1.
Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
2.
Pope Clement X
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Pope Clement X, born Emilio Bonaventura Altieri, was Pope from 29 April 1670 to his death in 1676. Emilio Boneventura Altieri was born in Rome in 1590, the son of Lorenzo Altieri and Victoria Delfin, during earlier pontificates, the Altieri held many important offices and had been entrusted with several delicate missions. Altieri received a doctorate in law from the Roman College in 1611, after finishing his studies, he was named auditor of Giovanni Battista Lancellotti in 1623, in the nunciature of Poland. He was ordained April 6,1624, on his return to Rome, he was named Bishop of Camerino, then governor of Loreto and of all Umbria. Pope Urban VIII gave him charge of the designed to protect the territory of Ravenna from the unruly Po River. Pope Innocent X sent him as nuncio to Naples, where he remained for eight years and he is credited with the re-establishment of peace after the stormy days of Masaniello. Pope Alexander VII confided to him a mission to Poland, Pope Clement IX named him Superintendent of the Papal Exchequer, and in 1667 his maestro di camera, and he was made Secretary of the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars. Just before his death, Clement IX made him a Cardinal and he was then about seventy-nine years of age, and Clement IX, when making him a member of the Sacred College, said to him, You will be our successor. After the funeral of Pope Clement IX, sixty-two electors entered into conclave on 20 December 1669, forty-two votes were necessary, and due to the rivalry between the French and Spanish factions, heated discussion prevailed for four months. The reason a prelate of such transcendent merits received the cardinalate so late in life seems to have been that he had waived his claims to the elevation in favour of an older brother. On 29 April 1670, the papacy was offered to him by fifty-nine Cardinals present at the election and he, however, objected because of his age, for he was almost eighty, and exclaimed, I am too old to bear such a burden. Pointing to Cardinal Brancaccio, Altieri said he was the Cardinal whom they ought to elect and he was crowned on 11 May. On the 8th of June Clement X took possession of St. John Lateran, in the same month he granted to the prelate-clerks of the chamber the use of the violet-coloured band around their hats. Occasionally forgetful, he promised the same favors to different people and came to rely on his cardinal-nephew. All but one of the scions of the Altieri family had chosen the ecclesiastical career. In exchange for adopting the Altieri surname he would one of the Paoluzzi a Cardinal. Like all the pontiffs, Clement X advised the Christian princes to love each other, and to prove it by generous measures and it was especially between Spain and France that the pope desired to witness a renewal of feelings of good understanding. In 1671, the Pope published an edict by which he declared that a noble might be a merchant without loss of his nobility, in 1676, Gianlorenzo Bernini scculpted one of his final statues, a bust of Clement X
3.
Pope Alexander VIII
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Pope Alexander VIII, born Pietro Vito Ottoboni, was Pope from 6 October 1689 to his death in 1691. He is the last pope to take the name of Alexander upon his election to the papacy. Pietro Vito Ottoboni was born in 1610 of a noble Venetian family and his early studies were made with marked brilliancy at the University of Padua where, in 1627, he earned a doctorate in canon and civil law. He also served as the auditor of the Sacred Roman Rota, Pope Innocent X appointed him to the cardinalate and in 1652 at the request of the Venetian government and he was made the Cardinal-Priest of San Salvatore in Lauro. He was appointed as Bishop of Brescia in 1654 and later received episcopal consecration in the church of San Marco in Rome and he would spend a quiet decade in his diocese. He opted to be Cardinal-Priest of San Marco in 1660 and resigned as Bishop of Brescia in 1664, Ottoboni also opted to become Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Trastevere in 1677 and later as Cardinal-Priest of Santa Prassede in 1680. He later became the Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina in 1681 and then to Frascati in 1683 and his last swap was that of Porto e Santa Rufina in 1687. Ottoboni was also the Vice-Dean of the College of Cardinals from 1687 to his pontifical election and he chose the pontifical name of Alexander VIII in gratitude to Cardinal Flavio Chigi, the nephew of Pope Alexander VII, who also had helped support his candidacy. Ottoboni was crowned as pontiff on 16 October 1689 by the protodeacon Cardinal Francesco Maidalchini, old but of a strong constitution, Alexander VIII was said to be an able diplomat. During his brief pontificate he managed to destroy most of his predecessors good work, all the money saved by Innocent XI was spent on enriching the Ottoboni family and to a cardinal he said, I have no time to lose, for me the day is almost done. Alexander VIII was almost an octogenarian when elected to the papacy, charities on a large scale and unbounded nepotism exhausted the papal treasury, reversing the policies of his predecessor. His nephew Giovanni Rubin was made secretary of state and bishop of Vicenza, out of compassion for the poor of the impoverished Papal States, he sought to help them by reducing taxes. He bought the books and manuscripts of Queen Christina of Sweden for the Vatican Library, Alexander VIII assisted his native Venice by generous subsidies in the war against the Turks, as well as sending seven galleys and 2,000 infantry for the campaign in Albania. In 1690 he condemned the doctrines of the so-called philosophical sin and he also held three consistories that saw 14 new cardinals elevated. Alexander VIII confirmed the cultus of Kinga of Poland on 11 June 1690 which served as the beatification, on 16 October 1690, he canonized several saints, Ss. Pascal Baylon, Lorenzo Giustiniani, John of Sahagun, John of God, Alexander VIII died on 1 February 1691. His grandiose tomb in St. Peters was commissioned by his grandnephew, Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, the bas-relief at the base and the flanking figures were sculpted by Angelo de Rossi, while the bronze statue of the pope was cast by Giuseppe Bertosi. Cardinals created by Alexander VIII Rendina, Claudio, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Alexander
4.
Pope Innocent X
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Pope Innocent X, born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, was Pope from 15 September 1644 to his death in 1655. Trained as a lawyer, he succeeded Pope Urban VIII on 15 September 1644, as one of the most politically shrewd pontiffs of the era, Giovanni Battista Pamphili was born in Rome on 5 May 1574, the son of Camillo Pamphili, of the Roman Pamphili family. The family, originally from Gubbio, was descended from Pope Alexander VI. In 1594 he graduated from the Collegio Romano and followed a conventional cursus honorum and he served as a Consistorial lawyer in 1601, and in 1604 succeeded his uncle, Cardinal Girolamo Pamphilj, as auditor of the Roman Rota, the ecclesiastical appellate tribunal. He was also a canonist of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary, a second tribunal, in 1623 Pope Gregory XV sent him as nuncio to the court of the Kingdom of Naples. In 1625 Urban VIII sent him to accompany his nephew, Francesco Barberini, in January 1626 Pamphili was appointed titular Latin Patriarch of Antioch. The 1644 conclave for the election of a successor to Urban VIII was long and stormy, the large French faction led by Pope Urbans nephews objected to the Spanish candidate, as an enemy of Cardinal Mazarin, who guided French policy. They put up their own candidate but could not establish enough support for him and agreed to Pamphilj as an acceptable compromise, Mazarin, bearing the French veto of Cardinal Pamphilj, arrived too late, and the election was accomplished. Soon after his accession, Innocent X initiated legal action against the Barberini for misappropriation of public funds, the brothers Francesco Barberini, Antonio Barberini and Taddeo Barberini fled to Paris, where they found a powerful protector in Cardinal Mazarin. The French parliament declared the ordinance void in France. In 1653, Innocent X with the Cum occasione papal bull condemned five propositions of Janseniuss Augustinus, inspired by St. Augustine, as heretical and close to Lutheranism. The death of Pope Urban VIII is said to have been hastened by chagrin at the result of the First War of Castro, a war he had undertaken against Odoardo Farnese, the duke of Parma. Hostilities between the papacy and the Duchy of Parma resumed in 1649, and forces loyal to Pope Innocent X destroyed the city of Castro on 2 September 1649, the protests were ignored by the European powers. Olimpia Maidalchini, who had married to his late brother, was believed to be Innocent Xs mistress because of her influence over him in matters of promotion. The relationship between Olimpia and Innocent X, both before and during his papacy, is the concern of the book Mistress of the Vatican by Eleanor Hermann. The less-than-subtle political statement still hangs in a chapel of the Capuchin friars Church of the Conception in Rome. During the papacy of Pope Urban VIII, Giovanni Battista Pamphilj was the popes most significant rival among the College of Cardinals, Antonio Barberini, the popes brother, was a cardinal who had begun his career with the Capuchin brothers. He raised Colegio de Nuestra Senora del Santisimo Rosario to a University in November 20,1645 during his pontificate, in 1650, Innocent X celebrated a Jubilee
5.
Como
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Como is a city and comune in Lombardy, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Como. With 215,320 overnight guests, in 2013 Como was the fourth most visited city in Lombardy after Milan, Bergamo, the hills surrounding the current location of Como have been inhabited, since at least the Bronze Age, by a Celtic tribe known as the Orobii. Remains of settlements are still present on the wood covered hills to the South West of town, around the 1st century BC, the territory became subject to the Romans. The newly founded town was named Novum Comum and had the status of municipium, in 774, the town surrendered to invading Franks led by Charlemagne, and became a center of commercial exchange. In 1127, Como lost a war with the nearby town of Milan. A few decades later, with the help of Frederick Barbarossa, Frederick promoted the construction of several defensive towers around the city limits, of which only one, the Baradello, remains. Subsequently, the history of Como followed that of the Ducato di Milano, through the French invasion and the Spanish domination, until 1714, Napoleon descended into Lombardy in 1796 and ruled it until 1815, when the Austrian rule was resumed after the Congress of Vienna. Finally in 1859, with the arrival of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the town was freed from the Austrians, as a curiosity, the Rockefeller fountain that today stands in the Bronx Zoo in New York City was once in the main square by the lakeside. It was bought by William Rockefeller in 1902 for 3,500 lire, nearby major cities are Varese, Lecco and Lugano. Wind is quite rare, only sudden bursts of foehn or thunderstorms manage to sweep the air clean, pollution levels rise significantly in winter when cold air clings to the soil. Rain is more frequent during spring, summer is subject to thunderstorms and, occasionally, Como Cathedral, construction began in 1396 on the site of the previous Romanesque church of Santa Maria Maggiore. The façade was built in 1457, with the rose window. The construction was finished in 1740, the interior is on the Latin cross plan, with Gothic nave and two aisles divided by piers, while the transept wing and the relative apses are from the Renaissance age. It includes a carved 16th century choir and tapestries on cartoons by Giuseppe Arcimboldi, the dome is a rococo structure by Filippo Juvarra. Other artworks include 16th–17th century tapestries and 16th century paintings by Bernardino Luini, San Fedele, a Romanesque church erected around 1120 over a pre-existing central plan edifice. The original bell tower was rebuilt in modern times, the main feature is the famous Door of St. Fedele, carved with medieval decorations. SantAgostino, built by the Cistercians in the early 14th century, the interior and adjoining cloister have 15th–17th century frescoes, but most of the decoration is Baroque
6.
Lombardy
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Lombardy is one of the twenty administrative regions of Italy, in the northwest of the country, with an area of 23,844 square kilometres. Milan, Lombardys capital, is the second-largest city and the largest metropolitan area in Italy, the word Lombardy comes from Lombard, which in turn is derived from Late Latin Longobardus, Langobardus, derived from the Proto-Germanic elements *langaz + *bardaz, equivalent to long beard. Some sources derive the second element instead from Proto-Germanic *bardǭ, *barduz, Lombardy referred during the early Middle Ages to the entire territory of Italy ruled by the Lombards, a Germanic tribe who conquered much of the Italian peninsula beginning in the 6th century. During the late Middle Ages, the term shifted meaning and was used to identify the whole of Northern Italy, with a surface of 23,861 km2, Lombardy is the 4th largest region of Italy. It is bordered by Switzerland and by the Italian regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, three distinct natural zones can be fairly easily distinguished in the Lombardy region, mountains, hills and plains – the latter being divided in Alta and Bassa. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above made is the subregion of Oltrepò Pavese, formed by the Apennine foothills beyond the Po River. The mighty Po river marks the border of the region for a length of about 210 km. In its progress it receives the waters of the Ticino River, the other streams which contribute to the great river are, the Olona, the Lambro, the Adda, the Oglio and the Mincio. The numerous lakes of Lombardy, all of glacial origin, lie in the northern highlands, from west to east these are Lake Maggiore, Lake Lugano, Lake Como, Lake Iseo, Lake Idro, then Lake Garda, the largest in Italy. A minor mountainous area, the Oltrepò Pavese, lies south of the Po, in the plains, intensively cultivated for centuries, little of the original environment remains. The most commons trees are elm, alder, sycamore, poplar, willow, in the area of the foothills lakes, however, grow olive trees, cypresses and larches, as well as varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolias, azaleas, acacias. Numerous species of flora in the Prealpine area include some kinds of saxifrage, the Lombard garlic, groundsels bellflowers. The highlands are characterized by the vegetation of the whole range of the Italian Alps. At a lower levels oak woods or broadleafed trees grow, on the slopes beech trees grow at the lowest limits. Shrubs such as rhododendron, dwarf pine and juniper are native to the summital zone, Lombardy has a wide array of climates, due to local variances in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. In addition, there is a seasonal temperature variation. A peculiarity of the climate is the thick fog that covers the plains between October and February. In the Alpine foothills, characterised by an Oceanic climate, numerous lakes exercise a mitigating influence, in the hills and mountains, the climate is humid continental
7.
Duchy of Milan
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The Duchy of Milan was a constituent state of the Holy Roman Empire in northern Italy. It was created in 1395, when it included twenty-six towns, during much of its existence, it was wedged between Savoy to the west, Venice to the east, the Swiss Confederacy to the north, and separated from the Mediterranean by Genoa to the south. The Duchy eventually fell to Habsburg Austria with the Treaty of Baden, after the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored many other states which he had destroyed, but not the Duchy of Milan. Instead, its territory became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. In 1859, Lombardy was ceded to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the House of Visconti had ruled Milan since 1277, in which year Ottone Visconti defeated Napoleone della Torre. The Duchy of Milan as a state of the Holy Roman Empire was created on 1 May 1395 and it was this diploma that installed Visconti as Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia. At its foundation the duchy included 26 towns and spanned from the hills of Montferrat to the Lagoons of Venice, Milan thus became one of the five major states of the Italian peninsula in the 15th century. When the last Visconti Duke, Filippo Maria, died in 1447 without a heir, the Milanese declared the so-called Ambrosian Republic. In 1498, the Duke of Orleans became King of France as Louis XII and he invaded in 1499 and soon ousted Lodovico Sforza. The French ruled the duchy until 1512, when they were ousted by the Swiss, Massimiliano reign did not last very long. The French, now under Francis I, invaded the area in 1515, the French took Massimiliano as their prisoner. The French were again out in 1521, this time by the Austrians. In 1535, Francesco died without heirs, the question of succession again arose, with both the emperor and the King of France claiming the duchy, leading to more wars. The Duchy of Parma was created in 1545 from a part of the Duchy of Milan south of the Po River, as a fief for Pope Paul IIIs illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese, the emperor held the duchy throughout, eventually investing it on his son Philip. The possession of the duchy by Spain was finally recognized by the French in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559, the Duchy of Milan remained in Spanish hands until the War of the Spanish Succession, when the Austrians invaded it. The Treaty of Baden, which ended the war in 1714, the duchy remained in Austrian hands until it was overrun by the French army of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1796. The duchy was ceded by Austria in the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, after the defeat of Napoleon, based on the decisions of the Congress of Vienna on 9 June 1815, the Duchy of Milan was not restored. The Duchy instead became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, a constituent of the Austrian Empire and this kingdom ceased to exist when the remaining portion of it was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy in 1866
8.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
9.
Papal States
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The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were territories in the Italian Peninsula under the sovereign direct rule of the pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Italian Peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. At their zenith, they covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria and Romagna and these holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. By 1861, much of the Papal States territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy, only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Popes temporal control. In 1870, the pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini ended the crisis between unified Italy and the Vatican by signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the Vatican City State sovereignty. The Papal States were also known as the Papal State, the territories were also referred to variously as the State of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States. For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized and this system began to change during the reign of the emperor Constantine I, who made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire, and restoring to it any properties that had been confiscated. The Lateran Palace was the first significant new donation to the Church, other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. But the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, the seeds of the Papal States as a sovereign political entity were planted in the 6th century. Beginning In 535, the Byzantine Empire, under emperor Justinian I, launched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italys political, just as these wars wound down, the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north and conquered much of the countryside. While the popes remained Byzantine subjects, in practice the Duchy of Rome, nevertheless, the pope and the exarch still worked together to control the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the took a ever larger role in defending Rome from the Lombards. In practice, the papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch, a climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries embodied in the Lombard king Liutprands Donation of Sutri to Pope Gregory II. When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751, the popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks. In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Younger crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead king Childeric III, zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, later granted Pepin the title Patrician of the Romans. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, Pepin defeated the Lombards – taking control of northern Italy – and made a gift of the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – is disputed. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict, the Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagnes grandchildren
10.
Macerata
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Macerata listen is a city and comune in central Italy, the county seat of the province of Macerata in the Marche region. Together with the town, sprawling on the plain below the historic centre. The historical city centre is on a hill between the Chienti and Potenza rivers and it first consisted of the Picenes city named Ricina, then, after its romanization, Recina and Helvia Recina. The newly rebuilt town was Macerata and it became a municipality in August 1138. Typically hilly, the climate is both Mediterranean and continental, the Adriatic Sea, which is approximately 30 kilometres away, and particularly the Apennine Mountains influence the weather. The elevation of Macerata is approximately 315 metres above sea level, so winter is particularly rainy, balkanic and northwestern perturbations may cause snow. Middle seasons are variable, and late snowfall and frost may occur during April, october is neither warm nor very cold. Summer is rather sunny, and sometimes the thermometer reaches 40 °C, garbino is the cause, a hot wind from the hinterland. Summer thunderstorms are frequent in August during the evening, when the weather becomes quite unstable, in the central Piazza della Libertà is the Loggia dei Mercanti with two-tier arcades dating from the Renaissance. There are a number of striking palazzi, mostly along Corso Matteotti, next to the Loggia dei Mercanti, Corso della Repubblica leads to Piazza Vittorio Veneto where, in the Palazzo Ricci, there is a modern art gallery. Another museum that is worth a visit is Palazzo Buonaccorsi where you can see the amazing Eneide Hall. Soon the building will host the city Art Gallery with its most important artpiece, the University of Macerata was founded in 1290 and has about 13,000 students, Macerata also has an art school, two publishing houses, jazz clubs and the like. The Palazzo Buonaccorsi was built in 1700–1720 for Count Raimondo Buonaccorsi, the piano nobile is known for the Sala dellEneide, decorated with frescoes by Rambaldi, Dardani, Solimena, and canvases by Garzi and Giovanni Gioseffo dal Sole. Just north of the town, at the Villa Potenza, lie the remains of ancient Helvia Recina, among the churches in the town are, Macerata Cathedral, built in Neoclassical style in 1771–1790, it has the remains of a 15th-century Gothic bell tower. The interior was designed by Cosimo Morelli, San Claudio al Chienti, Romanesque church south of the Town. Its unusual shape is due to one church being built on the remains of another and it was built during the 14th century as war reparation to Montolmo, which defeated Macerata in a bloody and long war. San Claudio al Chienti is very close to Macerata, but it has been a frazione of Corridonia since that time, San Filippo Neri San Giorgio Santa Maria della Misericordia Santo Stefano In July and August the Sferisterio Opera Festival is held in the 2,500 seat Arena Sferisterio. It is a huge neoclassical arena erected in the 1820s as a stadium for a form of handball by the architect Ireneo Aleandri, the orchestra pit is so wide that musicians at each end cannot hear each other
11.
Ferrara
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Ferrara is a city and comune in Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy, capital city of the Province of Ferrara. It is situated 50 kilometres north-northeast of Bologna, on the Po di Volano, the town has broad streets and numerous palaces dating from the 14th and 15th centuries, when it hosted the court of the House of Este. For its beauty and cultural importance it has qualified by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Modern times have brought a renewal of industrial activity, Ferrara is on the main rail line from Bologna to Padua and Venice, and has branches to Ravenna, Poggio Rusco and Codigoro. Ferrara appears first in a document of the Lombard king Desiderius of 753 AD, Desiderius pledged a Lombard ducatus ferrariae in 757 to Pope Stephen II. Obizzo II dEste was proclaimed ruler of Ferrara five hundred years later. He also became seignior of nearby Modena in 1288 and of Reggio in 1289, in 1452 the Este rulers were created Dukes of Modena and Reggio, and in 1471 Ferrara also became a duchy. In 1597, when Alfonso II died without heirs, the House of Este lost Ferrara to the Papal States. Ferrara remained a part of the Papal States from 1598 to 1859, with an interruption during the Napoleonic period, in 1859 it became part of the Kingdom of Italy. A fortress was constructed by Pope Paul V on the site of the castle called Castel Tedaldo, at the south-west angle of the town, all of the fortress was dismantled following the birth of the Kingdom of Italy and the bricks used for new constructions all over the town. On August 23,1944, the Ferrara synthetic rubber plant was a target of Strategic bombing during World War II, the town is still surrounded by more than 9 kilometres of ancient walls, mainly built in the 15th and 16th-centuries. Along with those of Lucca, they are the best preserved Renaissance walls in Italy, the imposing brick Castello Estense sited in the very centre of the town is iconic of Ferrara. The castle, erected in 1385, is surrounded by a moat, the pavilions on the top of the towers date from the 16th-century refurbishment. The City Hall, renovated in the 18th century, was the residence of the Este family. Close by it is the former Cathedral of San Giorgio, The Romanesque lower part of the main façade, according to a now lost inscription the church had been commissioned by Guglielmo I of Adelardi. The sculpture of the portal was signed by a Nicholaus. The upper part of the main façade, with arcades of pointed arches, dates from the 13th century, the recumbent lions guarding the entrance are copies of the originals, now in the narthex of the church. An elaborate 13th-century relief depicting the Last Judgement is found in the story of the porch
12.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Novara
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The Diocese of Novara is a Roman Catholic diocese in the Piedmont region of northwest Italy. It is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Vercelli, in 972, the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I granted the dominium of the town of Novara and twenty-four miles surrounding the town to Bishop Aupaldo and his successors, the Bishops of Novara. The bishops therefore enjoyed the title of Count as well as the rights as a Count of the Empire. Cardinal Giuseppe Morozzo Della Rocca Giacomo Filippo Gentile Stanislao Eula Davide Riccardi Edoardo Pulciano Mattia Vicario Giuseppe Gamba Giuseppe Castelli Leone Giacomo Ossola, timeline of Novara Gams, Pius Bonifatius. Series episcoporum Ecclesiae catholicae, quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo, ratisbon, Typis et Sumptibus Georgii Josephi Manz. pp. 819–821. Hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi V. Patavii, Messagero di S. Antonio, hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi VI. Le chiese dItalia, dalla loro origine sino ai nostri giorni, italia sacra sive de Episcopis Italiae. Cantino, Gisella Wataghin, Corti Renato, eds, il Cristianesimo a Novara E Sul Territorio, Le Origini, Atti Del Convegno, Novara 10 Ottobre 1998. Punishment and Penance, Two Phases in the History of the Bishops Tribunal of Novara, gli antichi Vescovi dItalia, il Piemonte. Malosso, Angela M. Perotti, Mario, Tuniz, Dorino, la pianura novarese dal romanico al XV secolo, percorsi di arte e architettura religiosa. Storia della città e diocesi di Novara, episcopus et princeps, italienische Bischöfe als Fürsten, Grafen und Barone vom 17. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
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Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals
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The Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals was the treasurer of that body within the Catholic Church. The title is based on an Italian word for chamberlain, a no longer used in secular contexts. Johann Peter Kirsch, Die Finanzverwaltung des Kardinalkollegiums im XIII
14.
Santi Cosma e Damiano
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For the Italian city, see Santi Cosma e Damiano, Lazio. The basilica of Santi Cosma e Damiano is a church in the Roman Forum, the circular building at the entrance onto the Forum was built in the early 4th century as a Roman temple, thought to have been dedicated to Valerius Romulus, deified son of the emperor Maxentius. The main building was perhaps the library of an imperial forum and it became a church in 527 and contains important but much restored early Christian art, especially in its mosaics. Today it is one of the ancient churches called tituli, of which cardinals are patrons as cardinal-deacons, cosmae et Damiani is Beniamino Stella, created Cardinal on 22 February 2014. The basilica, devoted to the two Greek brothers, doctors, martyrs and saints Cosmas and Damian, is located in the Forum of Vespasian, also known as the Forum of Peace. The Temple is traditionally held to have been dedicated by Emperor Maxentius to his son and co-consul Valerius Romulus, the temple has also been speculated as a rebuilding of the original temple of Jupiter Stator, or one dedicated to Penates, restored by Maxentius. The apse was decorated with a Roman-Byzantine mosaic, representing a parousia, the bodies of Saints Mark and Marcellian were translated, perhaps in the ninth century, to this church, where they were rediscovered in 1583 during the reign of Pope Gregory XIII. In 1632, Pope Urban VIII ordered the restoration of the basilica, the works, projected by Orazio Torriani and directed by Luigi Arrigucci, raised the floor level seven metres, bringing it equal with the Campo Vaccino, thus avoiding the infiltration of water. The old floor of the basilica is still visible in the lower church, in 1947, the restorations of the Imperial Forums gave a new structure to the church. The old entrance, through the Temple of Romulus, was closed, and the temple restored to its forms, with the Pantheon. A new entrance was opened on the side, whose arch gives access to the cloister. Next to the new entrance to the complex, there are the rooms with the original marble paving of the Forum of Peace, through the cloister, the entrance to the church opens on the side of the single nave. The mosaics are masterpieces of 6th- and 7th-century art, in the middle is Christ, with Saint Peter presenting Saint Cosmas and Saint Theodorus, and Saint Paul presenting Saint Damian and Pope Felix IV, the latter holds a model of the church. Furthermore, for centuries, in this medical area Roman physicians had their meetings, pietro Chioccioni, La Basilica E Il Convento Dei Santi Cosma E Damiano in Roma. Roberta Budriesi, La Basilica dei Ss, vitaliano Tiberia, Il Restauro Del Mosaico Della Basilica Dei Santi Cosma E Damiano a Roma. Roma, Touring Club Italiano,2004, pp. 276–277, Cosma e Damiano in the Twelfth Century, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 49 99–126. Jacalyn Duffin, Medical Saints, Cosmas and Damian in a Postmodern World, photo Official Website Basilica of Saints Cosmas and Damian, Rome Roman architecture List of Roman domes
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Sant'Onofrio (Rome)
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SantOnofrio al Gianicolo is a titular church in Trastevere, Rome. It is the church of the papal order of knighthood Order of the Holy Sepulchre. A side chapel is dedicated specifically to the Order and a grand master. After wandering all over Italy, the requested and obtained shelter at the monastery of Sant’Onofrio. It was built in 1439 on the site of an ancient hermitage, behind the Renaissance portico are three lunettes by Domenichino, painted in 1605, commemorating the hermits who lived here and depicting scenes from the life of St Jerome. The church also contains The Madonna of Loreto by Agostino Carracci and frescoes of Scenes from the Life of Mary, the first chapel to the right has an Annunciation by Antoniazzo Romano and an Eternal Father attributed to Baldassarre Peruzzi. The second chapel has frescoes and stuccoes by Giovanni Battista Ricci with an altarpiece of the Madonna di Loreto by pupils of Annibale Carracci. Next to the altar is a Monument to Giovanni Sacco attributed to the school of Andrea Bregno with frescoes of St. Anne Teaching the Virgin to Read by a painter of the Umbrian school. The sacristy ceiling has frescoes by Girolamo Pesci, while the walls have a Peter of Pisa by Francesco Trevisani, the apse has frescoes of the Stories of Mary attributed to Peruzzi by Vasari. In the third chapel on the left, is a monument of the Cardinal Filippo Sega with a portrait by Domenichino, in the second chapel is a Trinity fresco on the ceiling by Francesco Trevisani. In the first chapel to the left, is a monument to Torquato Tasso by Giuseppe De Fabris, the attached cloister was added in the mid-15th century and has frescoes by the Cavaliere dArpino and others with scenes from the life of Saint Onuphrius. It was in this cloister that the poet Torquato Tasso died on April 25,1595, the monastery houses the Museo Tassiano of manuscripts and editions of his work. Its collections also include his death mask, since the 1950s, the church has been under the care of the American congregation of Franciscan Friars of the Atonement, which is their only community in continental Europe. Rome Art Lover Roma City Death mask of Torquato Tasso
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St. Peter's Basilica
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The Papal Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican, or simply St. Peters Basilica, is an Italian Renaissance church in Vatican City, the papal enclave within the city of Rome. While it is neither the church of the Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome. It has been described as holding a position in the Christian world. Catholic tradition holds that the Basilica is the site of Saint Peter, one of Christs Apostles. Saint Peters tomb is supposedly directly below the altar of the Basilica. For this reason, many Popes have been interred at St. Peters since the Early Christian period, construction of the present basilica, which would replace Old St. Peters Basilica from the 4th century AD, began on 18 April 1506 and was completed on 18 November 1626. St. Peters is famous as a place of pilgrimage and for its liturgical functions. The Pope presides at a number of liturgies throughout the year, drawing audiences of 15,000 to over 80,000 people, either within the Basilica or the adjoining St. Peters Square. St. Peters has many associations, with the Early Christian Church, the Papacy. As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age, St. Peters is one of the four churches in the world that hold the rank of Major Basilica, all four of which are in Rome. Contrary to popular misconception, it is not a cathedral because it is not the seat of a bishop, St. Peters is a church built in the Renaissance style located in the Vatican City west of the River Tiber and near the Janiculum Hill and Hadrians Mausoleum. Its central dome dominates the skyline of Rome, the basilica is approached via St. Peters Square, a forecourt in two sections, both surrounded by tall colonnades. The first space is oval and the second trapezoid, the basilica is cruciform in shape, with an elongated nave in the Latin cross form but the early designs were for a centrally planned structure and this is still in evidence in the architecture. The central space is dominated both externally and internally by one of the largest domes in the world, the entrance is through a narthex, or entrance hall, which stretches across the building. One of the bronze doors leading from the narthex is the Holy Door. The interior is of vast dimensions when compared with other churches and this in its turn overwhelms us. The nave which leads to the dome is in three bays, with piers supporting a barrel-vault, the highest of any church. The nave is framed by wide aisles which have a number of chapels off them, there are also chapels surrounding the dome
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Vatican City
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Vatican City, officially Vatican City State or the State of Vatican City, is a walled enclave within the city of Rome. With an area of approximately 44 hectares, and a population of 842, however, formally it is not sovereign, with sovereignty being held by the Holy See, the only entity of public international law that has diplomatic relations with almost every country in the world. It is an ecclesiastical or sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Bishop of Rome – the Pope, the highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergy of various national origins. Vatican City is distinct from the Holy See, which dates back to early Christianity and is the episcopal see of 1.2 billion Latin. According to the terms of the treaty, the Holy See has full ownership, exclusive dominion, within Vatican City are religious and cultural sites such as St. Peters Basilica, the Sistine Chapel and the Vatican Museums. They feature some of the worlds most famous paintings and sculptures, the unique economy of Vatican City is supported financially by the sale of postage stamps and tourist mementos, fees for admission to museums, and the sale of publications. The name Vatican City was first used in the Lateran Treaty, signed on 11 February 1929, the name is taken from Vatican Hill, the geographic location of the state. Vatican is derived from the name of an Etruscan settlement, Vatica or Vaticum meaning garden, located in the area the Romans called vaticanus ager. The official Italian name of the city is Città del Vaticano or, more formally, Stato della Città del Vaticano, although the Holy See and the Catholic Church use Ecclesiastical Latin in official documents, the Vatican City officially uses Italian. The Latin name is Status Civitatis Vaticanæ, this is used in documents by not just the Holy See. The name Vatican was already in use in the time of the Roman Republic for an area on the west bank of the Tiber across from the city of Rome. Under the Roman Empire, many villas were constructed there, after Agrippina the Elder drained the area and laid out her gardens in the early 1st century AD. In AD40, her son, Emperor Caligula built in her gardens a circus for charioteers that was completed by Nero, the Circus Gaii et Neronis, usually called, simply. Even before the arrival of Christianity, it is supposed that this originally uninhabited part of Rome had long considered sacred. A shrine dedicated to the Phrygian goddess Cybele and her consort Attis remained active long after the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter was built nearby, the particularly low quality of Vatican water, even after the reclamation of the area, was commented on by the poet Martial. The Vatican Obelisk was originally taken by Caligula from Heliopolis in Egypt to decorate the spina of his circus and is thus its last visible remnant and this area became the site of martyrdom of many Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in AD64. Ancient tradition holds that it was in this circus that Saint Peter was crucified upside-down, opposite the circus was a cemetery separated by the Via Cornelia. Peters in the first half of the 4th century, the Constantinian basilica was built in 326 over what was believed to be the tomb of Saint Peter, buried in that cemetery
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Pope Pius XII
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Pope Pius XII, born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli, reigned as Pope from 2 March 1939 to his death in 1958. After the war Pius XII advocated peace and reconciliation, including lenient policies towards Axis, the Church experienced severe persecution and mass deportations of Catholic clergy in the Eastern Bloc. Pius XII was an opponent of Communism and of the Italian Communist Party. He explicitly invoked ex cathedra papal infallibility with the dogma of the Assumption of Mary in his 1950 Apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus and his magisterium includes almost 1,000 addresses and radio broadcasts. His forty-one encyclicals include Mystici corporis, the Church as the Body of Christ, Mediator Dei on liturgy reform and he eliminated the Italian majority in the College of Cardinals in 1946. In 1954, Pius XII began to suffer ill health. The embalming of his body was mishandled, with effects that were evident during the funeral and he was buried in the Vatican grottos and was succeeded by Pope John XXIII. In the process toward sainthood, his cause for canonization was opened on 18 November 1965 by Pope Paul VI during the session of the Second Vatican Council. He was made a Servant of God by Pope John Paul II in 1990, Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli was born on 2 March 1876 in Rome into a family of intense Catholic piety with a history of ties to the papacy. His parents were Filippo Pacelli and Virginia Pacelli, together with his brother Francesco and his two sisters, Giuseppina and Elisabetta, he grew up in the Parione district in the centre of Rome. Soon after the family had moved to Via Vetrina in 1880 he began school at the convent of the French Sisters of Divine Providence in the Piazza Fiammetta, the family worshipped at Chiesa Nuova. Eugenio and the children made their First Communion at this church. In 1886 too he was sent to the school of Professor Giuseppe Marchi. In 1891 Pacellis father sent Eugenio to the Liceo Ennio Quirino Visconti Institute, a school situated in what had been the Collegio Romano. He was also enrolled at the State University, La Sapienza where he studied modern languages, at the end of the first academic year however, in the summer of 1895, he dropped out of both the Capranica and the Gregorian University. According to his sister Elisabetta, the food at the Capranica was to blame, having received a special dispensation he continued his studies from home and so spent most of his seminary years as an external student. In 1899 he completed his education in Sacred Theology with a degree awarded on the basis of a short dissertation. Shortly after ordination he began studies in canon law at SantApollinaire
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Camauro
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A camauro is a cap traditionally worn by the Pope of the Catholic Church. Like the biretta worn by clergy and the mortarboard worn by academics. It is often worn with a red mozzetta, also sometimes fur-lined, the camauro has been part of the papal wardrobe since the 12th century. Until 1464, it was worn by cardinals, without the ermine trim, from that date. The papal camauro fell into disuse after the death of John XXIII in 1963 and it was revived once only in December 2005 by Benedict XVI. Benedicts wearing the hat prompted comparisons to Santa Claus and Father Christmas in the media, St. Nicholas Thaumaturgos, a camauro was also part of the headdress of the Doge of Venice, worn under the corno ducale or stiff peaked cap. Every Easter Monday the doge headed a procession from San Marco to the convent of San Zaccaria where the abbess presented him a new camauro crafted by the nuns. Sammlung Philippi – Kopfbedeckungen in Glaube, Religion und Spiritualität
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Papal tiara
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The papal tiara is a crown that was worn by popes of the Catholic Church from as early as the 8th century to the mid-20th. It was last used by Pope Paul VI in 1963 and only at the beginning of his reign, from 1143 to 1963, the papal tiara was solemnly placed on the popes head during a papal coronation. The surviving papal tiaras are all in the form, the oldest being of 1572. A representation of the triregnum combined with two crossed keys of Saint Peter continues to be used as a symbol of the papacy and appears on documents, buildings. The papal tiara originated from a conical Phrygian cap or frigium, shaped like a candle-extinguisher, the papal tiara and the episcopal mitre were identical in their early forms. Names used for the tiara in the 8th and 9th centuries include camelaucum, pileus. A circlet of linen or cloth of gold at the base of the tiara developed into a metal crown, the first of these appeared at the base of the traditional white papal headgear in the 9th century. When the popes assumed temporal power in the Papal States, the crown became decorated with jewels to resemble the crowns of princes. However, a fresco in the Chapel of Saint Sylvester in the church of the Santi Quattro Coronati in Rome seems to represent the Pope wearing a tiara with two bands and with lappets. The addition of a crown is attributed to Pope Benedict XI or Pope Clement V. The first years of the 16th century saw the addition of a little globe, the third crown was added to the papal tiara during the Avignon Papacy, giving rise to the form called the triregnum. After Pope Clement V at Avignon, various versions of the three-crown tiara have been worn by popes also in Rome down to Pope Paul VI, who was crowned with one in 1963. The increased length had the meaning of dominion of the una sancta ecclesia over the earth. At the summit was a large ruby. Boniface VIII was succeeded in 1303 by Benedict XI, who took the tiara to Perugia, after his death in 1304 there was a period of eleven months before a new Pope succeeded. The Archbishop of Bordeaux was chosen and took the title of Clement V and he removed the papal seat from Rome to Avignon and the tiara was brought to Lyons from Perugia for his coronation on 14 November 1305. In the inventory which was taken in 1315–16 Boniface VIIIs tiara is again described and can be identified by the mention of the large ruby and it is described as having three circlets corona quae vocatur, regnum cum tribus circuitis aureis. It therefore must have been between the taking of the two inventories in 1295 and 1315 that the second and third circlets were added to the tiara and it was during this period that the fleur-de-lis was used to decorate the circlets
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Roman Catholic Diocese of Como
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The Catholic Diocese of Como in northern Italy, has existed since the fourth century. It is a suffragan of the archdiocese of Milan, the bishops seat is in Como Cathedral. Local legend credits the conversion of Como to the apostolate of Hermagoras of Aquileia, until 1528 Como was, indeed, a suffragan of the patriarchate of Aquileia and followed the Aquileian Rite. In 1528 Como was placed under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Milan, in the tenth century the Bishops of Como were also its temporal lords. Como Cathedral was begun in 1396, and was completed only in 1595, later the cupola and some small chapels were added. The 338 parishes of the diocese are spread across four provinces of the Lombardy region, the Province of Como, the Province of Lecco, the Province of Sondrio, there is one priest for every 1,001 Catholics. Series episcoporum Ecclesiae catholicae, quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo, ratisbon, Typis et Sumptibus Georgii Josephi Manz. pp. 786-788. Hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi V. Patavii, Messagero di S. Antonio, hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi VI. Storia della città e della diocesi di Como, storia della città e della diocesi di Como. Le chiese dItalia della loro origine sino ai nostri giorni, caprioli, Adriano, Rimoldi, Antonio, Vaccaro, Luciano. La successione dei vescovi di Como dal 379 al 1930, italia Sacra sive De Episcopis Italiae et insularum adjacentium, tomus quintus. Source This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
22.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
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Benedetto Erba Odescalchi
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Benedetto II Erba Odescalchi was an Italian Cardinal and Archbishop of Milan from 1712 to 1736. Benedetto Erba was born on 7 August 1679 in Como to senator Antonio Maria Erba and his great uncle was Pope Innocent XI, who died when Benedetto was 10 and from whom in 1709 Benedetto took his second surname Odescalchi. Already on 28 February 1689, with his tonsure, Benedetto Erba entered in the clerical state and he was appointed Titular archbishop of Thessalonica on 18 December 1711, and shortly after consecrated bishop in Rome by Cardinal Fabrizio Paolucci. On 25 January 1712 he became assistant at the Pontifical Throne, Benedetto Erba served as Apostolic Nuncio to Poland from 25 January 1712 to 5 October of the same year. On 5 October 1712 Benedetto Erba was appointed Archbishop of Milan, on 30 January 1713 he was appointed Cardinal Priest of Santi Nereo e Achilleo, a title he maintained until 1725 when he moved to the title of Santi XII Apostoli. As Archbishop of Milan he focused on activities, taking as examples Saint Charles Borromeo. He took care of the education of the priests and tried to reform the monasteries of nuns. In 1717 he made a visit to a remote area of the diocese, in the mountains of Ticino. Since 1723 he started the so-called Urban Missions in order to increase the religious sentiment of the town and he founded the seminary of St. In 1716 Benedetto Erba obtained from Pope Clement XI that the ordinary canon priests of the Cathedral of Milan could wear the white damask mitre in solemn celebrations. He personally supervised the restoration of the dome and of the crypt of the Basilica of SantAmbrogio, even if under his reign the Duchy of Milan passed from the Spanish Empire to the Habsburg Monarchy, Benedetto Erba succeeded in maintaining good relations with all the political powers. He participated to the 1721,1724 and 1730 Papal conclaves, in 1731 he suffered a stroke which impaired him for the following years. Due to this problem, he resigned as Archbishop of Milan on 6 December 1736, and retired to live in his family house in Milan. He was buried in the church of San Giovanni in Conca. His remains are now buried in the Cathedral of Milan
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Erba-Odescalchi
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Erba-Odescalchi, or Odescalchi, is the name of an Italian noble family of princely rank. With the election of Benedetto Odescalchi as Pope Innocent XI in 1676, the Odescalchi family were entrepreneurs with the minor nobility of Como. They trace their line to Giorgio Odescalchi of Como, around 1290. Pietro Giorgio Odescalchi was Bishop of Alessandria and then Bishop of Vigevano, Benedetto Odescalchi reigned as Pope Innocent XI from 1676 until 1689. As the last male heir to the family, their fortune passed to the descendants of his sister, Lucrezia Odescalchi, the Erba family is allegedly descended from Enrico Erba, an Imperial vicar in Milan, around 1165. The Popes grand-nephew Cardinal Benedetto Erba Odescalchi held a doctorate in Civil and Canon Law and he was named Archbishop of Milan in 1712, and was created a cardinal in January 1714. He died in Milan on 13 December 1740 and he became a Protonotary Apostolic in 1737 and a Referendary of the Two Tribunals of Justice and Grace in 1739. He was named a cardinal in 1759 and given the office of Vicar-General of the Pope for the City of Rome, Carlo Odescalchi, S. J. was the son of Prince Baldassare Erba-Odescalchi, and Valeria Caterina Giustiniani. His family was in exile in Hungary during his youth, having fled the French forces of First Consul Bonaparte and he obtained a Doctorate in Civil and Canon Law. Pope Pius VII sent him on several diplomatic missions to Hungary. He became Auditor of the Sacred Roman Rota in 1815, and he was promoted Auditor of His Holiness and Canon of the Vatican Basilica. He was named Bishop of Sabina in 1833, he resigned in 1838 to return to the Jesuits and he died in Modena in 1841. In 1619, Benedettos brother and three uncles founded a bank in Genoa, which grew into a successful money-lending business, after completing his studies in grammar and letters, the 15-year-old Benedetto moved to Genoa to take part in the family business as an apprentice. The family established lucrative financial transactions with clients in major Italian and European cities, such as Nuremberg, Milan, Kraków, in the 20th century, Prince Karoly Odescalchi and his son, Prince Paul, were members of the Hungarian resistance to Nazism, as well as Communism. The head of the family now bears titles including Prince Odescalchi, Duke of Sirmium, Prince Odescalchi is a Hereditary Magnate of Hungary and Grandee of Spain. The family owns the Palazzo Odescalchi in Rome, the Orsini-Odescalchi Castle in Bracciano, as well as estates in Italy, Croatia. The castle in Bracciano was originally an Orsini family fortress until it was sold to pay debts, the Princely family is currently represented by Prince Carlo Odescalchi, Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, Duke of Syrmium, etc. whose heir is his son Prince Baldassare Odescalchi. Gli Odescalchi a Como e Innocenzo XI, committenti, artisti, il Castello Orsini-Odescalchi di Bracciano, storia, tesori e segreti
25.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
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Nuremberg
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Nuremberg is a city on the river Pegnitz and the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in the German state of Bavaria, in the administrative region of Middle Franconia, about 170 kilometres north of Munich. It is the second-largest city in Bavaria, and the largest in Franconia, the population as of February 2015, is 517,498, which makes it Germanys fourteenth-largest city. The urban area also includes Fürth, Erlangen and Schwabach with a population of 763,854. The European Metropolitan Area Nuremberg has ca.3.5 million inhabitants, Nuremberg was, according to the first documentary mention of the city in 1050, the location of an Imperial castle between the East Franks and the Bavarian March of the Nordgau. From 1050 to 1571, the city expanded and rose dramatically in importance due to its location on key trade routes, Nuremberg is often referred to as having been the unofficial capital of the Holy Roman Empire, particularly because Imperial Diet and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg were an important part of the structure of the empire. The increasing demand of the court and the increasing importance of the city attracted increased trade. Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe. In 1298, the Jews of the town were accused of having desecrated the host, behind the massacre of 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city, which were divided by the Pegnitz. The Jews of the German lands suffered many massacres during the plague years, in 1349, Nurembergs Jews were subjected to a pogrom. They were burned at the stake or expelled, and a marketplace was built over the former Jewish quarter, the plague returned to the city in 1405,1435,1437,1482,1494,1520 and 1534. Charles was the patron of the Frauenkirche, built between 1352 and 1362, where the Imperial court worshipped during its stays in Nuremberg. Charles IV conferred upon the city the right to conclude alliances independently, frequent fights took place with the burgraves without, however, inflicting lasting damage upon the city. Through these and other acquisitions the city accumulated considerable territory, the Hussite Wars, recurrence of the Black Death in 1437, and the First Margrave War led to a severe fall in population in the mid-15th century. During the Middle Ages, Nurembergs literary culture was rich, varied, the cultural flowering of Nuremberg, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made it the centre of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Protestant Reformation, and in 1532, during the 1552 revolution against Charles V, Nuremberg tried to purchase its neutrality, but the city was attacked without a declaration of war and was forced into a disadvantageous peace. The state of affairs in the early 16th century, increased trade routes elsewhere, frequent quartering of Imperial, Swedish and League soldiers, the financial costs of the war and the cessation of trade caused irreparable damage to the city and a near-halving of the population. In 1632, the city, occupied by the forces of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, was besieged by the army of Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein, the city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the 19th century, when it grew as an industrial centre
27.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
28.
Society of Jesus
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
29.
Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
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Protonotary apostolic
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An example is Prince Georg of Bavaria who became in 1926 Protonotary by papal decree. In the Middle Ages the protonotaries were very high papal officials, originally numbering seven, Pope Sixtus V increased their number to twelve. Their importance gradually diminished, and at the time of the French Revolution the office had almost entirely disappeared, priests so honored are addressed as reverend monsignor, may put the post-nominal letters P. A. The name of the prothonotary warbler derives from the similarity between its plumage and the golden robes worn by protonotaries. Chaplain of His Holiness Honorary Prelate Herbermann, Charles, ed. Prothonotary Apostolic and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. Prothonotary Apostolic
31.
Papal legate
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A papal legate or Apostolic legate is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters, the legate is appointed directly by the pope. The term legation is applied both to a mandate and to the territory concerned. In the High Middle Ages, papal legates were often used to strengthen the links between Rome and the parts of Christendom. More often than not, legates were learned men and skilled diplomats who were not from the country they were accredited to. The Italian-born Guala Bicchieri served as legate to England in the early 13th century. Papal legates often summoned legatine councils, which dealt with church government, during the Middle Ages, a legatine council was the usual means that a papal legate imposed his directives. There are several ranks of papal legates in diplomacy, some of which are no longer used, a nuncio performs the same functions as an ambassador and has the same diplomatic privileges. Under the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, to which the Holy See is a party and this highest rank is normally awarded to a priest of cardinal rank. It is an investiture and can either be focused or broad in scope. The legate a latere is the ego of the Pope. The legatus natus would act as the representative in his province. Although limited in their jurisdiction compared to legati a latere, a legatus natus were not subordinate to them, literally sent legate, possessing limited powers for the purpose of completing a specific mission. This commission is normally focused in scope and of short duration, some administrative provinces of the Papal states in Italy were governed by a Papal Legate. This has been the case in Benevento, in Pontecorvo and in Viterbo, in four cases, including Bologna, this post was awarded exclusively to Cardinals, the Velletri post was created for Bartolommeo Pacca. The title could be changed to Apostolic Delegate, as happened in Frosinone in 1827, Papal diplomacy Nuncio – an envoy whose diplomatic status is recognized by the receiving state – usually a titular archbishop. Papal apocrisiarius List of papal legates to England Other Pontifical legate Catholic Encyclopedia, Legate WorldStatesmen - Italy to 1860 - Papal State Maseri, de Legatis et Nunciis Apostolicis Iudiciis Ecclesiasticis Civilibus et Criminalibus Oneribusque Civitatum Cameralibus et Communitativis. Commentatio Canoncia de Legatis et Nuntiis Pontificum, die englische Legation des Cardinals Guido Fulcodi, des spaeteren P. Clemens IV
32.
Episcopal see
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An episcopal see is, in the usual meaning of the phrase, the area of a bishops ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Phrases concerning actions occurring within or outside an episcopal see are indicative of the significance of the term. The word see is derived from Latin sedes, which in its original or proper sense denotes the seat or chair that, the word throne is also used, especially in the Eastern Orthodox Church, both for the seat and for the area of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The term see is also used of the town where the cathedral or the residence is located. Within Roman Catholicism, each diocese is considered to be a See unto itself with an allegiance to the See of Rome. The idea of a See as an entity is somewhat complicated due to the existence of the 23 Particular churches of the Roman Catholic Church. The Western Church and its Eastern Counterparts all reserve some level of autonomy within their particular See, the episcopal see of the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, is known as the Holy See or the Apostolic See, claiming Papal supremacy. The view of the Catholic Church contrasted by the Eastern Catholic idea of Pentarchy, followed by Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy
33.
Diocese
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The word diocese is derived from the Greek term διοίκησις meaning administration. When now used in a sense, it refers to a territorial unit of administration. This structure of governance is known as episcopal polity. The word diocesan means relating or pertaining to a diocese and it can also be used as a noun meaning the bishop who has the principal supervision of a diocese. An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese, an archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or have had importance due to size or historical significance. The archbishop may have authority over any other suffragan bishops. In the Latter Day Saint movement, the bishopric is used to describe the bishop himself. Especially in the Middle Ages, some bishops held political as well as religious authority within their dioceses, in the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated in a larger unit, the diocese. With the adoption of Christianity as the Empires official religion in the 4th century, a formal church hierarchy was set up, parallel to the civil administration, whose areas of responsibility often coincided. With the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century, a similar, though less pronounced, development occurred in the East, where the Roman administrative apparatus was largely retained by the Byzantine Empire. In modern times, many dioceses, though later subdivided, have preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division, modern usage of diocese tends to refer to the sphere of a bishops jurisdiction. As of January 2015, in the Catholic Church there are 2,851 regular dioceses,1 papal see,641 archdioceses and 2,209 dioceses in the world, in the Eastern rites in communion with the Pope, the equivalent unit is called an eparchy. Eastern Orthodoxy calls dioceses metropoleis in the Greek tradition or eparchies in the Slavic tradition, after the Reformation, the Church of England retained the existing diocesan structure which remains throughout the Anglican Communion. The one change is that the areas administered under the Archbishop of Canterbury and Archbishop of York are properly referred to as provinces and this usage is relatively common in the Anglican Communion. Certain Lutheran denominations such as the Church of Sweden do have individual dioceses similar to Roman Catholics and these dioceses and archdioceses are under the government of a bishop. Other Lutheran bodies and synods that have dioceses and bishops include the Church of Denmark, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the Evangelical Church in Germany, rather, it is divided into a middle judicatory. The Lutheran Church-International, based in Springfield, Illinois, presently uses a traditional diocesan structure and its current president is Archbishop Robert W. Hotes. The Church of God in Christ has dioceses throughout the United States, in the COGIC, each state is divided up into at least three dioceses that are all led by a bishop, but some states as many as seven dioceses
34.
Papal conclave, 1676
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The Papal Conclave of 1676 was convened after the death of Pope Clement X and lasted from 2 August until 21 September 1676. It led to the election of Benedetto Odescalchi as Pope Innocent XI, after the death of Pope Clement X on 22 July 1676, the College of Cardinals convened in Rome to elect a successor. The college consisted of 67 members,44 of them took part at the opening of the conclave, seven of these cardinals had been created by Urban VIII, twelve by Innocent X, eight by Alexander VII, and nineteen by Clement IX and Clement X. Absent cardinals included Friedrich of Hessen and Pascal of Aragon, a list was already in circulation indicating possible papal candidates. Only Cardinal Benedetto Odescalchi was suitably papabile at the time of the conclave, Odescalchi had emerged as a strong candidate for the papacy after the earlier death of Pope Clement IX on 9 December 1669, but the French Government had vetoed his nomination. After the death of Clement X, King Louis XIV of France had again intended to use his influence against the election of Odescalchi. But, seeing that his popularity had grown among the cardinals as well as the Roman people, on the 1st ballot, held on 3 August 1676, Odescalchi received 14 votes. 13 other candidates remained in the running, with 25 abstentions, the number of candidates sank, but the vote on 20 September gave only 8 votes to Odescalchi. 19 votes were spread among cardinals Barberini, Rospigliosi and Alberizzi, finally on 21 September, Odescalchi was surrounded in the chapel of the conclave and proclaimed pope by acclamation rather than formal vote. Innocent was then enthroned as pope on 4 October 1676. Cardinals Virginio Orsini and Carlo Bonelli both died during the conclave, francesco Barberini, bishop of Ostia e Velletri, Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals. Ulderico Carpegna, bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina, sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, alderano Cibo, bishop of Iesi. Lorenzo Raggi. Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri degli Albertoni, prefect of the S. C. of Propaganda Fide, giulio Spinola, bishop of Nepi and Sutri. Emmanuel Théodose de la Tour dAuvergne de Bouillon, luis Manuel Fernández de Portocarrero-Bocanegra y Moscoso-Osorio. Gasparo Carpegna, prefect of the S. C. of Bishops, pierre de Bonzi, archbishop of Narbonne, France. Vincenzo Maria Orsini, O. P. bishop of Manfredonia, federico Baldeschi Colonna, secretary of the S. C. of the Tridentine Council. Alessandro Crescenzi, bishop of Recanati and Loreto, two cardinals, who never entered the conclave, died in Rome during the sede vacante, Virginio Orsini, O. S. Io. Hieros. And two were absent from Rome, Friedrich von Hessen-Darmstadt, O. S. Io. Hieros, pascual de Aragón-Córdoba-Cardona y Fernández de Córdoba
35.
Pope Clement IX
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Pope Clement IX, born Giulio Rospigliosi, was Pope from 20 June 1667 to his death in 1669. Giulio Rospigliosi was born in 1600 to the Rospigliosi family, a family of Pistoia in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany to Giacomo. He studied at the Seminario Romano and later at the University of Pisa as a pupil of the Jesuits and he would receive doctorates in theology, philosophy and both canon and civil law in 1623. After receiving his doctorates, he taught there as a professor from 1623 to 1625. Later Rospigliosi worked closely with Pope Urban VIII where he worked in the corps as the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura. He was appointed as the Titular Archbishop of Tarsus in 1644, Rospigliosi also served as the Apostolic Nuncio to Spain from 1644 until 1653 when he decided to retire from that post. He lived in retirement throughout the pontificate of Pope Innocent X who disliked and distanced himself from those associated with his predecessor and he was also made vicar of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Rospigliosi was a man of letters who wrote poetry, dramas and libretti, as well as what may be the first comic opera, namely his 1637 libretto Chi soffre. He was also a patron of Nicolas Poussin, commissioning A Dance to the Music of Time from him and dictating its iconography. Pope Alexander VII appointed him to the cardinalate in 1657 as the Cardinal-Priest of San Sisto Vecchio and was appointed as the Cardinal Secretary of State in 1655 which he held until 1667. Pope Alexander VII died in 1667 and a conclave to choose his successor was called, on 20 June 1667 he was elected as pontiff and took the pontifical name of Clement IX. The new pope was crowned on 26 June 1667 by the protodeacon and he later took possession of the Basilica of Saint John Lateran on 3 July 1667. He was mediator during the 1668 peace of Aachen, in the wars of succession between France, Spain, England and the Netherlands. He was popular with the people of Rome, not so much for his erudition and application to business, as for his charity and his affability towards great. Two days each week he occupied a confessional in St. Peters church and he frequently visited the hospitals, and was lavish in his alms to the poor. In an age of nepotism, he did little or nothing to advance or enrich his family, in his aversion to notoriety, he refused to permit his name to be placed on the buildings erected during his reign. Clement IX confirmed the cultus of Margaret of Savoy on 9 October 1669 and he also beatified Rose of Lima on 15 April 1668. On 28 April 1668, he canonized Magdalena de Pazzi and Peter of Alcantara and he elevated 12 new cardinals in three consistories
36.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
37.
Jus exclusivae
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Jus exclusivæ was the right claimed by several Catholic monarchs of Europe to veto a candidate for the papacy. This right seems to have claimed during the 17th century. It does not seem to be related to a right exercised by Byzantine emperors and Holy Roman Emperors to confirm the election of a Pope, Spain, which ruled much of Italy at the time, raised the claim in 1605. In 1644, in the conclave which elected Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, jus exclusivæ was first exercised, by Spain, Cardinal Jules Mazarin of France arrived too late at that conclave to present the veto of France against Cardinal Pamphili, who had already been elected. Around this period, treatises arise in defence of this right, by the Bull In eligendis Pope Pius IV ordered the cardinals to elect a Pope without deference to any secular power. The Bull Aeterni Patris Filius forbids cardinals to conspire to exclude any candidate and these pronouncements however, do not specifically condemn the jus exclusivae. In the Constitution In hac sublimi Pius IX did however forbid any kind of interference in papal elections. The most recent attempt to exercise the right was publicly rejected by the conclave, no power has openly attempted to exercise the right since 1903. France had become a republic in 1870, after World War I, there was no German Empire and no Austrian Empire. Spain became a republic, though it returned to monarchy. Generalissimo Francisco Franco, it is said, attempted to interfere with the Conclave of 1963, papal appointment Sources Catholic Encyclopedia, Right of Exclusion. Papal Elections in the Age of Transition, 1878-1922, Lexington Books, ludwig Wahrmund, Das Ausschliessungs-recht der katholischen Staaten Österreich, Frankreich und Spanien bei den Papstwahlen. Sägmüller, Die Papstwahlbullen und das staatliche Recht der Exklusive, ludwig Wahrmund, Die Bulle „Aeterni Patris Filius” und der staatliche Einfluss auf die Papstwahlen, Archiv für katholisches Kirchenrecht 72 201-334. Ludwig Wahrmund, Zur Geschiste des exclusionrechtes bei den Papstwahlen im 18 Jahrhundert, william J. Hegarty, The Lay Veto, American Catholic Quarterly Review 37, pp. 419–439. Herbert Plock, Das Jus exclusivae der Staaten bei der Papstwahl und sein Verbotdurch die päpstliche Bulle Commissum nobis, peter Frei, Die Papstwahl des Jahres 1903, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des österreichisch-ungarischen Vetos
38.
Francesco Maidalchini
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Francesco Maidalchini was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. Maidalchini was born 12 April 1631 in Viterbo, the son of Andrea Maidalchini and he was named commendatory abbot of St. Martin and St. Gaudentius of Rimini and San Pancrazio outside the walls of Rome. He also received the title of Canon of St. Peters Basilica in Rome, in 1647, Maidalchinis first counsin, Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili, resigned his post as Cardinal-Nephew to marry and Innocent X required a new Cardinal Nephew. Without any remaining male relative to turn to for an assistant, Innocent X was persuaded to appointed the seventeen year old Francesco, upon being elevated to Cardinal, he was installed as Cardinal-Deacon of SantAdriano al Foro. It is possible that the pontiff meant simply to install a relative, however distant, in the Sacred College, without adequate political knowledge for the role, Francesco was assisted by Cardinals Panciroli and Domenico Cecchini, but he nonetheless remained in a substantially weak political position. The Popes sisters and other members of the Pamphilj family begrudged his close association with the pontiff, however it was immediately clear that the new Cardinal-nephew would not have enjoyed any real power. Innocent X continued to entrust the politically relevant affairs to Secretary of State Cardinal Panciroli, in December 1649, Maidalchini obtained the privilege of opening the Holy Door at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, despite not yet having been ordained a priest. The incident caused considerable confusion, compounded by a dispute with the canons of the basilica for possession of the medals in the holy door. He proved so incompetent, that in 1650, despite Olimpia Maidalchinis objections, although a distant relative by marriage to Olimpia, Astalli had in fact been recommended by his mentor, the Secretary of State. Having blamed Olimpia for his disgrace, Francesco became her bitter enemy, in 1653 Maidalchini was appointed Cardinal-Deacon of San Pancrazio. His aunt Olimpia died in 1657, after only 8 years with Maidalchini as Cardinal-Deacon, the church of Santa Maria was in ruins and without income. Its deaconry was suppressed by Pope Alexander VII and the building was pulled down, Maidalchini was transferred to the newer Santa Maria in Campitelli, built by Carlo Rainaldi between 1659 and 1667. Contemporary John Bargrave leaves little doubt that Maidalchini was not much respected either by the College of Cardinals or the public of Rome. Bargrave describes Maidalchini as, being within an inch of an idiot and recounts that the ladies of one congregation could not help, Maidalchinis could not contain himself and broke into laughter in response. Bargrave also recalled his run-in with a gentleman who kindly pointed out that the book the cardinal was reading was, in fact, as cardinal protodeacon, he announced the elections of the popes Clement X, Innocent XI and Alexander VIII and celebrated the rites of their coronations. Later that year he was ordained as a priest and was appointed Cardinal-Priest of the Church of Santa Maria in Via, in accordance with the bull Postquam verus of Sixtus V, he assumed the position of protopriest of the College of Cardinals. He participated in the conclave of 1691 which elected Pope Innocent XII, in the political rivalry between France and Spain Maidalchini initially aligned himself with Spain. However, leaders of Spanish faction at Rome showed him so little respect that he changed the side
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pope Innocent XI". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
