1.
St Anselm of Lucca
–
His uncle Anselm preceded him as bishop of Lucca before being elected to the papacy as Pope Alexander II, owing to this, he is sometimes distinguished as Anselm the Younger or Anselm II. Alexander II, Anselms brother or uncle, may have elevated him to the cardinalate ca, Anselm went to Germany, but was loath to receive the insignia of spiritual power from a temporal ruler and returned without investiture. In 1073, Pope Gregory VII, again appointed Anselm Bishop of Lucca, for some reason, Anselm did so this time, but soon felt such remorse that he resigned his bishopric, and entered the Benedictine Order at Padilirone, a Cluniac monastery near Mantua. Gregory VII ordered him to return to Lucca, and he reluctantly obeyed, in the years 1077–79, he accepted the transfer of several castles from Countess Matilda, in preparation for Henrys expected campaign, which was carried out in 1081–84. Meanwhile, he attempted to impose stricter monastic discipline upon the canons of his cathedral, most of the canons refused to submit to the new regulations. Bishop Benzo of Alba, Henry IVs fiercely partisan supporter, tells how Matilda and Anselm stripped the monasteries to send gold and silver to Gregory in Rome. Some time later Pope Victor III made him legate to Lombardy. Anselm was well versed in Scripture and wrote important works attacking lay investiture. He died in Mantua on March 18,1086, and is regarded as the saint of that city. A life of Anselm was written by his successor, Bishop Rangerius, lecclésiologie dAnselme de Lucques au service de Grégoire VII, Genèse, contenu et impact de sa Collection canonique. Papacy and Law in the Gregorian Revolution, The Canonistic Work of Anselm of Lucca
2.
Pope
–
The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
3.
Diocese of Rome
–
The Diocese of Rome is a diocese of the Catholic Church in Rome. The Bishop of Rome is the Pope, the Supreme Pontiff, as the Holy See, the papacy is a sovereign entity with diplomatic relations, and civil jurisdiction over the Vatican City State within Rome. The Diocese of Rome is the Metropolitan diocese of the Province of Rome, the Catholic Church teaches that the first Bishop of Rome was Saint Peter in the first century, the incumbent since 13 March 2013 is Pope Francis. The bishop of the Diocese of Rome has, in the first place, the title of Bishop of Rome, the best evidence available for the origins of the Church in Rome is Saint Pauls Epistle to the Romans. This indicates that the church was established probably by the early 40s CE, Saint Peter became associated with this church sometime between the year 58 and the early 60s. By now the church at Rome was exercising a pastoral care that extended beyond its own community, appeals were made to Peter and Paul, with whom the Roman church was most closely identified. The city of Rome has grown beyond the boundaries of the diocese, notable parts of the city belong to the dioceses of Ostia and Porto-Santa Rufina. Ostia is administered together with the Vicariate of the City and thus included in the statistics given below and it consists of two parishes, Saint Peters Basilica and Saint Anne in Vatican. The current Vicar General for Vatican City is Angelo Comastri, Vicariate of Rome the territory under Italian sovereignty and including the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, which is the cathedral of the diocese. The Vicar General for the Vicariate of Rome is called the Cardinal Vicar, the Vicariates website lists 335 active and 5 suppressed parishes in its territory. The diocese covers a territory of 881 square kilometres of which 0.44 square kilometres is in the Vatican City State. The diocese has 1,219 diocesan priests of its own, while 2,331 priests of other dioceses,5,072 religious priests and 140 Opus Dei priests reside in its territory, as do 2,266 women religious. In 2004, they pastored an estimated 2,454,000 faithful, six of the dioceses of the Roman Province are described as suburbicarian. Each suburbicarian diocese has a Cardinal Bishop at its head, the Diocese of Ostia was merged with the Diocese of Rome in 1962, and is now administered by a Vicar General, in tight cooperation with the Vicar General for Rome
4.
Pope Nicholas II
–
Pope Nicholas II, born Gérard de Bourgogne, was Pope from 24 January 1059 until his death. At the time of his election, he was Bishop of Florence, Benedict X was elected in 1058, his election having been arranged by the Count of Tusculum. However, a number of cardinals alleged that the election was irregular, and that votes had been bought, these cardinals were forced to flee Rome. Hildebrand, later Pope Gregory VII, when he heard of Benedict Xs election, decided to oppose it, in December 1058, those cardinals who had opposed Benedict Xs election met at Siena and elected Gérard as Pope instead. He then took the name Nicholas II, Nicholas II proceeded towards Rome, along the way holding a synod at Sutri, where he pronounced Benedict X deposed and excommunicated. The supporters of Nicholas II then gained control of Rome and forced Benedict X to flee to Gerard of Galeria, having arrived in Rome, Nicholas II then proceeded to wage war against Benedict X and his supporters with Norman assistance. At an initial battle in Campagna in early 1059, Nicholas II was not wholly successful, but later that same year, his forces conquered Praeneste, Tusculum, and Numentanum, and in the autumn took Galeria, forcing Benedict X to surrender and renounce the Papacy. To secure his position, Nicholas II at once entered into relations with the Normans, the Pope wanted to re-take Sicily for Christianity, and he saw the Normans as the perfect force to crush the Muslims. This arrangement, which was based on no firmer foundation than the forged Donation of Constantine, was destined to give the independence from both the Eastern and Western Empires. Its first fruits were Norman aid in taking Galeria, where Antipope Benedict X was hiding, meanwhile, Nicholas II sent Peter Damian and Bishop Anselm of Lucca as legates to Milan, to resolve the conflict between the Patarenes and the archbishop and clergy. The result was a triumph for the papacy. Archbishop Wido, facing ruinous ecclesiastical conflict in Milan, submitted to the terms of the legates, the new relation was advertised by the unwilling attendance of Wido and the other Milanese bishops at the council summoned to the Lateran Palace in April 1059. Previously, Papal elections had effectively controlled by the Roman aristocracy. As a result of the battles with the Antipope Benedict X, at the synod held in the Lateran at Easter,1059, Pope Nicholas brought 113 bishops to Rome to consider a number of reforms, including a change in the election procedure. The electoral reform adopted by that synod amounted to a declaration of independence on the part of the church, henceforth, popes were to be selected by the Cardinals in assembly at Rome. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
5.
Pope Gregory VII
–
Gregory VII, born Hildebrand of Sovana, was Pope from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. He was also at the forefront of developments in the relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope. He was the first pope in centuries to rigorously enforce the Western Churchs ancient policy of celibacy for the clergy. He excommunicated Henry IV three times, consequently, Henry IV would appoint Antipope Clement III to oppose him in the political power struggles between the Catholic Church and his empire. Hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, Gregory VII was, during his own reign and this was eagerly repeated by later opponents of the Catholic Church, such as the English Protestant John Foxe. Joseph McCabe describes Gregory as a rough and violent peasant, enlisting his brute strength in the service of the ideal which he embraced. His zeal, moral force, and religious conviction, however, ensured that he should retain to a degree the loyalty. Gregory was born as Ildebrando di Soana in Sovana, in the county of Grosseto, now southern Tuscany and he was said to be of humble origins. One finds in Johann Georg Estor the claim that he was the son of a blacksmith. As a youth he was sent to study in Rome at the monastery of St. Mary on the Aventine, among his masters were the erudite Lawrence, archbishop of Amalfi, and Johannes Gratianus, the future Pope Gregory VI. When the latter was deposed by Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and exiled to Germany, according to some chroniclers, Hildebrand moved to Cluny after Gregorys death, which occurred in 1048, his declaration to have become a monk at Cluny must not be taken literally. He then accompanied Abbot Bruno of Toul to Rome, there, Bruno was elected Pope, choosing the name Leo IX, Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to Tours in France in the wake of the controversy created by Berengar of Tours. At Leos death, the new Pope, Victor II, confirmed him as legate, while Victors successor Stephen IX sent him and Anselm of Lucca to Germany to obtain recognition from the Empress Agnes de Poitou. With the help of 300 Norman knights sent by Richard of Aversa, between 1058 and 1059, he was created archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the papal administration. He was again the most powerful figure behind the election of Anselm of Lucca the Elder as Pope Alexander II in the election of October 1061. The new pope put forward the reform program devised by Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII was one of the few popes elected by acclamation. On the death of Alexander II on 21 April 1073, as the obsequies were being performed in the Lateran Basilica, there arose a loud outcry from the clergy and people, Blessed Peter has chosen Hildebrand the Archdeacon. Hildebrand immediately fled, and hid himself for some time, thereby making it clear that he had refused the election in the Liberian Basilica
6.
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lucca
–
The Italian Catholic Archdiocese of Lucca dates back as a diocese to the 1st century, it became an archdiocese in 1726. It has no dioceses, and is directly subject to the Holy See. During the Gothic Wars the city of Lucca was besieged and taken by Totila, hoping for assistance from the Franks, the Lucchesi obstinately resisted the attack of Narses, surrendering only after a siege of seven months. It later fell into the hands of the Lombards, was thenceforward a place of great importance and this was the origin of the Republic of Lucca. Lucca was generally on the side of the pope against the emperor, on the stone, however, St. Paulinus is not called Bishop of Lucca, nor is there any allusion to his having lived in Apostolic times. The first bishop of certain date is Maximus, present at the Council of Sardica, at the Council of Rimini, Paulinus, Bishop of Lucca, was present. Perhaps the above-mentioned legend arose through a repetition of this Paulinus, remarkable for sanctity and miracles was St. Fridianus, son of Ultonius, King of Ireland, or perhaps of a king of Ulster, of whom in his Dialogues Gregory the Great relates a miracle. In 739, during the episcopate of Walprandus, Richard, King of the Angles and father of the Saints Willibald, Wunibald, under Blessed Giovanni it is said the Volto Santo was brought to Lucca. In 1408 Pope Gregory XII went to Lucca to come to an agreement with the antipope Benedict XIII. The archdiocese has a total of 362 parishes, all of which fall within the region of Tuscany,354 are in the Province of Lucca and 8 in the Province of Pistoia. Altopascio S. Pietro Bagni di Lucca S. Pietro SS, Giovanni Battista S. Cassiano S. Gemignano S. Paolo Borgo a Mozzano S. E S. Giuseppe S. Rocco Sacro Cuore di Gesù Lido di Camaiore Maria SS, ausiliatrice S. Maria Assunta S. Martino S. Margherita S. Stefano S. Michele S. Pietro S. Giorgio S. Iacopo S. Giovanni Battista S. Bartolomeo S. Colombano S. Gennaro S. Ginese S. Giusto S. Leonardo S. Martino S. Margherita S. Andrea S. Andrea S. Lorenzo SS, Pietro e Leonardo San Michele S. Leonardo S. Bartolomeo S. Annunziata S. Maria Assunta S. Giorgio S. Lorenzo S. Donato S. Andrea S. Nicolao S. Martino SS, Giovanni Battista S. Matteo Apostolo ed Evangelista Santi Donnino e Biagio S. Michele Arcangelo Santi Anastasio e Vincenzo Pieve Fosciana S. Giovanni Battista S. Martino S. Regolo Vescovo e Martire S. Magno S. Lorenzo Martire Porcari S. Giusto Sacro Cuore di Gesù Natività di Maria SS, San Romano in Garfagnana S. Romano Martire S. Giovanni Bosco S. Paolino S. Rita Sette Santi Fondatori Maria SS
7.
Milan
–
Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
8.
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alexander (popes)". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pope Alexander II". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
