop window and sold for a few shillings. His father boasted to the artist Thomas Stothard that, My son, in 1789, Turner again stayed with his uncle who had retired to Sunningwell in Berkshire. A whole sketchbook of work from time in Berkshire survives as well as a watercolour of Oxford. The use of sketches on location, as the foundation for later finished paintings. By the end of 1789, he had begun to study under the topographical draughtsman Thomas Malton. Turner learned from him the tricks of the trade, copying and colouring outline prints of British castles. He would later call Malton My real master, topography was a thriving industry by which a young artist could pay for his studies. In the same year of 1789 he entered the Royal Academy of Art schools, when he was 14 years old, Sir Joshua Reynolds, president of the Royal Academy, chaired the panel that admitted him. At first Turner showed a keen interest in architecture, but was advised by the architect Thomas Hardwick to continue painting and his first watercolour painting A View of the Archbishops Palace, Lambeth was accepted for the Royal Academy summer exhibition of 1790 when Turner was 15. As a probationer in the academy, he was drawing from plaster casts of antique sculptures
10.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
11.
James Gibbs
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James Gibbs was one of Britains most influential architects. Born in Scotland, he trained as an architect in Rome and he is an important figure whose work spanned the transition between English Baroque architecture and a Georgian architecture heavily influenced by Andrea Palladio. Among his most important works are St Martin-in-the-Fields, in London, the Palladians were largely Whigs, led by Lord Burlington and Colen Campbell, a fellow Scot who developed a rivalry with Gibbs. Gibbs professional Italian training under the Baroque master Carlo Fontana also set him apart from the Palladian school. The naming of the Gibbs surround for doors and windows, which he certainly did not invent, overall, Gibbs was an individual who formed his own style independently of current fashions. Architectural historian John Summerson describes his work as the fulfilment of Wrens architectural ideas, despite the influence of his books, Gibbs, as a stylistic outsider, had little effect on the later direction of British architecture, which saw the rise of Neoclassicism shortly after his death. He was educated at Aberdeen Grammar School and Marischal College, after the death of his parents he went in 1700 to stay with relatives in Holland. He later travelled through Europe, visiting Flanders, France, Switzerland, some time after he left for Rome travelling via France. On 12 October 1703 he registered as a student at The Scots College and he would have been studying for the Catholic priesthood but had second thoughts. By the end of 1704 he was studying architecture under Carlo Fontana, he was taught by Pietro Francesco Garroli. While in Rome Gibbs met John Perceval, 1st Earl of Egmont who attempted to persuade him to move to Ireland. He moved to London in November 1708, his return to Britain was probably due to the illness of his half-brother William. Still intending to take up the offer of work in Ireland, he had befriended by John Erskine. The Earl persuaded Gibbs to remain in London, offering him his first commission, around this time he met Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, who would be a powerful patron and friend and James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos. Gibbs was one of the sixty members of Godfrey Knellers Academy of Painting. On 18 December 1716 Gibbs joined the Vandykes clubb, also called the Club of St Luke for Virtuosi in London, in 1720 Gibbs was invited along with other architects to enter a competition to design a new church to replace the dilapidated church of St Martin-in-the-Fields. He won, and on 24 November 1720 he was appointed architect of the new church, horace Walpole described Gibbs as being around 1720 as the architect most in vogue. In 1720 Gibbs was approached by the Provost of Kings College, Cambridge to complete the college, the scheme consisted of three buildings, all 53 feet high, forming a courtyard 240 by 282 feet to the south of the Chapel
12.
Palladian architecture
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Palladian architecture is a European style of architecture derived from and inspired by the designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio. That which is recognised as Palladian architecture today is an evolution of Palladios original concepts, Palladios work was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 17th century Palladios interpretation of classical architecture was adapted as the style known as Palladianism. It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century, Palladianism became popular briefly in Britain during the mid-17th century, but its flowering was cut short by the onset of the Civil War and the imposition of austerity which followed. In the early 18th century it returned to fashion, not only in England but also, the style continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where it was frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings. However, as a style it has continued to be popular and to evolve, its pediments, symmetry. Buildings entirely designed by Palladio are all in Venice and the Veneto, with an especially rich grouping of palazzi in Vicenza and they include villas, and churches such as Redentore in Venice. Palladio always designed his villas with reference to their setting, if on a hill, such as Villa Capra, facades were frequently designed to be of equal value so that occupants could have fine views in all directions. Also, in cases, porticos were built on all sides so that occupants could fully appreciate the countryside while being protected from the sun. Palladio sometimes used a loggia as an alternative to the portico and this can most simply be described as a recessed portico, or an internal single storey room, with pierced walls that are open to the elements. Occasionally a loggia would be placed at floor level over the top of a loggia below. Loggias were sometimes given significance in a facade by being surmounted by a pediment, Villa Godi has as its focal point a loggia rather than a portico, plus loggias terminating each end of the main building. Palladio would often model his villa elevations on Roman temple facades, the temple influence, often in a cruciform design, later became a trademark of his work. Palladian villas are built with three floors, a rusticated basement or ground floor, containing the service and minor rooms. The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3,4 and 4,5, earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical facade, however, Palladios designs related to the whole, usually square, villa. Palladio deeply considered the purpose of his villas as both farmhouses and palatial weekend retreats for wealthy merchant owners. These symmetrical temple-like houses often have symmetrical, but low, wings sweeping away from them to accommodate horses, farm animals. The wings, sometimes detached and connected to the villa by colonnades, were designed not only to be functional but also to complement, the Palladian, Serlian, or Venetian window features largely in Palladios work and is almost a trademark of his early career
13.
William Kent
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William Kent was an eminent English architect, landscape architect and furniture designer of the early 18th century. As a landscape gardener he revolutionised the layout of estates, but had limited knowledge of horticulture and he complemented his houses and gardens with stately furniture for major buildings including Hampton Court Palace, Chiswick House, Devonshire House and Rousham. Kent was born in Bridlington, Yorkshire, and baptised, on 1 January 1686, Kents career began as a sign and coach painter who was encouraged to study art, design and architecture by his employer. A group of Yorkshire gentlemen sent Kent for a period of study in Rome, by 18 November he was in Florence, staying there until April 1710 before finally setting off for Rome. In 1713 he was awarded the medal in the second class for painting in the annual competition run by the Accademia di San Luca for his painting of A Miracle of S. Andrea Avellino. During his stay in Rome, he painted the ceiling of the church of San Giuliano dei Fiamminghi with the Apotheosis of St. Julian, the most significant meeting was between Kent and Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. Kent started practising as a relatively late, in the 1730s. He is better remembered as an architect of the revived Palladian style in England, Burlington gave him the task of editing The Designs of Inigo Jones. With some additional designs in the Palladian/Jonesian taste by Burlington and Kent and these neo-antique buildings were inspired as much by the architecture of Raphael and Giulio Romano as by Palladio. Walpoles son Horace described Kent as below mediocrity as a painter, a restorer of science as an architect, a theatrically Baroque staircase and parade rooms in London, at 44 Berkeley Square, are also notable. Kents domed pavilions were erected at Badminton House and at Euston Hall, Kent could provide sympathetic Gothic designs, free of serious antiquarian tendencies, when the context called, he worked on the Gothic screens in Westminster Hall and Gloucester Cathedral. When Kent died, the work was completed by Stephen Wright, as a landscape designer, Kent was one of the originators of the English landscape garden, a style of natural gardening that revolutionised the laying out of gardens and estates. Smaller Kent works can be found at Shotover Park, Oxfordshire, including a faux Gothic eyecatcher and his all-but-lost gardens at Claremont, Surrey, have recently been restored. It is often said that he was not above planting dead trees to create the mood he required. Kents only real downfall was said to be his lack of knowledge and technical skill. Claremont, Stowe, and Rousham are places where their joint efforts can be viewed, Stowe and Rousham are Kents most famous works. At the latter, Kent elaborated on Bridgemans 1720s design for the property, adding walls, at Stowe, Kent used his Italian experience, particularly with the Palladian Bridge. At both sites Kent incorporated his naturalistic approach, the royal barge he designed for Frederick, Prince of Wales can still be seen at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich
14.
Corps de logis
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Corps de logis is an architectural term referring to the principal block of a large, usually classical, mansion or palace. It contains the rooms, state apartments and an entry. The grandest and finest rooms are often on the first floor above the ground level, the corps de logis is usually flanked by lower secondary wings. When the secondary wings form a three sided courtyard, the courtyard is known as the Cour dHonneur, examples of a corps de logis can be found in many of the most notable Classical Era buildings of Europe including the Palace of Versailles, Blenheim Palace and the Palazzo Pitti. In France, the block of medieval castles and manor houses is often referred to as the corps de logis
15.
Ashlar
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Ashlar is finely dressed masonry, either an individual stone that has been worked until squared or the masonry built of such stone. It is the finest stone masonry unit, generally cuboid, mentioned by Vitruvius as opus isodomum, one such decorative treatment consists of small grooves achieved by the application of a metal comb. Generally used only on softer stone ashlar, this decoration is known as masons drag, ashlar is in contrast to rubble masonry, which employs irregularly shaped stones, although sometimes minimally worked or selected for similar size, or both. Ashlar is related but distinct from other stone masonry that is finely dressed but not quadrilateral, such as curvilinear masonry, ashlar may be coursed, which involves lengthy horizontal courses of stone blocks laid in parallel, and therefore with continuous horizontal joints. Ashlar may also be random, which involves stone blocks laid with deliberately discontinuous courses, in either case, it generally uses a joining material such as mortar to bind the blocks together, although dry ashlar construction, metal ties, and other methods of assembly have been used. The dry ashlar of Inca architecture in Cusco and Machu Picchu is particularly fine, the word is attested in Middle English and derives from Old French aisselier, from Latin axilla, diminutive of axis, plank. Ashlar blocks have been used in the construction of buildings as an alternative to brick or other materials. In classical architecture, ashlar wall surfaces were contrasted with rustication. The term is used to describe the dressed stone work of prehistoric Greece and Crete. For example, the tombs of Bronze Age Mycenae use ashlar masonry in the construction of the so-called beehive dome. This dome consists of finely cut ashlar blocks that decrease in size and these domes are not true domes, but are constructed using the corbel arch. Ashlar masonry was also used in the construction of palace facades on Crete. These constructions date to the MM III-LM Ib period, ca, in modern European masonry the blocks are generally about 35 centimetres in height. When shorter than 30 centimetres, they are called small ashlar. In some Masonic groupings, which such societies term jurisdictions, ashlars are used as a metaphor for how ones personal development relates to the tenets of their lodge. Ablaq Dimension stone Opus quadratum Rustication Stone cladding Stone veneer
16.
Quoin
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Quoins are masonry blocks at the corner of a wall. Stone quoins are used on stone or brick buildings, brick quoins may appear on brick buildings that extrude from the facing brickwork in such a way as to give the appearance of uniformly cut blocks of stone larger than the bricks. Where quoins are used for decoration and not for load-bearing, they may be made from a variety of materials beyond brick, stone or concrete, extending to timber. This forms a long-side, short-side alternate pattern, which by using the same size blocks alternates when the viewer passes the corner and this can be called the alternate, horizontal quoining technique. The long and short quoining method instead places long stone blocks with their lengths oriented vertically and this load bearing quoining is common in Anglo-Saxon buildings such as that of St Benets Church in Cambridge, England
17.
Voussoir
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A voussoir /vuˈswɑːr/ is a wedge-shaped element, typically a stone, used in building an arch or vault. Although each unit in an arch or vault is a voussoir, the keystone is the center stone or masonry unit at the apex of an arch. The springer is the lowest voussoir on each side, located where the curve of the springs from the vertical support or abutment of the wall or pier. The keystone is decorated or enlarged. The word is a term borrowed in Middle English from French verbs connoting a turn. Each wedge-shaped voussoir turns aside the thrust of the mass above, transferring it from stone to stone to the bottom face. Voussoir arches distribute weight efficiently and take advantage of the compressive strength of stone. In Visigothic and Moorish architecture, the voussoirs are often in alternating colors, usually red and this is sometimes found in Romanesque architecture also. The bricks used in such an arch are referred to as voussoirs
18.
Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington
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Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork, KG PC, born in Yorkshire, England, was the son of the 2nd Earl of Burlington and 3rd Earl of Cork and Juliana Noel. He is remembered for bringing Palladian architecture to Britain and Ireland and his major projects include Burlington House, Westminster School, Chiswick House and Northwick Park. Lord Burlington was born in Yorkshire into a wealthy Anglo-Irish aristocratic family, often known as the architect Earl, he was instrumental in the revival of Palladian architecture in both Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland. He succeeded to his titles and extensive estates in Yorkshire and Ireland at the age of nine, during his minority, which lasted until 1715, his English and Irish lands and political interests were managed on his behalf by his mother and guardian, the dowager countess Juliana. He showed a love of music. Georg Frideric Handel dedicated two operas to him, while staying at Burlington House, Teseo and Amadigi di Gaula, three foreign Grand Tours 1714 –1719 and a further trip to Paris in 1726 gave him opportunities to develop his taste. His professional skill as an architect was extraordinary in an English aristocrat and he carried his copy of Andrea Palladios book I quattro libri dellarchitettura with him in touring the Veneto in 1719, and made notes on a small number of blank pages. In 1719 he was one of main subscribers in the Royal Academy of Music, Burlington never closely inspected Roman ruins or made detailed drawings on the sites, he relied on Palladio and Scamozzi as his interpreters of the classic tradition. With Some Additional Designs that were by Kent and Burlington, the important role of Jones pupil Webb in transmitting the palladian—neo-palladian heritage was not understood until the 20th century. Burlingtons Palladio drawings include many reconstructions after Vitruvius of Roman buildings, in the meantime, in 1723 he adapted the palazzo facade in the illustration for the London house of General Wade in Old Burlington Street, which was engraved for Vitruvius Britannicus iii. The process put a previously unknown Palladio design into circulation, the courtyard front of Burlington House, prominently sited in Piccadilly, was the first major executed statement of neo-Palladianism. By the early 1730s Palladian style had triumphed as the accepted manner for a British country house or public building. For the rest of his life Burlington was the Apollo of the arts as Horace Walpole phrased it—, in 1739, Lord Burlington was involved in the founding of a new charitable organisation called the Foundling Hospital. Burlington was a governor of the charity, but did not formally take part in planning the construction of this large Bloomsbury childrens home completed in 1742, architect for the building was a Theodore Jacobsen, who took on the commission as an act of charity. Many of Burlingtons projects have suffered, from rebuilding or additions, from fire, brettinghams engraved publication of Holkham credited Burlington specifically with ceilings for the portico and the north dressing-room. Burlingtons architectural drawings, inherited by his son-in-law the Duke of Devonshire, are preserved at Chatsworth, in 1751 he sent some of his drawings to Francesco Algarotti in Potsdam together with a book on Vitruvius. In the original house, the corner pavilion blocks of Inigo Jones Wilton were provided with the Palladian window motif to be seen at Burlington House. Old Burlington Street, London, houses, including one for General Wade,1723, General Wades house adapted the genuine Palladio facade in Burlingtons collection of drawings
19.
Salix babylonica
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Salix babylonica is a species of willow native to dry areas of northern China, but cultivated for millennia elsewhere in Asia, being traded along the Silk Road to southwest Asia and Europe. Salix babylonica is a medium- to large-sized deciduous tree, growing up to 20–25 m tall and it grows rapidly, but has a short lifespan, between 40 and 75 years. The shoots are yellowish-brown, with small buds, the leaves are alternate and spirally arranged, narrow, light green, 4–16 cm long and 0. 5–2 cm broad, with finely serrate margins and long acuminate tips, they turn a gold-yellow in autumn. The flowers are arranged in catkins produced early in the spring, it is dioecious and these distinctive trees were subsequently introduced into England from Aleppo in northern Syria in 1730. These plants are all females, readily propagated vegetatively, and capable of hybridizing with other kinds of willows. Of these possibilities, S. × fragilis is itself a hybrid, with S. alba, Salix × sepulcralis, is a hybrid between S. alba and S. babylonica. Cultivars derived from either of these hybrids are generally better adapted than S. babylonica to the more humid climates of most heavily populated regions of Europe and North America. A similar willow species also native to northern China, Salix matsudana, is now included in Salix babylonica as a synonym by many botanists, including the Russian willow expert Alexey Skvortsov. In the more humid climates of much of Europe and eastern North America, it is susceptible to a disease, willow anthracnose. Salix babylonica has many cultivars, including, Babylon is the most widely grown cultivar of S. babylonica, crispa is a mutant of Babylon, with spirally curled leaves. Tortuosa is a tree with twisted and contorted branches. Yet other weeping willow cultivars are derived from interspecific Salix hybrids, the most widely grown weeping willow cultivar is Salix × sepulcralis Chrysocoma, with bright yellowish branchlets. In salicibus in medio ejus suspendimus organa nostra, here, salicibus is the dative plural of the Latin noun salix, the willows, used by Linnaeus as the name for the willow genus Salix. From the King James Version, By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept and we hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof. From the Revised Standard Version, By the waters of Babylon, there we sat down and wept, both Populus and Salix are in the plant family Salicaceae, the willow family. Flora of China, eFloras, Salix babylonica,4, p.186
20.
Peter Tillemans
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Peter Tillemans was a Flemish painter, best known for his works on sporting and topographical subjects. Alongside John Wootton and James Seymour, he was one of the founders of the English school of sporting painting, from 1708 until his death he lived and worked in England. Tillemans was born in Antwerp in c,1684, the son of a diamond-cutter, and studied painting there under various masters. As he was the brother-in-law of another Flemish painter, Pieter Casteels, like other artists from the Low Countries such as Dirk Maas, Jan Wyck and Willem van de Velde the Younger, Tillemans moved to England. In Tillemanss case he moved in 1708, induced to do so by a picture-dealer called Turner, in his Sportsmen in a Landscape, Aubrey Noakes offers this description of Tillemans, If we may judge from his success Tillemans was a socially agreeable and charming man. A chronic sufferer of asthma, Tillemans retired to Richmond on account of his ill state of health and he died at the house of Dr Cox Macro in Little Haugh Hall, in Suffolk, on 5 December 1734 and was buried on 7 December at Stowlangtoft. Dr Macro had a bust of Tillemans made by John Michael Rysbrack, a portrait of the artist, engraved by T. Chambers, from a painting by Hissings, is given in Fuselis 1805 revised edition of Rev. Matthew Pilkingtons A Dictionary of Painters. He enjoyed much success imitating the style and execution of David Teniers, Tillemans worked in many different styles and rarely dated his work. By 1711 Tillemans joined Godfrey Knellers Academy of Painting and Drawing in Great Queen Street, London and his main residence was in Westminster but he travelled extensively on commission. In 1716 Tillemans repainted part of a portrait of Dr Macro by Frans van Mieris from around 1703 and that year he also painted Dr Macro in the background of The Artists Studio, a self-portrait, with a pupil and Dr Cox Macro, surrounded in the studio by paintings. In 1717, his piece of the royal family making music was shown at the Bartholomew fair. His other patrons included the Duke of Devonshire, the 4th Baron Byron, the greater part of Tillemanss oeuvre was painted from approximately 1720 onwards, and it is from the works painted over these years that he chiefly derives his fame. The development of painting on sporting themes was centred on the Newmarket Racecourse in the town of Newmarket in Suffolk. Because both Wootton and Tillemans omitted to sign many of their works, some of them are difficult to tell apart, Tillemanss Newmarket, the Long Course is in the Government Art Collection. Patteson had inherited many of Tillemanss paintings by his marriage into Dr Macros family, tilleman painted numerous portraits of racehorses for his patrons, among whom were the Dukes of Somerset, Rutland, and Bolton, and the Earl of Portmore. According to Sir Walter Gilbey in his Animal Painters of England From the Year 1650, A brief history of their lives and works, lloyds, from a set of three pictures descriptive of Newmarket Horse Races, enable us to measure Tillemans talent as a horse painter. In 1724, Tillemans worked with Joseph Goupy on scenery for the Haymarket opera house, Tillemans was also a member of the Rose and Crown Club, and in 1725 was recorded by George Vertue as steward to the Society of the Virtuosi of St Luke. Vertue noted that Tillemans was acquainted with people of Fashion & persons of Quality and was in demand as a painter of country-house and his country house paintings include Chatsworth House, Holker Hall, and Chirk Castle in Denbighshire
21.
Avon Gorge
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The Avon Gorge is a 1. 5-mile long gorge on the River Avon in Bristol, England. The gorge runs south to north through a limestone ridge 1.5 miles west of Bristol city centre, the gorge forms the boundary between the unitary authorities of North Somerset and Bristol, with the boundary running along the south bank. As Bristol was an important port, the gorge formed a gateway to the city. On the east of the gorge is the Bristol suburb of Clifton, and The Downs, to the west of the gorge is Leigh Woods, the name of both a village and the National Trust forest it is situated in. There are three Iron Age hill forts overlooking the gorge, as well as an observatory, the Clifton Suspension Bridge, an icon of Bristol, crosses the gorge. The gorge cuts through a ridge mainly of limestone, with some sandstone and this particular ridge runs from Clifton to Clevedon,10 miles away on the Bristol Channel coast, although limestone is found throughout the Bristol area. The fossil shells and corals indicate that the formed in shallow tropical seas in the Carboniferous,350 million years ago. For a long time it was unclear what caused the Avon to cut through the limestone ridge, rather than run south west through the Ashton Vale towards Weston-super-Mare. However, Bristol was at the edge of glaciation during the last ice age. At the Clifton Suspension Bridge the Gorge is more than 700 feet wide and 300 feet deep, in the 18th century the gorge was quarried to produce building stone for the city. Stone was taken by boat into the floating harbour, in the 19th century celestine was discovered in Leigh Court estate and the Miles family authorised quarrying. Between 1880 and 1920 Bristol was producing 90% of the worlds Celestine, Bristol Diamonds, brilliant quartz crystals found in geodes in dolomitic conglomerate in the gorge, were popular souvenirs for visitors to the Hotwells spa in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Quarries on the Bristol side of the gorge are now popular with climbers and are a habitat for Peregrine falcons, the steep walls of the gorge support some rare fauna and flora, including species unique to the gorge. There are a total of 24 rare plant species and two trees, the Bristol and Wilmottss whitebeams. Other notable plants include Bristol rock cress, Bristol onion, spiked speedwell, Autumn squill, because of its steep sides, there are many parts of the gorge on which trees cannot grow, making way for smaller plants. The gorge is home to rare invertebrate species. The gorge has a microclimate around 1 degree warmer than the surrounding land, the steep south-west facing sides receive the afternoon sunlight, but are partially sheltered from the prevailing winds. When winds come from the Bristol Channel in the north west they may be funnelled into the gorge, creating harsh, the steep gorge walls make an ideal habitat for peregrine falcons, with a plentiful supply of food nearby in the form of pigeons and sea gulls
22.
Ammonoidea
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Ammonoids are an extinct group of marine mollusc animals in the subclass Ammonoidea of the class Cephalopoda. These molluscs are more related to living coleoids than they are to shelled nautiloids such as the living Nautilus species. The earliest ammonites appear during the Devonian, and the last species died out during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, Ammonites are excellent index fossils, and it is often possible to link the rock layer in which a particular species or genus is found to specific geologic time periods. Their fossil shells usually take the form of planispirals, although there were some helically spiraled and nonspiraled forms, the name ammonite, from which the scientific term is derived, was inspired by the spiral shape of their fossilized shells, which somewhat resemble tightly coiled rams horns. Pliny the Elder called fossils of these animals ammonis cornua because the Egyptian god Ammon was typically depicted wearing rams horns, often the name of an ammonite genus ends in -ceras, which is Greek for horn. The topology of the septa, especially around the rim, results in the various suture patterns found, three major types of suture patterns are found in the Ammonoidea, Goniatitic - numerous undivided lobes and saddles, typically 8 lobes around the conch. This pattern is characteristic of the Paleozoic ammonoids, ceratitic - lobes have subdivided tips, giving them a saw-toothed appearance, and rounded undivided saddles. This suture pattern is characteristic of Triassic ammonoids and appears again in the Cretaceous pseudoceratites, ammonitic - lobes and saddles are much subdivided, subdivisions are usually rounded instead of saw-toothed. Ammonoids of this type are the most important species from a point of view. This suture type is characteristic of Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonoids, the siphuncle in most ammonoids by far is a narrow tubular structure that runs along the outer rim, known as the venter, connecting the chambers of the phragmocone to the body or living chamber. This distinguishes them from living nautiloides and typical Nautilida, the word siphuncle comes from the New Latin siphunculus, meaning little siphon. Originating from within the bactritoid nautiloids, the ammonoid cephalopods first appeared in the Devonian, while nearly all nautiloids show gently curving sutures, the ammonoid suture line is variably folded, forming saddles and lobes. In subsequent taxonomies, these are regarded as orders within the subclass Ammonoidea. Because ammonites and their relatives are extinct, little is known about their way of life. Their soft body parts are rarely preserved in any detail. Nonetheless, much has been worked out by examining ammonoid shells, synchrotron analysis of an aptychophoran ammonite revealed remains of isopod and mollusc larvae in its buccal cavity, indicating at least this kind of ammonite fed on plankton. They may have avoided predation by squirting ink, much like modern cephalopods, the soft body of the creature occupied the largest segments of the shell at the end of the coil. The smaller earlier segments were walled off and the animal could maintain its buoyancy by filling them with gas, thus, the smaller sections of the coil would have floated above the larger sections
23.
Stalactite
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A stalactite is a type of formation that hangs from the ceiling of caves, hot springs, or manmade structures such as bridges and mines. Any material which is soluble, can be deposited as a colloid, or is in suspension, or is capable of being melted, Stalactites may be composed of amberat, lava, minerals, mud, peat, pitch, sand, and sinter. A stalactite is not necessarily a speleothem, though speleothems are the most common form of stalactite because of the abundance of limestone caves, the corresponding formation on the floor of the cave is known as a stalagmite. The most common stalactites are speleothems, which occur in limestone caves and they form through deposition of calcium carbonate and other minerals, which is precipitated from mineralized water solutions. Limestone is the form of calcium carbonate rock which is dissolved by water that contains carbon dioxide. When the solution comes into contact with air the chemical reaction that created it is reversed, the reversed reaction is, Ca 2 → CaCO3 + H 2O + CO2 An average growth rate is 0.13 mm a year. The quickest growing stalactites are formed by a constant supply of slow dripping water rich in calcium carbonate and carbon dioxide. The drip rate must be enough to allow the CO2 to degas from the solution into the cave atmosphere. Too fast a drip rate and the solution, still carrying most of the CaCO3, falls to the floor where degassing occurs. All limestone stalactites begin with a single drop of water. When the drop falls, it deposits the thinnest ring of calcite, each subsequent drop that forms and falls deposits another calcite ring. Eventually, these form a very narrow, hollow tube commonly known as a soda straw stalactite. Soda straws can grow long, but are very fragile. If they become plugged by debris, water flowing over the outside, depositing more calcite. The same water drops that fall from the tip of a stalactite deposit more calcite on the floor below, unlike stalactites, stalagmites never start out as hollow soda straws. Given enough time, these formations can meet and fuse to create pillars of calcium carbonate known as a column, another type of stalactite is formed in lava tubes while lava is still active inside. The mechanism of formation is similar to that of limestone stalactites, a key difference with lava stalactites is that once the lava has ceased flowing, so too will the stalactites cease to grow. This means that if the stalactite were to be broken it would never grow back, the generic term lavacicle has been applied to lava stalactites and stalagmites indiscriminately and evolved from the word icicle
24.
William Borlase
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William Borlase, Cornish antiquary, geologist and naturalist. From 1722 he was Rector of Ludgvan, Cornwall, where he died and he was a contemporary of John Wesley and attempted to enter him into the Royal Navy by compulsion, but relented when he realised Wesley was a gentleman. Borlase was born on 2 February 1695/6 at Pendeen, of an ancient family originating at St Wenn and he was educated at Exeter College, Oxford from 1713, and in 1719 he was ordained. In 1722 he was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan, and in 1732 he obtained in addition the vicarage of St Just, between 1744 and 1746, Borlase was active against the Methodist preachers in his capacity of magistrate. Various Methodist preachers were seized on warrants issued by him and press-ganged to serve on ships abroad, in John Wesleys Diary there is an account of how he personally laid hands on Wesley, to serve his majesty, but withdrew when he realised that Wesley was a gentleman. In 1750, he was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society and his next publication was Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of Scilly, and their Importance to the Trade of Great Britain. In 1758 appeared his Natural History of Cornwall which includes a chapter on the inhabitants and he also sent collections of mineral and fossil specimens to Dr William Oliver and to a number of natural historians in Europe. In 1724 William Borlase married Anne Smith, the couple had six sons, of whom two died in infancy. Of the remaining four, three became churchmen, borlases elder brother was Walter Borlase, who served as vicar of Madron, and also as mayor of Penzance. His great-great-grandson was William Copeland Borlase, an antiquarian who was influenced by his ancestors archaeological work, Borlase was a conscientious minister to his parishioners, politically conservative, and an amateur painter. Some of his papers are preserved in Penzance at the Morrab Library, Borlase, William The Antiquities of Cornwall. London, E & W Books,1973, reprint of the 2d ed. printed in 1769 by W. Bowyer and J. Nichols, for S. Baker & G. Leigh, T. Payne, B. ISBN 0-85409-852-6 Borlase, William Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of Scilly, Oxford, W. Jackson Borlase, William Natural History of Cornwall. Oxford, printed for the author, by W. Jackson, sold by W. Sandby, at the Ship in Fleet-Street London, pool, P. A. S. William Borlase, 1696-1772. Pool, P. A. S. William Borlase
25.
Hans Sloane
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His name was later used for streets and places such as Hans Place, Hans Crescent and Sloane Square in London, and also to Sir Hans Sloane Square in his birthplace, Killyleagh. Sloane was born on 16 April 1660 at Killyleagh in County Down and he was the seventh son of Alexander Sloane, agent for James Hamilton, second Viscount Claneboye and later first Earl of Clanbrassil. Sloanes family had migrated from Ayrshire in Scotland, but settled in the north of Ireland under James I and his father died when he was six years old. As a youth, Sloane collected objects of natural history and other curiosities and this led him to the study of medicine, which he went to London, where he studied botany, materia medica, surgery and pharmacy. His collecting habits made him useful to John Ray and Robert Boyle, after four years in London he travelled through France, spending some time at Paris and Montpellier, and stayed long enough at the University of Orange-Nassau to take his MD degree there in 1683. He returned to London with a collection of plants and other curiosities, of which the former were sent to Ray. Sloane was elected to the Royal Society in 1685, at the same time attracted the notice of Thomas Sydenham, who gave him valuable introductions to practice. Jamaica was fast emerging as a source of profit to British merchants based on the cultivation of sugar. He became secretary to the Royal Society in 1693, and edited the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for twenty years, Sloane married Elizabeth Langley Rose, the widow of Fulke Rose of Jamaica, and daughter of alderman John Langley. They had three daughters, Mary, Sarah and Elizabeth, and one son, Hans, of the four children only Sarah and Elizabeth survived infancy. Sarah married George Stanley of Paultons and Elizabeth married Charles Cadogan, Sloane encountered cacao while he was in Jamaica, where the locals drank it mixed with water, though he is reported to have found it nauseating. Many recipes for mixing chocolate with spice, eggs, sugar, after returning from Jamaica, Sloane may have devised his own recipe for mixing chocolate with milk, though if so, he was not the first. By the 1750s, a Soho grocer named Nicholas Sanders claimed to be selling Sloanes recipe as a medicinal elixir, by the nineteenth century, the Cadbury Brothers sold tins of drinking chocolate whose trade cards also invoked Sloanes recipe. His practice as a physician among the classes was large, fashionable. He served three successive sovereigns, Queen Anne, George I and George II, in 1716, Sloane was created a baronet, making him the first medical practitioner to receive a hereditary title. In 1719 he became president of the Royal College of Physicians, in 1722, he was appointed physician-general to the army, and in 1727 first physician to George II. In 1727 he succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as president of the Royal Society and he was a founding governor of Londons Foundling Hospital, the nations first institution to care for abandoned children. Sloanes fame is based on his judicious investments rather than what he contributed to the subject of science or even of his own profession
26.
Basalt
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Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of basalt flows. By definition, basalt is an igneous rock with generally 45-55% silica and less than 10% feldspathoid by volume. Basalt commonly features a very fine-grained or glassy matrix interspersed with visible mineral grains, the average density is 3.0 gm/cm3. Basalt is defined by its content and texture, and physical descriptions without mineralogical context may be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic minerals into hematite, although usually characterized as dark, basaltic rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geochemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite light-coloured and these phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt. Basalt with a texture is called vesicular basalt, when the bulk of the rock is mostly solid. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as black granite and these ultramafic volcanic rocks, with silica contents below 45% are usually classified as komatiites. Agricola applied basalt to the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen. Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in sodium, included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. Basalt rocks are in some cases classified after their content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalts have been distinguished in the Paraná and Etendeka traps and it has greater than 17% alumina and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and alkali basalt, the relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of plagioclase. Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium and it is silica-undersaturated and may contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite. Boninite is a form of basalt that is erupted generally in back-arc basins. Ocean island basalt Lunar basalt On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by melting of the mantle. Basalt commonly erupts on Io, the third largest moon of Jupiter, and has formed on the Moon, Mars, Venus. The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below, the mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene
27.
Giant's Causeway
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The Giants Causeway is an area of about 40,000 interlocking basalt columns, the result of an ancient volcanic eruption. It is also known as Clochán an Aifir or Clochán na bhFomhórach in Irish and it is located in County Antrim on the north coast of Northern Ireland, about three miles northeast of the town of Bushmills. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986, in a 2005 poll of Radio Times readers, the Giants Causeway was named as the fourth greatest natural wonder in the United Kingdom. The tops of the columns form stepping stones that lead from the cliff foot, most of the columns are hexagonal, although there are also some with four, five, seven or eight sides. The tallest are about 12 metres high, and the lava in the cliffs is 28 metres thick in places. Much of the Giants Causeway and Causeway Coast World Heritage Site is today owned and managed by the National Trust, the remainder of the site is owned by the Crown Estate and a number of private landowners. As the lava cooled, contraction occurred, in many cases the horizontal fracture has resulted in a bottom face that is convex while the upper face of the lower segment is concave, producing what are called ball and socket joints. The size of the columns is primarily determined by the speed at which lava from a volcanic eruption cools, the extensive fracture network produced the distinctive columns seen today. The basalts were originally part of a volcanic plateau called the Thulean Plateau which formed during the Paleocene. According to legend, the columns are the remains of a built by a giant. The story goes that the Irish giant Fionn mac Cumhaill, from the Fenian Cycle of Gaelic mythology, was challenged to a fight by the Scottish giant Benandonner, Fionn accepted the challenge and built the causeway across the North Channel so that the two giants could meet. In one version of the story, Fionn defeats Benandonner, in another, Fionn hides from Benandonner when he realises that his foe is much bigger than he. Fionns wife, Oonagh, disguises Fionn as a baby and tucks him in a cradle, when Benandonner sees the size of the baby, he reckons that its father, Fionn, must be a giant among giants. He flees back to Scotland in fright, destroying the causeway behind him so that Fionn could not follow, across the sea, there are identical basalt columns at Fingals Cave on the Scottish isle of Staffa, and it is possible that the story was influenced by this. In overall Irish mythology, Fionn mac Cumhaill is not a giant, the Fomhóraigh are a race of supernatural beings in Irish mythology who were sometimes described as giants and who may have originally been part of a pre-Christian pantheon. In the caption to the plates French geologist Nicolas Desmarest suggested, for the first time in print, visitors can walk over the basalt columns which are at the edge of the sea, a half-mile walk from the entrance to the site. The Causeway was without a permanent visitors centre between 2000 and 2012, as the building, built in 1986, burned down in 2000. A privately financed proposal was given approval in 2007 by the Environment Minister
28.
Stalagmite
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A stalagmite is a type of rock formation that rises from the floor of a cave due to the accumulation of material deposited on the floor from ceiling drippings. Stalagmites may be composed of amberat, lava, minerals, mud, peat, pitch, sand, the corresponding formation hanging down from the ceiling of a cave is a stalactite. Mnemonics have been developed for which word refers to type of formation, one is that stalactite has a C for ceiling. The most common stalagmites are speleothems, which form in limestone caves. This stalagmite formation occurs only under certain pH conditions within the underground cavern and they form through deposition of calcium carbonate and other minerals, which is precipitated from mineralized water solutions. Limestone is the form of calcium carbonate rock, which is dissolved by water that contains carbon dioxide. If stalactites – the ceiling formations – grow long enough to connect with stalagmites on the floor, oils and dirt from human contact can also stain the formation and change its color permanently. Another type of stalagmite is formed in lava tubes while lava is still active inside, the mechanism of formation is similar to that of limestone stalagmites. A key difference with lava stalagmites is that once the lava has ceased flowing and this means if the stalagmite were to be broken it would never grow back. Stalagmites in lava tubes are rarer than their stalactite counterparts because during formation the dripping material falls onto still-moving lava floors that absorb or carry the material away, the generic term lavacicle has been applied to lava stalactites and stalagmites indiscriminately, and evolved from the word icicle. A common stalagmite found seasonally or year round in many caves is the ice stalagmite, commonly referred to as icicles, water seepage from the surface will penetrate into a cave and if temperatures are below freezing temperature, the water will collect on the floor into stalagmites. Deposition may also directly from the freezing of water vapor. Similar to lava stalagmites, ice stalagmites form very quickly within hours or days, unlike lava stalagmites however, they may grow back as long as water and temperatures are suitable. Ice stalagmites are more common than their stalactite counterparts because warmer air rises to the ceilings of caves, ice stalactites may also form corresponding stalagmites below them, and given time, may grow together to form an ice column. Stalactites and stalagmites can also form on concrete ceilings and floors, calcium carbonate deposition as a stalagmite occurs when the solution carries the calcium laden leachate solution to the ground under the concrete structure. Carbon dioxide is absorbed into the alkaline solution, which facilitates the chemical reactions to deposit calcium carbonate as a stalagmite. These stalagmites rarely grow taller than a few centimetres, secondary deposits, which create stalagmites, stalactites, flowstone etc, outside the natural cave environment, are referred to as “calthemites”. These concrete derived secondary deposits can’t be referred to as “speleothems” due to the definition of the word, the largest known stalagmite in the world exceeds 70 metres in height and is located in Sơn Đoòng Cave, Vietnam
29.
Wookey Hole
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Wookey Hole is a village close to Wells in Somerset, England. It is within the parish of St Cuthbert Out, one possible origin for the name Wookey is from the Old English wocig. Although it is also an alteration from a Celtic word ogo referring to Wookey Hole Caves. The village of Wookey Hole is dominated by the Wookey Hole Caves tourist site which has show caves, the village has shops, a pub, restaurants, hotels and a campsite. The former paper mill building, whose water wheel is powered by a canal from the river. The production of handmade paper ceased in February 2008 after the owner Gerry Cottle concluded there was no longer a market for the product, glencot House is a Grade II listed country house dating from 1887, by Ernest George and Harold Peto, for W. S. Hodgkinson. A report of the building appeared in The Building News,13 May 1887, the drawing was exhibited at the Royal Academy. The 18th-century Bubwith farmhouse is also a Grade II listed building, the Monarchs Way and Mendip Way long-distance footpaths both pass through the village, as does National Cycle Route 3. Ebbor Gorge National Nature Reserve is just outside the village, media related to Wookey Hole at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Arcade (architecture)
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An arcade is a succession of arches, each counter-thrusting the next, supported by columns, piers, or a covered walkway enclosed by a line of such arches on one or both sides. In warmer or wet climates, exterior arcades provide shelter for pedestrians, the walkway may be lined with stores. A blind arcade superimposes arcading against a solid wall, blind arcades are a feature of Romanesque architecture that was taken into Gothic architecture. European shopping malls generally resemble the bazaars and souks of Asia, the word arcade comes from French arcade from Provençal arcada or Italian arcata, based on Latin arcus, ‘bow’. One of the earliest examples of a European shopping arcade, the Covered Market, Oxford, the Covered Market was started in response to a general wish to clear untidy, messy and unsavoury stalls from the main streets of central Oxford. John Gwynn, the architect of Magdalen Bridge, drew up the plans, twenty more soon followed, and after 1773 meat was allowed to be sold only inside the market. From this nucleus the market grew, with stalls for garden produce, pig meat, dairy products, Gostiny Dvor in St Petersburg, Russia is another early shopping arcade. Throughout the following century, Gostiny Dvor was augmented, resulting in ten indoor streets, during the post-World War II reconstructions, its inner walls were demolished and a huge shopping mall came into being. This massive 18th-century structure got a recently and entered the 21st century as one of the most fashionable shopping centres in Eastern Europe. An early French arcade is the Passage du Caire created in 1798 as a tribute to the French campaign in Egypt and it was appreciated by the public for its protection from the weather, noise and filth of the streets. A year later American architect William Thayer created the Passage des Panoramas with a row of shops passing between two panorama paintings, shopping arcades increasingly were built in the second Bourbon Restoration. Upper levels of arcades often contained apartments and sometimes brothels. S. W, australia Great Gostiny Dvor St. Petersburg, Russia The Passage St
31.
Crown of thorns
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According to three of the canonical Gospels a woven crown of thorns was placed on the head of Jesus during the events leading up to the crucifixion of Jesus. It was one of the instruments of the Passion, employed by Jesus captors both to cause him pain and to mock his claim of authority. It is mentioned in the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and John and is alluded to by the early Church Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria, Origen. In later centuries, relics believed by many to be all or part of the Crown of Thorns have been venerated, a few writers of the first six centuries AD speak of a relic known to be still in existence and venerated by the faithful. St. Cassiodorus, when commenting on Psalm lxxxvi, speaks of the crown of thorns among the relics which are the glory of the earthly Jerusalem. There, he says, we may behold the thorny crown, from these fragments of evidence and others of later date, it is likely that a purported crown of thorns was venerated at Jerusalem from the fifth century for several hundred years. Francois de Mély supposed that the crown was not transferred to Byzantium until about 1063. Eight of these are said to have been there at the consecration of the basilica of Aachen by Pope Leo III. The presence of the Pope at the consecration is a later legend, four were given to Saint-Corneille of Compiègne in 877 by Charles the Bald. Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks, sent one to the Anglo-Saxon King Athelstan in 927, on the occasion of marriage negotiations. Another was presented to a Spanish princess about 1160, and again another was taken to Andechs Abbey in Germany in the year 1200. In 1238, Baldwin II, the Latin Emperor of Constantinople, anxious to support for his tottering empire, offered the crown of thorns to Louis IX. It was then in the hands of the Venetians as security for a heavy loan, new reliquaries were provided for the relic, one commissioned by Napoleon, another, in jewelled rock crystal and more suitably Gothic, was made to the designs of Eugene Viollet-le-Duc. In 2001, when the treasures from the Sainte-Chapelle were exhibited at the Louvre. Pope John Paul II translated it personally to the Sainte-Chapelle during World Youth Day, the relic can only be seen on the first Friday of every month, when it is brought out for a special veneration mass, as well as each Friday during Lent. See also Feast of the Crown of Thorns, the Catholic Encyclopedia said, Authorities are agreed that a sort of helmet of thorns must have been plaited by the Roman soldiers, this band of rushes being employed to hold the thorns together. None of these now remain at Paris, some small fragments of rush are also preserved. This reaches the height of fifteen or twenty feet and is growing in abundance by the wayside around Jerusalem
32.
Five Holy Wounds
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In Christian tradition, the Five Holy Wounds or Five Sacred Wounds are the five piercing wounds Jesus suffered during the Crucifixion. The wounds have been the focus of particular devotions, especially in the late Middle Ages, many medieval prayers in honour of the Sacred Wounds, including some attributed to Clare of Assisi have been preserved. In the fourteenth century it was customary in southern Germany to recite fifteen Pater Nosters each day in memory of the Sacred Wounds. e, the nail wounds on his hands and feet as well as the lance wound which pierced his side. Again, in places it was customary to ring a bell at noon on Fridays, to remind the faithful to recite five Paters. The five wounds comprised one through each hand or wrist, one through each foot, two of the wounds were through either his hands or his wrists, where nails were inserted to fix Jesus to the cross-beam of the cross on which he was crucified. According to American expert in medicine, Frederick T. This position would result in apparent lengthening of the fingers of the hand because of nail compression, two were through the feet where the nail passed through both to the vertical beam. The final wound was in the side of Jesus chest, where, according to the New Testament, the Gospel of John states that blood and water poured out of this wound. A corona of the Five Wounds was approved by the Holy See on 11 August 1823 and it consists of five divisions, each composed of five Glories in honour of Christs Wounds and one Ave in commemoration of the Sorrowful Mother. The blessing of the beads is reserved to the Passionists, as early as 1139 Afonso I of Portugal put the emblem of the five wounds on his coat of arms as king of Portugal. The Cross of Jerusalem, or Crusaders’ Cross, remembers the Five wounds through its five crosses, the Holy Wounds have been used as a symbol of Christianity. Participants in the Crusades would often wear the Jerusalem cross, a representing the Holy Wounds. The Five Wounds was the emblem of the Pilgrimage of Grace, when consecrating an altar a number of Christian churches anoint it in five places, indicative of the Five Holy Wounds. Eastern Orthodox churches will sometimes have five domes on them, symbolizing the Five Holy Wounds, along with the symbolism of Christ. The medieval poem Salve mundi salutare was formerly ascribed to St. Bonaventure or Bernard of Clairvaux, a lengthy meditation upon the Passion of Christ, it is composed of seven parts, each pertaining to one of the members of Christs crucified body. Popular in the 17th-century, it was arranged as a cycle of seven cantatas in 1680 by Dieterich Buxtehude. The cantata has come down to us more widely known as the hymn O Sacred Head Surrounded named for the closing stanza of poem addressed to Christs head which begins Salve caput cruentatum. Translated by Lutheran hymnist Paul Gerhardt, Johann Sebastian Bach arranged the melody, franz Liszt included an arrangement of this hymn at the sixth station, Saint Veronica wipes the Holy Face, in his Via Crucis
33.
Mary, mother of Jesus
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Mary, also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin, the miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, the Gospel of Luke begins its account of Marys life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her life her body was assumed directly into Heaven. Mary has been venerated since Early Christianity, and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion and she is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, there is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Roman Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her perpetual virginity, many Protestants minimize Marys role within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of biblical references. Mary also has a position in Islam, where one of the longer chapters of the Quran is devoted to her. Marys name in the manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name ܡܪܝܡ. The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament, in Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husbands involvement. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos, Aeiparthenos as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title Our Lady of Sorrows has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelos Pietà, the title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, this phrase in Greek, in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God, some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, the scriptural basis for the term Queen can be seen in Luke 1,32 and the Isaiah 9,6. Queen Mother can be found in 1 Kings 2, 19-20 and Jeremiah 13, other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary
34.
James, son of Zebedee
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James, son of Zebedee was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus, and traditionally considered the first apostle to be martyred. He was a son of Zebedee and Salome, and brother of John the Apostle and he is also called James the Greater or James the Great to distinguish him from James, son of Alphaeus and James the brother of Jesus. James the son of Zebedee is the saint of Spaniards. The son of Zebedee and Salome, James is styled the Greater thunder to distinguish him from the Apostle James the Less and he was the brother of John, the beloved disciple, and probably the elder of the two. His parents seem to have people of means. Zebedee, his father, was a fisherman of the Sea of Galilee, who lived in or near Bethsaida, present Galilee, Israel, perhaps in Capernaum. It is probable that his brother had not received the training of the rabbinical schools, in this sense they were unlearned. But, according to the rank of their parents, they must have been men of ordinary education. James is described as one of the first disciples to join Jesus, the Synoptic Gospels state that James and John were with their father by the seashore when Jesus called them to follow him. James was one of three apostles whom Jesus selected to bear witness to his Transfiguration. James and John asked Jesus to grant them seats on his right, Jesus rebuked them, and the other ten apostles were annoyed with them. James and his brother wanted to call fire on a Samaritan town. The Acts of the Apostles records that Herod the king had James executed by sword and he is the only apostle whose martyrdom is recorded in the New Testament. He is, thus, traditionally believed to be the first of the twelve apostles martyred for his faith, nixon suggests that this may have been caused by James fiery temper, for which he and his brother earned the nickname Boanerges or Sons of Thunder. F. F. Bruce contrasts this story to that of the Liberation of Saint Peter, the New Testament scholar Dennis MacDonald identifies Castor and Pollux as basis characters for the appearance of James and John in the narrative by Mark the Evangelist. The English name James comes from Italian Giacomo, a variant of Giacobo derived from Iacobus in Latin, itself from the Greek Ἰάκωβος Iakōbos, in French, Jacob evolves into Jacques. In eastern Spain, Iacobus became Jacome or Jaime, in Catalan language, Santiago is the local Galician or Spanish evolution of Vulgar Latin Sanctu Iacobu Saint James. Tiago is a popular deglutination native to Portuguese language, it crossed with old Diago to give Diego in Spanish and Diogo in Portuguese, for example, Miguel de Cervantes in his famous Don Quixote uses San Diego instead of Santiago
35.
Henry Edward Kendall Jr.
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Henry Edward Kendall Junior was a British architect. Kendall was the son of Henry Edward Kendall, also an architect, both were among the co-founders of what became the Royal Institute of British Architects. The two initially shared a practice, which in 1834 was located at 17 Suffolk Street, London, the Esplanade and Tunnel in Kemp Town, Brighton, dating between 1828 and 1830, was one of their notable works. Lewis Cubitt was amongst those who worked at the practice before setting up on his own and he was District Surveyor for Hampstead from 1844 and produced a book on school designs. Towards the end of his career, he established a practice with his nephew, Kendall exhibited paintings of architectural subjects at the Royal Academy between 1799 and 1843. He died in 1885 in Paddington, aged 79, media related to Henry Edward Kendall Jr. at Wikimedia Commons Kendalls funerary sculpture, Kensal Green Cemetery
36.
Twickenham Museum
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The Twickenham Museum is a volunteer-run museum in Twickenham in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. An independent museum, the Twickenham Museum is run by a charity that was first registered in 1993. The museums area of interest is the history of Teddington, Twickenham, Whitton and the Hamptons and it collects, researches and displays archives, artefacts and information from these areas and provides related historical information on its website. Admission to the museum, which is every day except Monday, is free. Museum of Richmond Orleans House Official website
37.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
38.
Nikolaus Pevsner
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Sir Nikolaus Bernhard Leon Pevsner CBE FBA was a German, later British scholar of history of art and, especially, of history of architecture. He is best known for his 46-volume series of county-by-county guides, The Buildings of England, the son of a Russian-Jewish fur haulier, Nikolaus Pevsner was born in Leipzig, Saxony. He attended the Thomas School and went on to art history at the Universities of Leipzig, Munich, Berlin. In 1923, he married Carola Kurlbaum, the daughter of distinguished Leipzig lawyer Alfred Kurlbaum and he worked as an assistant keeper at the Dresden Gallery. In 1928 he contributed the volume on Italian baroque painting to the Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft and he taught at the University of Göttingen, offering a specialist course on English art and architecture. According to biographer Stephen Games, Pevsner welcomed many of the economic, however, due to Nazi race laws he was forced to resign his lectureship in 1933. Later that year he moved to England and his first post was an 18-month research fellowship at the University of Birmingham, found for him by friends in Birmingham and partly funded by the Academic Assistance Council. He was subsequently employed as a buyer of modern textiles, glass, since its first publication by Faber & Faber in 1936, it has gone through several editions and been translated into many languages. The English-language edition has also been renamed Pioneers of Modern Design, Pevsner was more German than the Germans to the extent that he supported Goebbels in his drive for pure non-decadent German art. He was reported as saying of the Nazis I want this movement to succeed, there is no alternative but chaos. There are things worse than Hitlerism, nonetheless he was included in the Nazi Black Book as hostile to the Hitler regime. In 1940, Pevsner was interned as an alien in Huyton. He was released three months on the intervention of, among others, Frank Pick, then Director-General of the Ministry of Information. He also completed for Penguin Books the Pelican paperback An Outline of European Architecture, Outline would eventually go into seven editions, be translated into 16 languages, and sell more than half a million copies. In 1942, Pevsner finally secured two regular positions, from 1936 onwards he had been a frequent contributor to the Architectural Review and from 1943 to 1945 he stood in as its acting editor while the regular editor J. M. Richards was on active service. Under the ARs influence, Pevsners approach to modern architecture became more complex and he was also closely involved with the Reviews proprietor, Hubert de Cronin Hastings, in evolving the magazines theories on Picturesque planning. In 1942, Pevsner was also appointed a lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London. He lectured at Cambridge for almost 30 years, having been Slade professor there for a six years from 1949 to 1955
39.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
41.
The Burlington Magazine
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The Burlington Magazine is a monthly academic journal that covers the fine and decorative arts. Established in 1903, it is the longest running art journal in the English language and it has been published by a charitable organisation since 1986. The magazine was established in 1903 by a group of art historians and connoisseurs which included Roger Fry, Herbert Horne, Bernard Berenson and its most esteemed editors have been Fry, Herbert Read, and Benedict Nicolson. The journals structure was based on its contemporary British publication The Connoisseur. The Burlington Magazine was founded as a journal of ancient art but already in its first decade, topics covered in detail were, Paul Cézanne and Post-Impressionism in a debate between Fry and D. S. The journal had also notable contributions by visual artists on other artists. The journal appears monthly, and features a wide cross-section of writers, tatlock, Early 1921–1933 Herbert Read, 1933–39 Albert C. Jane Martineau, acting editor Official website Examples of Articles
42.
BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
43.
Richmond and Twickenham Times
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The Richmond and Twickenham Times is a weekly local newspaper that was established in 1873 and is published on Fridays. It covers the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames in south-west London and it is delivered free to 35,232 homes in the borough, with another 634 copies picked up free, and 2,663 copies sold for 55p. The Richmond and Twickenham Times was established in 1873 by 26-year-old Edward King who ran the paper for 21 years until he was declared insane in 1894, from 1896 it was owned by the Dimbleby family. Richard Dimbleby was managing editor and editor in chief from 1946, after his death in 1965, his son David Dimbleby took over. The paper was sold by the Dimblebys to Newsquest in 2001, in April 2003 when he retired, Malcolm Richards was the countrys longest serving editor, having filled the role for 27 years. The Richmond and Twickenham Times went tabloid in January 2008, the newspaper was based at King Street, Richmond from 1873 to 2007 and in London Road, Twickenham from 2007. The newspaper moved from its headquarters in Twickenham to Quadrant House in Sutton in May 2014 in a move to cut costs, the Wandsworth Borough News closed in 2009. The others have ceased publication also, the Hounslow and Brentford Times, official website Audit Bureau of Circulations, Group Circulation Certificate Newsquest Media Group
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