1.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
2.
Tasmania
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Tasmania is an island state of the Commonwealth of Australia. It is located 240 km to the south of the Australian mainland, the state encompasses the main island of Tasmania, the 26th-largest island in the world, and the surrounding 334 islands. The state has a population of around 519,100, just over forty percent of which resides in the Greater Hobart precinct, Tasmanias area is 68,401 km2, of which the main island covers 64,519 km2. Though an island state, due to an error the state shares a land border with Victoria at its northernmost terrestrial point, Boundary Islet. The Bishop and Clerk Islets, about 37 km south of Macquarie Island, are the southernmost terrestrial point of the state of Tasmania, the island is believed to have been occupied by Aboriginals for 40,000 years before British colonisation. It is thought Tasmanian Aboriginals were separated from the mainland Aboriginal groups about 10,000 years ago when the sea rose to form Bass Strait. The conflict, which peaked between 1825 and 1831 and led to more than three years of law, cost the lives of almost 1100 Aboriginals and settlers. The near-destruction of Tasmanias Aboriginal population has been described by historians as an act of genocide by the British. The island was part of the Colony of New South Wales. In 1854 the present Constitution of Tasmania was passed and the year the state received permission to change its name to Tasmania. In 1901 it became a state through the process of the Federation of Australia, the state is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who made the first reported European sighting of the island on 24 November 1642. Tasman named the island Anthony van Diemens Land after his sponsor Anthony van Diemen, the name was later shortened to Van Diemens Land by the British. It was officially renamed Tasmania in honour of its first European discoverer on 1 January 1856, Tasmania was sometimes referred to as Dervon, as mentioned in the Jerilderie Letter written by the notorious Australian bushranger Ned Kelly in 1879. The colloquial expression for the state is Tassie, Tasmania is also colloquially shortened to Tas, especially when used in business names and website addresses. TAS is also the Australia Post abbreviation for the state, the reconstructed Palawa kani language name for Tasmania is Lutriwita. The island was adjoined to the mainland of Australia until the end of the last glacial period about 10,000 years ago, much of the island is composed of Jurassic dolerite intrusions through other rock types, sometimes forming large columnar joints. Tasmania has the worlds largest areas of dolerite, with many distinctive mountains, the central plateau and the southeast portions of the island are mostly dolerite. Mount Wellington above Hobart is an example, showing distinct columns known as the Organ Pipes
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Census in Australia
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The census in Australia, or officially, the Census of Population and Housing, is a descriptive count of population of Australia on one night, and of their dwellings, generally held quinquennially. Participation in the census is compulsory, though answering some questions is optional, the count is taken every five years and is managed by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The first Australian census was held in 1911, on the night of 2 April, in 1961 the five-year period was introduced. Censuses are held on the second Tuesday of August, the most recent was held on 9 August 2016. The cost of the 2011 census was $440 million, a separate census of Norfolk Island has been conducted by the Norfolk Island Government every five years since 1981, and occurs on the same day as the Australian census. The census examines data such as age, gender, incomes, occupations, dwelling types and occupancy, transportation modes, ancestry, languages spoken, the Census and Statistics Act 1905 led to the 1906 establishment of the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. The Bureau was renamed the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 1975, the census is collected and published against geographic areas defined by the Australian Standard Geographical Classification. The ASGC provides a set of classifications for the dissemination of all ABS statistics. In 2007 the ABS published a set of spatial units called mesh blocks. The primary aim of mesh blocks is to provide a block for constructing alternative. Only data on persons and total dwellings is released at the mesh block level. Mesh blocks will form the basis of a new statistical geography, the traditional concept of a Collection District is that it was the area that one census collector can cover in about a ten-day period. In the 2001 census, collectors may be allocated more than one urban district because of their size. In urban areas collection districts average about 220 dwellings, in rural areas the number of dwellings per collection district reduces as population densities decrease. For the 2001 census there were 37,209 collection districts and 1,353 Statistical Local Areas defined throughout Australia, the Census and Statistics Act 1905 and Privacy Act 1988 guarantee that no personally-identifiable information is released from the ABS to other government organisations, or the public. However the ABS makes confidential census data available to researchers, who must make various legal commitments before being given access, in the 1970s there was public debate about privacy and the census. In 1979 the Law Reform Commission reported on Privacy and the Census, one of the key elements under question was the inclusion of names. It was found that excluding names reduced the accuracy of the data, individuals were likely to leave questions blank
5.
Postcodes in Australia
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Postcodes are used in Australia to more efficiently sort and route mail within the postal system. All postcodes in Australia have four digits and are placed at the end of the Australian address, Australian postcodes are managed by Australia Post. Postcodes are published in booklets available from post offices or online from the Australia Post website, Australian envelopes and postcards often have four square boxes printed in orange at the bottom right for the postcode. These are used when addressing mail by hand, use of the Australian postcode system commenced in 1967, implemented by the Postmaster-Generals Department, now called Australia Post. It replaced earlier postal sorting systems, such as Melbournes letter and number codes, if addressing a letter from outside Australia, the postcode is recorded before Australia. They are often linked with one area, due to post code rationalization, But are now sometimes they can be quite complex, especially in country areas. The south-western Victoria 3221 postcode of the Geelong Mail Centre also includes twenty places around Geelong with very few people and this means that mail for these places is not fully sorted until it gets to Geelong. Some postcodes cover large populations, while other postcodes have much smaller populations, Australian postcodes range from 0200 for the Australian National University to 9944 for Cannonvale, Queensland. Some towns and suburbs have two postcodes — one for deliveries and one for post office boxes. g. The Royal Brisbane and Womens Hospital has the postcode 4029, the Australian National University had the postcode 0200, more postcode ranges were made available for LVRs in the 1990s. Australia Post has been progressively discontinuing the LVR programme since 2006, Australian National Universitys postcode 0200 was the last LVR to be closed in September 2014. For example, postcode 2620 covers both a locality in NSW as well as a locality in the ACT, and postcode 0872 covers a number of localities across WA, SA, NT and QLD. Jervis Bay Territory, once an exclave of the ACT but now a territory, is geographically located on the coast of NSW. It is just south of the towns of Vincentia and Huskisson, Mail to the Jervis Bay Territory is still addressed to the ACT. The numbers used to show the state on each radio callsign in Australia are the number as the first number for postcodes in that state, e. g. 2xx in New South Wales, 3xx in Victoria. Radio callsigns pre-date postcodes in Australia by more than forty years, australias external territories are also included in Australia Posts postcode system. Capital city postcodes were the lowest postcodes in their state or territory range, before new ranges for LVRs, however, postcodes with the same second number are not always next to each other. As an example, postcodes in the range 2200–2299 are split between the suburbs of Sydney and the Central Coast of New South Wales
6.
Hobart
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Hobart is the capital and most populous city of the Australian island state of Tasmania. It is the least populated state capital in Australia, founded in 1803 as a penal colony, Hobart is Australias second oldest capital city after Sydney, New South Wales. The modern history of Hobart dates to its foundation as a British colony in 1803, prior to British settlement, the area had been occupied for possibly as long as 35,000 years, by the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe, a sub-group of the Nuennone, or South-East tribe. The descendants of the indigenous Tasmanians now refer to themselves as Palawa, Hobart has experienced both booms and busts over its history. In the later years of the 20th century, migrants arrived to settle in Hobart from Asia. In June 2015, the city had an area population of approximately 221,000. The city is located in the states south-east on the estuary of the Derwent River and its harbour forms the second-deepest natural port in the world. Its skyline is dominated by the 1, 271-metre kunanyi/Mount Wellington, the metropolitan area is often referred to as Greater Hobart, to differentiate it from the City of Hobart, one of the five local government areas that cover the city. The first European settlement began in 1803 as a colony at Risdon Cove on the eastern shores of the Derwent River. In 1804 it was moved to a location at the present site of Hobart at Sullivans Cove. The city, initially known as Hobart Town or Hobarton, was named after Lord Hobart, the British secretary of state for war, the areas indigenous inhabitants were members of the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe. Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town in February 1836 as part of the Beagle expedition, I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, the Derwent River was one of Australias finest deepwater ports and was the centre of the Southern Ocean whaling and sealing trades. The settlement rapidly grew into a port, with allied industries such as shipbuilding. Hobart Town became a city on 21 August 1842, and was renamed Hobart from the beginning of 1881, Hobart is located on the estuary of the Derwent River in the states south-east. Geologically Hobart is built predominantly on Jurassic dolerite around the foothills interspersed with areas of Triassic siltstone. Both of these areas rest on the younger Jurassic dolerite deposits, before stretching into the areas such as the beaches of Sandy Bay in the south. South of the Derwent estuary lies Storm Bay and the Tasman Peninsula, the Eastern Shore also extends from the Derwent valley area in a southerly direction hugging the Meehan Range in the east before sprawling into flatter land in suburbs such as Bellerive
7.
Eaglehawk Neck
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The Eaglehawk Neck is a narrow isthmus that connects the Tasman Peninsula with the Forestier Peninsula, and hence to mainland Tasmania, Australia. A township settlement in the region is also called Eaglehawk Neck. At the 2011 census, the settlement of Eaglehawk Neck had a population of 338, locally known as the Neck, the isthmus itself is around 400 metres long and under 30 metres wide at its narrowest point. The area features rugged terrain and several unusual geological formations and these include the Tessellated Pavement, an area of flat rock that looks to be manmade but is in fact formed by erosion. Also nearby are the formations of Tasmans Arch, the Blowhole. Eaglehawk Neck offers accommodation in the Lufra Hotel, near the Tessellated Pavement, a nearby footpath leads to Martin Cashs lookout near the top of the hill at the southern end. Eaglehawk Neck is a local holiday destination. On the eastern side, a beach that stretches around Pirates Bay is a surfing area. In summer the population rises as people return to their holiday homes, the area was heavily patrolled by soldiers, and the guards quarters still remains as a museum. Many attempts were made by convicts to escape via Eaglehawk Neck, the first Eagle Hawk Neck post office was open from 1875 until 1877. It reopened on 11 January 1895 and closed in 1974, geography of Tasmania Storey, Shirley, Storey, Peter. Tasman tracks,25 walks on the Tasman and Forestier Peninsulas, Eaglehawk Neck at walkabout. com. au Eaglehawk Neck
8.
Local government areas of Tasmania
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Local government areas in the Australian state of Tasmania describes the 29 organisations and processes by which towns and districts can manage their own affairs. The LGAs are grouped by region and this article also includes lists of towns, suburbs and localities of Tasmania. Greater Hobart contains six LGAs, Brighton Council, containing the Hobart suburbs of Bridgewater, Gagebrook, Old Beach, and the towns of Brighton, Pontville, and Tea Tree. Sorell Council, containing the towns of Bream Creek, Dodges Ferry, Copping, Dunalley, Kellevie, Lewisham, Marion Bay, Midway Point, municipality of Tasman, containing the towns and settlements of Koonya, Murdunna, Nubeena, and Port Arthur. Huon Valley Council, containing the towns and settlements of Cygnet, Dover, Franklin, Geeveston, Port Huon, Glen Huon, Huonville, glamorgan Spring Bay Council, containing the towns and settlements of Bicheno, Coles Bay, Orford, Swansea, and Triabunna. The north-east area councils contain three LGAs, Break ODay Council, containing the towns and settlements of Fingal, St Helens, St Marys, dorset Council, containing the towns and settlements of Branxholm, Bridport, Derby, Scottsdale, and Winnaleah. Flinders Council, containing Cape Barren Island and Flinders Island and its settlements of Emita, the Launceston area councils contain four LGAs, George Town Council, containing the towns and settlements of Bell Bay and George Town. Meander Valley Council, containing the Launceston suburbs of Blackstone Heights and Prospect, the towns and settlements of Carrick, Deloraine, Hagley, Hadspen, Mole Creek, west Tamar Council, containing the towns and settlements of Beaconsfield, Beauty Point, Exeter, Legana, and Riverside. Central Coast Council, containing the towns of Forth, Penguin, Turners Beach, Ulverstone, circular Head Council, containing the towns of Marrawah, Smithton, and Stanley. City of Devonport, containing the city of Devonport, kentish Council, containing the towns and settlements of Cradle Mountain, Railton, and Sheffield. King Island Council, containing King Island and the settlement of Currie, Latrobe Council, containing the towns and settlements of Hawley Beach, Latrobe, Port Sorell, and Shearwater. Waratah-Wynyard Council, containing the towns and settlements of Savage River, Somerset, Waratah, west Coast Council, containing the towns and settlements of Queenstown, Rosebery, Strahan, Tullah, and Zeehan. The Central councils contain three LGAs, Central Highlands Council, containing the settlements of Bothwell, Bronte Park, Derwent Bridge, Hamilton, Liawenee, Miena, Ouse, and Tarraleah. Northern Midlands Council, containing the settlements of Avoca, Campbell Town, Cressy, Evandale, Liffey, Longford, southern Midlands Council, containing the settlements of Bagdad, Campania, Oatlands, and Ross. See Former local government areas of Tasmania Tasmania has had an amount of former LGAs. In 1907,149 LGAs were reduced by mergers and amalgamation to 53 LGAs, by the time of a large scale overhaul in 1993,46 LGAs were reduced to 29 LGAs. List of localities in Tasmania Government of Tasmania Divisions of the Australian House of Representatives#Tasmania Map of Local Government Areas
9.
Tasman Council
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The Tasman Council is a local government area of Tasmania, covering the Tasman and Forestier Peninsulas. At the 2011 census, the government area had a population of 2,355. Port Arthur, Nubeena and Koonya are the main towns, Tasman Council is composed of seven Councillors elected using the Hare-Clark system of proportional representation as a single ward. All Councillors are elected for a fixed term of office. The Mayor and Deputy Mayor are each elected for a four-year term. The Mayor and Deputy Mayor must also be elected as Councillors in order to hold office, elections are normally held in October, with the next election due to be held in October 2018. Neither the Australian Labor Party nor the Liberal Party of Australia endorse local government candidates in Tasmania
10.
Division of Lyons (state)
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The Electoral Division of Lyons, Tasmania is one of the five electorates in the Tasmanian House of Assembly, the lower house. Before 1984, it was known as the Division of Wilmot, joseph Lyons represented the area for over 30 years at the state and federal levels. The electorate shares the boundaries of the Federal Division of Lyons, at each state election, five members are elected to Lyons through the single transferable vote. Lyons is the largest in area of the Tasmanian Electoral Divisions, measuring 33,212 km2
11.
Division of Lyons
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The Division of Lyons is an Australian electoral division in Tasmania. The division was created at the Federal redistribution of 12 September 1984 as a version of the abolished Division of Wilmot. Joseph Lyons had previously represented Wilmot at the level from 1909 to 1929. It is located in central Tasmania, stretching from the eastern to northern coast and includes such places as New Norfolk, Deloraine and St Marys and it has been a marginal seat, changing hands between the Australian Labor Party and the Liberal Party. Division of Lyons – Australian Electoral Commission
12.
Convicts in Australia
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Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported by the British government to various penal colonies in Australia. The British government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 17th century, when transportation ended with the start of the American Revolution, an alternative site was needed relieve further overcrowding of British prisons and hulks. Earlier in 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. Other penal colonies were established in Van Diemens Land in 1803 and Queensland in 1824, while Western Australia, founded in 1829 as a free colony. Victoria and South Australia remained free colonies, penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s and dropped off significantly the following decade. The last convict ship arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868, many convicts were transported for petty crimes, while a significant number were political prisoners. More serious crimes, such as rape and murder, were punishable by death, once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. However, convictism carried a stigma, and for some later Australians. Attitudes became more accepting in the 20th century and it is now considered by many Australians to be a cause for celebration to have a convict in ones lineage, around 20% of modern Australians are descended from transported convicts. The convict era has inspired novels, films, and other cultural works. According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, by the time of the American Revolution, London was overcrowded, filled with the unemployed, and flooded with cheap gin. Poverty, social injustice, child labor, harsh and dirty living conditions, Dickens novels perhaps best illustrate this, even some government officials were horrified by what they saw. Only in 1833 and 1844 were the first general laws against child labour passed in the United Kingdom, crime had become a major problem and in 1784 a French observer noted that from sunset to dawn the environs of London became the patrimony of brigands for twenty miles around. Each parish had a watchman, but British cities did not have forces in the modern sense. Jeremy Bentham avidly promoted the idea of a prison. Virtually all malefactors were caught by informers or denounced to the court by their victims. Pursuant to the so-called Bloody Code, by the 1770s there were 222 crimes in Britain which carried the death penalty, almost all of which were crimes against property. These included such offences as the stealing of goods worth over 5 shillings, the cutting down of a tree, the situation was so dire that hulks left over from the Seven Years War were used as makeshift floating prisons
13.
Tasman Peninsula
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The Tasman Peninsula is a peninsula located in south-east Tasmania, Australia, approximately 75 km by the Arthur Highway, south-east of Hobart. The Tasman Peninsula lies south and west of Forestier Peninsula, to which it connects via an isthmus called Eaglehawk Neck. This in turn is joined to the rest of Tasmania by an isthmus called East Bay Neck, near the town of Dunalley, approximately 60 kilometres by road from Hobart. The peninsula is surrounded by water, to the north by Norfolk Bay, to the northwest by Frederick Henry Bay, to the west and south by Storm Bay, many smaller towns are also located on the Tasman Peninsula, the largest of which are Nubeena and Koonya. Smaller centres include Premaydena, Highcroft and Stormlea, the Conservation Park, located on the main highway at Taranna, is a popular local visitor attraction along with the World Heritage Port Arthur Historic Site and a number of beaches. The local government area is the Tasman Council, the area of the peninsula and of the local government area is 660 square kilometres. The area is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, the aboriginal inhabitants of this area preceding European arrival were the Pydairrerme people. Their territory was what is now known as the Tasman and Forestier peninsulas, the Pydairrerme people were a part of the larger Paredarerme language group, whose territory covered a large area of the east coast of Tasmania. The first European settlement of the peninsula was Port Arthur in the early 1830s and it also had excellent supplies of timber for shipbuilding and general construction work, and a deep sheltered harbour where visiting British warships could be repaired. Its inaccessibility was enhanced by having Eaglehawk Neck lined with guards and guard dogs, a small number did escape, including the bushranger Martin Cash. The Saltwater River historic site, located near the north tip west of the peninsula, was originally the site of a coal mine. The penal settlement of Port Arthur is now a tourist attraction, as in most of the rest of the state, tourism is a major industry. In the era between convict settlement and the rise of the modern tourist industry the area was engaged in the timber industry. The terrain and soil types impeded large-scale agriculture although orcharding and general farming was and is conducted in suitable locations, during the period 1900-1930s the main operator servicing the area was the Huon, Channel & Peninsula Steamship Company, owners of several vessels including the extant M. V. The rare Cape Pillar sheoak is a shrub or small tree found only in the Tasman National Park where it is restricted to the Cape Pillar area of the Tasman Peninsula, the rugged coastline has been the scene of a number of shipwrecks. Two large seagoing steamers have sunk after hitting the Hyppolyte Rock off its east coast - the Tasman in 1883, Munroe Bight to the north of Cape Pillar is named after the former American barque James Munroe wrecked there in 1850. The Tasman Peninsula is well known for its eastern coastline. At Eaglehawk Neck are many rock formations, including The Devils Kitchen, Tasmans Arch, Blow Hole
14.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
15.
Open-air museum
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An open-air museum is a museum that exhibits collections of buildings and artifacts out-of-doors. They are also known as museums of buildings or folk museums. The concept of an open-air museum originated in Scandinavia in the late 19th century, a comprehensive history of the open-air museum as idea and institution can be found in Swedish museologist Sten Rentzhogs 2007 book Open Air Museums, The History and Future of a Visionary Idea. Living history museums, including living farm museums and living museums, the interpreters act as if they are living in a different time and place and perform everyday household tasks, crafts, and occupations. The goal is to demonstrate older lifestyles and pursuits to modern audiences, household tasks might include cooking on an open hearth, churning butter, spinning wool and weaving, and farming without modern equipment. They may therefore be described as building museums, European open-air museums tended to be originally in regions where wooden architecture prevailed, as wooden structures may be trans-located without substantial loss of authenticity. Common to all museums, including the earliest ones of the 19th century, is the teaching of the history of everyday living by people from all segments of society. The idea of the museum dates to the 1790s. The first proponent of the idea was the Swiss thinker Charles de Bonstetten and was based on a visit to an exhibit of peasant costumes in the park of Frederiksborg Castle in Denmark. He believed that traditional peasant houses should be preserved against modernity, the first major steps towards the creation of open-air museums was taken in Norway in 1867 when a private citizen transferred some historic farm buildings to a site near Oslo for public viewing. This, in turn, inspired King Oscar II, to establish his own collection nearby, the similar Nordic Museum, was founded in Stockholm, Sweden soon afterwards. In 1891, the first major open-air museum was founded at Skansen, near Stockholm, the Skansen museum included farm buildings from across Scandinavia, folk costumes, live animals, folk music, and demonstrations of folk crafts. The success of Skansen ensured that the museum idea spread to countries across the world. Most open-air museums concentrate on rural culture, however, since the opening of the first town museum, The Old Town in Aarhus, Denmark in 1914, town culture has also become a scope of open-air museums. In many cases new town quarters are being constructed in existing rural culture museums, the North American open-air museum, more commonly called a living history museum, had a different, slightly later origin than the European, and the visitor experience is different. The first was Henry Fords Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan, but it was Colonial Williamsburg which had a greater influence on museum development in North America. It influenced such projects through the continent as Mystic Seaport, Plimoth Plantation, what tends to differentiate the North American from the European model is the approach to interpretation. In Europe, the tendency is to focus on the buildings
16.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
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Penal transportation
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The practice would become mandated for use in Scotland consequent to an act in 1785, but remained used less than in England. Transportation on a scale would resume with the departure of the First Fleet to Australia in 1787. France also transported convicts to Devils Island and New Caledonia, most of this article deals with transportation from Great Britain. Banishment or forced exile from a polity or society has used as a punishment since at least Ancient Roman times. It removed the offender from society, possibly permanently, but was seen as a more merciful or forgiving punishment than execution, by 1670, as new felonies were defined, the option of being sentenced to transportation was allowed. Forgery of a document, for example, was a crime until the 1820s. Depending on the crime, the sentence was imposed for life or for a set period of years, if imposed for a period of years, the offender was permitted to return home after serving out his time, but had to make his own way back. Many offenders thus stayed in the colony as free persons, Transportation was not used by Scotland before the Act of Union 1707, following union, the 1717 Transportation Act specifically excluded its usage in Scotland. Act 1785 the Parliament of Great Britain specifically extended the usage of transportation to Scotland and it remained little used under Scots Law until the early 19th century. In Australia, a convict who had served part of his time might apply for a ticket of leave and this enabled some convicts to resume a more normal life, to marry and raise a family, and to contribute to the development of the colony. In the 17th and 18th centuries criminal justice was severe, later termed the Bloody Code and this was due to both the particularly large number of offences which were punishable by execution, and to the limited choice of sentences available to judges for convicted criminals in England. With the development of colonies, transportation was introduced as a punishment, although legally it was considered a condition of a pardon. Convicts who represented a menace to the community were sent away to distant lands, a secondary aim was to discourage crime for fear of being transported. Transportation continued to be described as an exhibition of the kings mercy. It was a solution to a problem in the domestic penal system. There was also the hope that transported convicts could be rehabilitated and reformed by starting a new life in the colonies. In 1615, in the reign of James I, a committee of the Council had already obtained the power to choose from the prisoners those that deserved pardon and, consequently and these bills failed, but it was clear that change was needed. Transportation was not a sentence in itself, but could be arranged by indirect means, the reading test, crucial for the benefit of clergy, was a fundamental feature of the penal system, but in order to prevent its abuse, this pardoning process was used more strictly
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Port Arthur massacre (Australia)
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The Port Arthur massacre of 28–29 April 1996 was a massacre in which 35 people were killed and 23 wounded. It occurred mainly at the historic Port Arthur former prison colony and it was the deadliest mass shooting in Australian history, and amongst the worst in the world. Martin Bryant, a 28-year-old from New Town, a suburb of Hobart, was guilty of the shootings. Following the incident, it emerged in the media that Bryant had significant intellectual disabilities and he is now imprisoned in the Wilfred Lopes Centre near the Risdon Prison Complex. It was implemented with support by the Commonwealth, states and territories. Martin Bryant inherited about $570,000 AUD worth of property and other assets from a friend, Helen Harvey and he used part of this money to go on many trips around the world from 1993 onwards. Bryant also withdrew many thousands of dollars during this period and he used at least some of this money in late 1993 to purchase an AR-10 semi-automatic rifle through a newspaper advertisement in Tasmania. In March 1996, he had his AR-10 repaired at a gun shop, in April 1995, he also purchased cleaning kits for a.30 calibre weapon and a 12 gauge Daewoo shotgun. He purchased a bag and told a shop attendant that it would need to be strong enough to carry large amounts of ammunition. He told his girlfriend, Petra Wilmott, a different story about the purpose of the bag and he also hid the weapons and a large amount of ammunition at his house. At the time of purchase no registration of guns outside of handguns was required in Tasmania, Bryant offered to buy another property from the Martins at Palmers Lookout Road, but they declined the offer. Bryant described them as very mean people and as the people in my life. The events of this day were pieced together after investigation by police, the facts were then presented in court on 19 November 1996. Bryant was awakened at 6,00 a. m. by his alarm clock and his girlfriend and other family members said he had never been known to use it since he did not work and had no other commitments. At 8,00 a. m. his girlfriend left the house to visit her parents. Bryant left the house and switched on the alarm, which registered the time as 9,47 a. m. Bryant travelled to Forcett Village. He continued down to Port Arthur and was driving into Seascape down the Arthur Highway around 11,45 a. m. He stopped at the Seascape guest accommodation site that his father had wanted to purchase, owned by David, Bryant went inside and fired several shots, then gagged David Martin and stabbed him
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Tasman Highway
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The Tasman Highway is a highway in Tasmania, Australia. Like the Midland Highway, it connects the cities of Hobart and Launceston — however it takes a different route. The Highway also acts as a commuter road to Hobart residents living on the eastern side of the Derwent River. The designation Tasman Highway arises from its location facing the Tasman Sea — named, like the state itself, the highway is one of the longest in Tasmania -410 km, with an average traveling time of 4 1⁄2 hours. The Eastern Outlet is a 24 km section of the Tasman Highway between Hobart and Sorell, with recorded Annual average daily traffic of 67,000, the Tasman Bridge is the busiest portion of the Eastern Outlet and the Tasman Highway as a whole. In 1964, a comprehensive Transport Study of Hobart was undertaken calling for the construction of a Freeway to serve Hobarts growing eastern suburbs. Prior to opening of the Tasman Bridge in 1964 traffic travelling between Hobart and the airport had to use of the Hobart Bridge as well as Rosny Hill Road. Passing through the Meehan Range, this route was windy and entirely two-lane featuring at-grade intersections, the first section of the new Highway between Rosny Hill Road and Mornington opened in 1974 as it exists today and continued to the airport as 3 lanes in its current alignment. During the 1990s, the section of highway between Mornington and the airport was fully duplicated with funds from the Federal Government, in 2002, the Pitt Water bridge was replaced with a new bridge built beside the existing structure with the causeway widened. The Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources has outlined several concepts for the upgrading of the Eastern Outlet portion of the Tasman Highway - Both short, the addition of On/Off Ramps at Gordons Hill Road at Rosny. The State government recently purchased land at Cambridge on the boundary of Hobart Airport to facilitate the future duplication of the Tasman Highway to Sorrell. Capacity upgrades between the Hobart city centre and the Mornington interchange, the southern section of the Highway commences on the fringe of the Hobart Central Business District at the intersection with the Brooker Highway and the Davey/Macquarie couplet. For the remaining 4 km from the Airport the highway features 2 lanes of traffic, and travels over Mcgees Bridge, the road to Orford remains at the national standard as a two-lane highway, albeit with only a few overtaking lanes along its distance. The remainder of the road to St Helens is two lane, with even fewer overtaking opportunities, the eastern, coastal portion of the highway is spectacular, in places running just metres from the Tasman Sea, which makes this the eastern-most A road in Tasmania. Prior to 1990, there was no coastal route between Falmouth and the Chain of Lagoons – one had to travel into and out of St Marys, the bypass was officially opened on 2 December 1991, though motorists had been using the partially constructed road before its opening. Great care was taken during the construction to protect Aboriginal middens, at the Launceston end, the highway is a main road with traffic lights. Out of the city, it becomes an ordinary two-lane road through the mountains and it passes waterfalls and through timber and rainforest country. The portion between Launceston and Scottsdale runs through the Sideling Range, there is a lookout which offers a spectacular view of Scottsdale and its surrounds
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Sorell, Tasmania
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Sorell is a town in Tasmania, Australia, north-east of Hobart. It is located on the Tasman Highway at the junction with the Arthur Highway, at the 2006 census, Sorell had a population of 1,546, and at the 2011 census, a population of 2,476. Sorell was named after William Sorell, the third Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemens Land, historically, it was known as a major town on the route from Hobart to Port Arthur on the Tasman Peninsula. It was the centre of an area and an important market town. It is now a town of Hobart, as well as the seat of the Sorell Council. In 1872 the Sorell Causeway was opened, from the Cambridge direction, across Pitt Water and Orielton Lagoon to Sorell and this shortened the route considerably from the original road via Richmond. Sorell Post Office opened on 1 June 1832, there is also a mountain in the West Coast Range with the same name. Port Sorell is located on the mid north coast of Tasmania
