1.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
2.
Tasmania
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Tasmania is an island state of the Commonwealth of Australia. It is located 240 km to the south of the Australian mainland, the state encompasses the main island of Tasmania, the 26th-largest island in the world, and the surrounding 334 islands. The state has a population of around 519,100, just over forty percent of which resides in the Greater Hobart precinct, Tasmanias area is 68,401 km2, of which the main island covers 64,519 km2. Though an island state, due to an error the state shares a land border with Victoria at its northernmost terrestrial point, Boundary Islet. The Bishop and Clerk Islets, about 37 km south of Macquarie Island, are the southernmost terrestrial point of the state of Tasmania, the island is believed to have been occupied by Aboriginals for 40,000 years before British colonisation. It is thought Tasmanian Aboriginals were separated from the mainland Aboriginal groups about 10,000 years ago when the sea rose to form Bass Strait. The conflict, which peaked between 1825 and 1831 and led to more than three years of law, cost the lives of almost 1100 Aboriginals and settlers. The near-destruction of Tasmanias Aboriginal population has been described by historians as an act of genocide by the British. The island was part of the Colony of New South Wales. In 1854 the present Constitution of Tasmania was passed and the year the state received permission to change its name to Tasmania. In 1901 it became a state through the process of the Federation of Australia, the state is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who made the first reported European sighting of the island on 24 November 1642. Tasman named the island Anthony van Diemens Land after his sponsor Anthony van Diemen, the name was later shortened to Van Diemens Land by the British. It was officially renamed Tasmania in honour of its first European discoverer on 1 January 1856, Tasmania was sometimes referred to as Dervon, as mentioned in the Jerilderie Letter written by the notorious Australian bushranger Ned Kelly in 1879. The colloquial expression for the state is Tassie, Tasmania is also colloquially shortened to Tas, especially when used in business names and website addresses. TAS is also the Australia Post abbreviation for the state, the reconstructed Palawa kani language name for Tasmania is Lutriwita. The island was adjoined to the mainland of Australia until the end of the last glacial period about 10,000 years ago, much of the island is composed of Jurassic dolerite intrusions through other rock types, sometimes forming large columnar joints. Tasmania has the worlds largest areas of dolerite, with many distinctive mountains, the central plateau and the southeast portions of the island are mostly dolerite. Mount Wellington above Hobart is an example, showing distinct columns known as the Organ Pipes
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Census in Australia
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The census in Australia, or officially, the Census of Population and Housing, is a descriptive count of population of Australia on one night, and of their dwellings, generally held quinquennially. Participation in the census is compulsory, though answering some questions is optional, the count is taken every five years and is managed by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The first Australian census was held in 1911, on the night of 2 April, in 1961 the five-year period was introduced. Censuses are held on the second Tuesday of August, the most recent was held on 9 August 2016. The cost of the 2011 census was $440 million, a separate census of Norfolk Island has been conducted by the Norfolk Island Government every five years since 1981, and occurs on the same day as the Australian census. The census examines data such as age, gender, incomes, occupations, dwelling types and occupancy, transportation modes, ancestry, languages spoken, the Census and Statistics Act 1905 led to the 1906 establishment of the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. The Bureau was renamed the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 1975, the census is collected and published against geographic areas defined by the Australian Standard Geographical Classification. The ASGC provides a set of classifications for the dissemination of all ABS statistics. In 2007 the ABS published a set of spatial units called mesh blocks. The primary aim of mesh blocks is to provide a block for constructing alternative. Only data on persons and total dwellings is released at the mesh block level. Mesh blocks will form the basis of a new statistical geography, the traditional concept of a Collection District is that it was the area that one census collector can cover in about a ten-day period. In the 2001 census, collectors may be allocated more than one urban district because of their size. In urban areas collection districts average about 220 dwellings, in rural areas the number of dwellings per collection district reduces as population densities decrease. For the 2001 census there were 37,209 collection districts and 1,353 Statistical Local Areas defined throughout Australia, the Census and Statistics Act 1905 and Privacy Act 1988 guarantee that no personally-identifiable information is released from the ABS to other government organisations, or the public. However the ABS makes confidential census data available to researchers, who must make various legal commitments before being given access, in the 1970s there was public debate about privacy and the census. In 1979 the Law Reform Commission reported on Privacy and the Census, one of the key elements under question was the inclusion of names. It was found that excluding names reduced the accuracy of the data, individuals were likely to leave questions blank
5.
Postcodes in Australia
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Postcodes are used in Australia to more efficiently sort and route mail within the postal system. All postcodes in Australia have four digits and are placed at the end of the Australian address, Australian postcodes are managed by Australia Post. Postcodes are published in booklets available from post offices or online from the Australia Post website, Australian envelopes and postcards often have four square boxes printed in orange at the bottom right for the postcode. These are used when addressing mail by hand, use of the Australian postcode system commenced in 1967, implemented by the Postmaster-Generals Department, now called Australia Post. It replaced earlier postal sorting systems, such as Melbournes letter and number codes, if addressing a letter from outside Australia, the postcode is recorded before Australia. They are often linked with one area, due to post code rationalization, But are now sometimes they can be quite complex, especially in country areas. The south-western Victoria 3221 postcode of the Geelong Mail Centre also includes twenty places around Geelong with very few people and this means that mail for these places is not fully sorted until it gets to Geelong. Some postcodes cover large populations, while other postcodes have much smaller populations, Australian postcodes range from 0200 for the Australian National University to 9944 for Cannonvale, Queensland. Some towns and suburbs have two postcodes — one for deliveries and one for post office boxes. g. The Royal Brisbane and Womens Hospital has the postcode 4029, the Australian National University had the postcode 0200, more postcode ranges were made available for LVRs in the 1990s. Australia Post has been progressively discontinuing the LVR programme since 2006, Australian National Universitys postcode 0200 was the last LVR to be closed in September 2014. For example, postcode 2620 covers both a locality in NSW as well as a locality in the ACT, and postcode 0872 covers a number of localities across WA, SA, NT and QLD. Jervis Bay Territory, once an exclave of the ACT but now a territory, is geographically located on the coast of NSW. It is just south of the towns of Vincentia and Huskisson, Mail to the Jervis Bay Territory is still addressed to the ACT. The numbers used to show the state on each radio callsign in Australia are the number as the first number for postcodes in that state, e. g. 2xx in New South Wales, 3xx in Victoria. Radio callsigns pre-date postcodes in Australia by more than forty years, australias external territories are also included in Australia Posts postcode system. Capital city postcodes were the lowest postcodes in their state or territory range, before new ranges for LVRs, however, postcodes with the same second number are not always next to each other. As an example, postcodes in the range 2200–2299 are split between the suburbs of Sydney and the Central Coast of New South Wales
6.
Hobart
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Hobart is the capital and most populous city of the Australian island state of Tasmania. It is the least populated state capital in Australia, founded in 1803 as a penal colony, Hobart is Australias second oldest capital city after Sydney, New South Wales. The modern history of Hobart dates to its foundation as a British colony in 1803, prior to British settlement, the area had been occupied for possibly as long as 35,000 years, by the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe, a sub-group of the Nuennone, or South-East tribe. The descendants of the indigenous Tasmanians now refer to themselves as Palawa, Hobart has experienced both booms and busts over its history. In the later years of the 20th century, migrants arrived to settle in Hobart from Asia. In June 2015, the city had an area population of approximately 221,000. The city is located in the states south-east on the estuary of the Derwent River and its harbour forms the second-deepest natural port in the world. Its skyline is dominated by the 1, 271-metre kunanyi/Mount Wellington, the metropolitan area is often referred to as Greater Hobart, to differentiate it from the City of Hobart, one of the five local government areas that cover the city. The first European settlement began in 1803 as a colony at Risdon Cove on the eastern shores of the Derwent River. In 1804 it was moved to a location at the present site of Hobart at Sullivans Cove. The city, initially known as Hobart Town or Hobarton, was named after Lord Hobart, the British secretary of state for war, the areas indigenous inhabitants were members of the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe. Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town in February 1836 as part of the Beagle expedition, I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, the Derwent River was one of Australias finest deepwater ports and was the centre of the Southern Ocean whaling and sealing trades. The settlement rapidly grew into a port, with allied industries such as shipbuilding. Hobart Town became a city on 21 August 1842, and was renamed Hobart from the beginning of 1881, Hobart is located on the estuary of the Derwent River in the states south-east. Geologically Hobart is built predominantly on Jurassic dolerite around the foothills interspersed with areas of Triassic siltstone. Both of these areas rest on the younger Jurassic dolerite deposits, before stretching into the areas such as the beaches of Sandy Bay in the south. South of the Derwent estuary lies Storm Bay and the Tasman Peninsula, the Eastern Shore also extends from the Derwent valley area in a southerly direction hugging the Meehan Range in the east before sprawling into flatter land in suburbs such as Bellerive
7.
Eaglehawk Neck
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The Eaglehawk Neck is a narrow isthmus that connects the Tasman Peninsula with the Forestier Peninsula, and hence to mainland Tasmania, Australia. A township settlement in the region is also called Eaglehawk Neck. At the 2011 census, the settlement of Eaglehawk Neck had a population of 338, locally known as the Neck, the isthmus itself is around 400 metres long and under 30 metres wide at its narrowest point. The area features rugged terrain and several unusual geological formations and these include the Tessellated Pavement, an area of flat rock that looks to be manmade but is in fact formed by erosion. Also nearby are the formations of Tasmans Arch, the Blowhole. Eaglehawk Neck offers accommodation in the Lufra Hotel, near the Tessellated Pavement, a nearby footpath leads to Martin Cashs lookout near the top of the hill at the southern end. Eaglehawk Neck is a local holiday destination. On the eastern side, a beach that stretches around Pirates Bay is a surfing area. In summer the population rises as people return to their holiday homes, the area was heavily patrolled by soldiers, and the guards quarters still remains as a museum. Many attempts were made by convicts to escape via Eaglehawk Neck, the first Eagle Hawk Neck post office was open from 1875 until 1877. It reopened on 11 January 1895 and closed in 1974, geography of Tasmania Storey, Shirley, Storey, Peter. Tasman tracks,25 walks on the Tasman and Forestier Peninsulas, Eaglehawk Neck at walkabout. com. au Eaglehawk Neck
8.
Local government areas of Tasmania
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Local government areas in the Australian state of Tasmania describes the 29 organisations and processes by which towns and districts can manage their own affairs. The LGAs are grouped by region and this article also includes lists of towns, suburbs and localities of Tasmania. Greater Hobart contains six LGAs, Brighton Council, containing the Hobart suburbs of Bridgewater, Gagebrook, Old Beach, and the towns of Brighton, Pontville, and Tea Tree. Sorell Council, containing the towns of Bream Creek, Dodges Ferry, Copping, Dunalley, Kellevie, Lewisham, Marion Bay, Midway Point, municipality of Tasman, containing the towns and settlements of Koonya, Murdunna, Nubeena, and Port Arthur. Huon Valley Council, containing the towns and settlements of Cygnet, Dover, Franklin, Geeveston, Port Huon, Glen Huon, Huonville, glamorgan Spring Bay Council, containing the towns and settlements of Bicheno, Coles Bay, Orford, Swansea, and Triabunna. The north-east area councils contain three LGAs, Break ODay Council, containing the towns and settlements of Fingal, St Helens, St Marys, dorset Council, containing the towns and settlements of Branxholm, Bridport, Derby, Scottsdale, and Winnaleah. Flinders Council, containing Cape Barren Island and Flinders Island and its settlements of Emita, the Launceston area councils contain four LGAs, George Town Council, containing the towns and settlements of Bell Bay and George Town. Meander Valley Council, containing the Launceston suburbs of Blackstone Heights and Prospect, the towns and settlements of Carrick, Deloraine, Hagley, Hadspen, Mole Creek, west Tamar Council, containing the towns and settlements of Beaconsfield, Beauty Point, Exeter, Legana, and Riverside. Central Coast Council, containing the towns of Forth, Penguin, Turners Beach, Ulverstone, circular Head Council, containing the towns of Marrawah, Smithton, and Stanley. City of Devonport, containing the city of Devonport, kentish Council, containing the towns and settlements of Cradle Mountain, Railton, and Sheffield. King Island Council, containing King Island and the settlement of Currie, Latrobe Council, containing the towns and settlements of Hawley Beach, Latrobe, Port Sorell, and Shearwater. Waratah-Wynyard Council, containing the towns and settlements of Savage River, Somerset, Waratah, west Coast Council, containing the towns and settlements of Queenstown, Rosebery, Strahan, Tullah, and Zeehan. The Central councils contain three LGAs, Central Highlands Council, containing the settlements of Bothwell, Bronte Park, Derwent Bridge, Hamilton, Liawenee, Miena, Ouse, and Tarraleah. Northern Midlands Council, containing the settlements of Avoca, Campbell Town, Cressy, Evandale, Liffey, Longford, southern Midlands Council, containing the settlements of Bagdad, Campania, Oatlands, and Ross. See Former local government areas of Tasmania Tasmania has had an amount of former LGAs. In 1907,149 LGAs were reduced by mergers and amalgamation to 53 LGAs, by the time of a large scale overhaul in 1993,46 LGAs were reduced to 29 LGAs. List of localities in Tasmania Government of Tasmania Divisions of the Australian House of Representatives#Tasmania Map of Local Government Areas
9.
Tasman Council
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The Tasman Council is a local government area of Tasmania, covering the Tasman and Forestier Peninsulas. At the 2011 census, the government area had a population of 2,355. Port Arthur, Nubeena and Koonya are the main towns, Tasman Council is composed of seven Councillors elected using the Hare-Clark system of proportional representation as a single ward. All Councillors are elected for a fixed term of office. The Mayor and Deputy Mayor are each elected for a four-year term. The Mayor and Deputy Mayor must also be elected as Councillors in order to hold office, elections are normally held in October, with the next election due to be held in October 2018. Neither the Australian Labor Party nor the Liberal Party of Australia endorse local government candidates in Tasmania
10.
Division of Lyons (state)
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The Electoral Division of Lyons, Tasmania is one of the five electorates in the Tasmanian House of Assembly, the lower house. Before 1984, it was known as the Division of Wilmot, joseph Lyons represented the area for over 30 years at the state and federal levels. The electorate shares the boundaries of the Federal Division of Lyons, at each state election, five members are elected to Lyons through the single transferable vote. Lyons is the largest in area of the Tasmanian Electoral Divisions, measuring 33,212 km2
11.
Division of Lyons
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The Division of Lyons is an Australian electoral division in Tasmania. The division was created at the Federal redistribution of 12 September 1984 as a version of the abolished Division of Wilmot. Joseph Lyons had previously represented Wilmot at the level from 1909 to 1929. It is located in central Tasmania, stretching from the eastern to northern coast and includes such places as New Norfolk, Deloraine and St Marys and it has been a marginal seat, changing hands between the Australian Labor Party and the Liberal Party. Division of Lyons – Australian Electoral Commission
12.
Convicts in Australia
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Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported by the British government to various penal colonies in Australia. The British government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 17th century, when transportation ended with the start of the American Revolution, an alternative site was needed relieve further overcrowding of British prisons and hulks. Earlier in 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. Other penal colonies were established in Van Diemens Land in 1803 and Queensland in 1824, while Western Australia, founded in 1829 as a free colony. Victoria and South Australia remained free colonies, penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s and dropped off significantly the following decade. The last convict ship arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868, many convicts were transported for petty crimes, while a significant number were political prisoners. More serious crimes, such as rape and murder, were punishable by death, once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. However, convictism carried a stigma, and for some later Australians. Attitudes became more accepting in the 20th century and it is now considered by many Australians to be a cause for celebration to have a convict in ones lineage, around 20% of modern Australians are descended from transported convicts. The convict era has inspired novels, films, and other cultural works. According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, by the time of the American Revolution, London was overcrowded, filled with the unemployed, and flooded with cheap gin. Poverty, social injustice, child labor, harsh and dirty living conditions, Dickens novels perhaps best illustrate this, even some government officials were horrified by what they saw. Only in 1833 and 1844 were the first general laws against child labour passed in the United Kingdom, crime had become a major problem and in 1784 a French observer noted that from sunset to dawn the environs of London became the patrimony of brigands for twenty miles around. Each parish had a watchman, but British cities did not have forces in the modern sense. Jeremy Bentham avidly promoted the idea of a prison. Virtually all malefactors were caught by informers or denounced to the court by their victims. Pursuant to the so-called Bloody Code, by the 1770s there were 222 crimes in Britain which carried the death penalty, almost all of which were crimes against property. These included such offences as the stealing of goods worth over 5 shillings, the cutting down of a tree, the situation was so dire that hulks left over from the Seven Years War were used as makeshift floating prisons
13.
Tasman Peninsula
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The Tasman Peninsula is a peninsula located in south-east Tasmania, Australia, approximately 75 km by the Arthur Highway, south-east of Hobart. The Tasman Peninsula lies south and west of Forestier Peninsula, to which it connects via an isthmus called Eaglehawk Neck. This in turn is joined to the rest of Tasmania by an isthmus called East Bay Neck, near the town of Dunalley, approximately 60 kilometres by road from Hobart. The peninsula is surrounded by water, to the north by Norfolk Bay, to the northwest by Frederick Henry Bay, to the west and south by Storm Bay, many smaller towns are also located on the Tasman Peninsula, the largest of which are Nubeena and Koonya. Smaller centres include Premaydena, Highcroft and Stormlea, the Conservation Park, located on the main highway at Taranna, is a popular local visitor attraction along with the World Heritage Port Arthur Historic Site and a number of beaches. The local government area is the Tasman Council, the area of the peninsula and of the local government area is 660 square kilometres. The area is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, the aboriginal inhabitants of this area preceding European arrival were the Pydairrerme people. Their territory was what is now known as the Tasman and Forestier peninsulas, the Pydairrerme people were a part of the larger Paredarerme language group, whose territory covered a large area of the east coast of Tasmania. The first European settlement of the peninsula was Port Arthur in the early 1830s and it also had excellent supplies of timber for shipbuilding and general construction work, and a deep sheltered harbour where visiting British warships could be repaired. Its inaccessibility was enhanced by having Eaglehawk Neck lined with guards and guard dogs, a small number did escape, including the bushranger Martin Cash. The Saltwater River historic site, located near the north tip west of the peninsula, was originally the site of a coal mine. The penal settlement of Port Arthur is now a tourist attraction, as in most of the rest of the state, tourism is a major industry. In the era between convict settlement and the rise of the modern tourist industry the area was engaged in the timber industry. The terrain and soil types impeded large-scale agriculture although orcharding and general farming was and is conducted in suitable locations, during the period 1900-1930s the main operator servicing the area was the Huon, Channel & Peninsula Steamship Company, owners of several vessels including the extant M. V. The rare Cape Pillar sheoak is a shrub or small tree found only in the Tasman National Park where it is restricted to the Cape Pillar area of the Tasman Peninsula, the rugged coastline has been the scene of a number of shipwrecks. Two large seagoing steamers have sunk after hitting the Hyppolyte Rock off its east coast - the Tasman in 1883, Munroe Bight to the north of Cape Pillar is named after the former American barque James Munroe wrecked there in 1850. The Tasman Peninsula is well known for its eastern coastline. At Eaglehawk Neck are many rock formations, including The Devils Kitchen, Tasmans Arch, Blow Hole
14.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
15.
Open-air museum
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An open-air museum is a museum that exhibits collections of buildings and artifacts out-of-doors. They are also known as museums of buildings or folk museums. The concept of an open-air museum originated in Scandinavia in the late 19th century, a comprehensive history of the open-air museum as idea and institution can be found in Swedish museologist Sten Rentzhogs 2007 book Open Air Museums, The History and Future of a Visionary Idea. Living history museums, including living farm museums and living museums, the interpreters act as if they are living in a different time and place and perform everyday household tasks, crafts, and occupations. The goal is to demonstrate older lifestyles and pursuits to modern audiences, household tasks might include cooking on an open hearth, churning butter, spinning wool and weaving, and farming without modern equipment. They may therefore be described as building museums, European open-air museums tended to be originally in regions where wooden architecture prevailed, as wooden structures may be trans-located without substantial loss of authenticity. Common to all museums, including the earliest ones of the 19th century, is the teaching of the history of everyday living by people from all segments of society. The idea of the museum dates to the 1790s. The first proponent of the idea was the Swiss thinker Charles de Bonstetten and was based on a visit to an exhibit of peasant costumes in the park of Frederiksborg Castle in Denmark. He believed that traditional peasant houses should be preserved against modernity, the first major steps towards the creation of open-air museums was taken in Norway in 1867 when a private citizen transferred some historic farm buildings to a site near Oslo for public viewing. This, in turn, inspired King Oscar II, to establish his own collection nearby, the similar Nordic Museum, was founded in Stockholm, Sweden soon afterwards. In 1891, the first major open-air museum was founded at Skansen, near Stockholm, the Skansen museum included farm buildings from across Scandinavia, folk costumes, live animals, folk music, and demonstrations of folk crafts. The success of Skansen ensured that the museum idea spread to countries across the world. Most open-air museums concentrate on rural culture, however, since the opening of the first town museum, The Old Town in Aarhus, Denmark in 1914, town culture has also become a scope of open-air museums. In many cases new town quarters are being constructed in existing rural culture museums, the North American open-air museum, more commonly called a living history museum, had a different, slightly later origin than the European, and the visitor experience is different. The first was Henry Fords Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan, but it was Colonial Williamsburg which had a greater influence on museum development in North America. It influenced such projects through the continent as Mystic Seaport, Plimoth Plantation, what tends to differentiate the North American from the European model is the approach to interpretation. In Europe, the tendency is to focus on the buildings
16.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
17.
Penal transportation
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The practice would become mandated for use in Scotland consequent to an act in 1785, but remained used less than in England. Transportation on a scale would resume with the departure of the First Fleet to Australia in 1787. France also transported convicts to Devils Island and New Caledonia, most of this article deals with transportation from Great Britain. Banishment or forced exile from a polity or society has used as a punishment since at least Ancient Roman times. It removed the offender from society, possibly permanently, but was seen as a more merciful or forgiving punishment than execution, by 1670, as new felonies were defined, the option of being sentenced to transportation was allowed. Forgery of a document, for example, was a crime until the 1820s. Depending on the crime, the sentence was imposed for life or for a set period of years, if imposed for a period of years, the offender was permitted to return home after serving out his time, but had to make his own way back. Many offenders thus stayed in the colony as free persons, Transportation was not used by Scotland before the Act of Union 1707, following union, the 1717 Transportation Act specifically excluded its usage in Scotland. Act 1785 the Parliament of Great Britain specifically extended the usage of transportation to Scotland and it remained little used under Scots Law until the early 19th century. In Australia, a convict who had served part of his time might apply for a ticket of leave and this enabled some convicts to resume a more normal life, to marry and raise a family, and to contribute to the development of the colony. In the 17th and 18th centuries criminal justice was severe, later termed the Bloody Code and this was due to both the particularly large number of offences which were punishable by execution, and to the limited choice of sentences available to judges for convicted criminals in England. With the development of colonies, transportation was introduced as a punishment, although legally it was considered a condition of a pardon. Convicts who represented a menace to the community were sent away to distant lands, a secondary aim was to discourage crime for fear of being transported. Transportation continued to be described as an exhibition of the kings mercy. It was a solution to a problem in the domestic penal system. There was also the hope that transported convicts could be rehabilitated and reformed by starting a new life in the colonies. In 1615, in the reign of James I, a committee of the Council had already obtained the power to choose from the prisoners those that deserved pardon and, consequently and these bills failed, but it was clear that change was needed. Transportation was not a sentence in itself, but could be arranged by indirect means, the reading test, crucial for the benefit of clergy, was a fundamental feature of the penal system, but in order to prevent its abuse, this pardoning process was used more strictly
18.
Port Arthur massacre (Australia)
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The Port Arthur massacre of 28–29 April 1996 was a massacre in which 35 people were killed and 23 wounded. It occurred mainly at the historic Port Arthur former prison colony and it was the deadliest mass shooting in Australian history, and amongst the worst in the world. Martin Bryant, a 28-year-old from New Town, a suburb of Hobart, was guilty of the shootings. Following the incident, it emerged in the media that Bryant had significant intellectual disabilities and he is now imprisoned in the Wilfred Lopes Centre near the Risdon Prison Complex. It was implemented with support by the Commonwealth, states and territories. Martin Bryant inherited about $570,000 AUD worth of property and other assets from a friend, Helen Harvey and he used part of this money to go on many trips around the world from 1993 onwards. Bryant also withdrew many thousands of dollars during this period and he used at least some of this money in late 1993 to purchase an AR-10 semi-automatic rifle through a newspaper advertisement in Tasmania. In March 1996, he had his AR-10 repaired at a gun shop, in April 1995, he also purchased cleaning kits for a.30 calibre weapon and a 12 gauge Daewoo shotgun. He purchased a bag and told a shop attendant that it would need to be strong enough to carry large amounts of ammunition. He told his girlfriend, Petra Wilmott, a different story about the purpose of the bag and he also hid the weapons and a large amount of ammunition at his house. At the time of purchase no registration of guns outside of handguns was required in Tasmania, Bryant offered to buy another property from the Martins at Palmers Lookout Road, but they declined the offer. Bryant described them as very mean people and as the people in my life. The events of this day were pieced together after investigation by police, the facts were then presented in court on 19 November 1996. Bryant was awakened at 6,00 a. m. by his alarm clock and his girlfriend and other family members said he had never been known to use it since he did not work and had no other commitments. At 8,00 a. m. his girlfriend left the house to visit her parents. Bryant left the house and switched on the alarm, which registered the time as 9,47 a. m. Bryant travelled to Forcett Village. He continued down to Port Arthur and was driving into Seascape down the Arthur Highway around 11,45 a. m. He stopped at the Seascape guest accommodation site that his father had wanted to purchase, owned by David, Bryant went inside and fired several shots, then gagged David Martin and stabbed him
19.
Tasman Highway
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The Tasman Highway is a highway in Tasmania, Australia. Like the Midland Highway, it connects the cities of Hobart and Launceston — however it takes a different route. The Highway also acts as a commuter road to Hobart residents living on the eastern side of the Derwent River. The designation Tasman Highway arises from its location facing the Tasman Sea — named, like the state itself, the highway is one of the longest in Tasmania -410 km, with an average traveling time of 4 1⁄2 hours. The Eastern Outlet is a 24 km section of the Tasman Highway between Hobart and Sorell, with recorded Annual average daily traffic of 67,000, the Tasman Bridge is the busiest portion of the Eastern Outlet and the Tasman Highway as a whole. In 1964, a comprehensive Transport Study of Hobart was undertaken calling for the construction of a Freeway to serve Hobarts growing eastern suburbs. Prior to opening of the Tasman Bridge in 1964 traffic travelling between Hobart and the airport had to use of the Hobart Bridge as well as Rosny Hill Road. Passing through the Meehan Range, this route was windy and entirely two-lane featuring at-grade intersections, the first section of the new Highway between Rosny Hill Road and Mornington opened in 1974 as it exists today and continued to the airport as 3 lanes in its current alignment. During the 1990s, the section of highway between Mornington and the airport was fully duplicated with funds from the Federal Government, in 2002, the Pitt Water bridge was replaced with a new bridge built beside the existing structure with the causeway widened. The Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources has outlined several concepts for the upgrading of the Eastern Outlet portion of the Tasman Highway - Both short, the addition of On/Off Ramps at Gordons Hill Road at Rosny. The State government recently purchased land at Cambridge on the boundary of Hobart Airport to facilitate the future duplication of the Tasman Highway to Sorrell. Capacity upgrades between the Hobart city centre and the Mornington interchange, the southern section of the Highway commences on the fringe of the Hobart Central Business District at the intersection with the Brooker Highway and the Davey/Macquarie couplet. For the remaining 4 km from the Airport the highway features 2 lanes of traffic, and travels over Mcgees Bridge, the road to Orford remains at the national standard as a two-lane highway, albeit with only a few overtaking lanes along its distance. The remainder of the road to St Helens is two lane, with even fewer overtaking opportunities, the eastern, coastal portion of the highway is spectacular, in places running just metres from the Tasman Sea, which makes this the eastern-most A road in Tasmania. Prior to 1990, there was no coastal route between Falmouth and the Chain of Lagoons – one had to travel into and out of St Marys, the bypass was officially opened on 2 December 1991, though motorists had been using the partially constructed road before its opening. Great care was taken during the construction to protect Aboriginal middens, at the Launceston end, the highway is a main road with traffic lights. Out of the city, it becomes an ordinary two-lane road through the mountains and it passes waterfalls and through timber and rainforest country. The portion between Launceston and Scottsdale runs through the Sideling Range, there is a lookout which offers a spectacular view of Scottsdale and its surrounds
20.
Sorell, Tasmania
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Sorell is a town in Tasmania, Australia, north-east of Hobart. It is located on the Tasman Highway at the junction with the Arthur Highway, at the 2006 census, Sorell had a population of 1,546, and at the 2011 census, a population of 2,476. Sorell was named after William Sorell, the third Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemens Land, historically, it was known as a major town on the route from Hobart to Port Arthur on the Tasman Peninsula. It was the centre of an area and an important market town. It is now a town of Hobart, as well as the seat of the Sorell Council. In 1872 the Sorell Causeway was opened, from the Cambridge direction, across Pitt Water and Orielton Lagoon to Sorell and this shortened the route considerably from the original road via Richmond. Sorell Post Office opened on 1 June 1832, there is also a mountain in the West Coast Range with the same name. Port Sorell is located on the mid north coast of Tasmania
21.
Ferry
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A ferry is a merchant vessel used to carry passengers, and sometimes vehicles and cargo as well, across a body of water. Most ferries operate regular return services, a passenger ferry with many stops, such as in Venice, Italy, is sometimes called a water bus or water taxi. Ferries form a part of the transport systems of many waterside cities and islands. However, ship connections of much larger distances may also be called ferry services, the profession of the ferryman is embodied in Greek mythology in Charon, the boatman who transported souls across the River Styx to the Underworld. Speculation that a pair of oxen propelled a ship having a wheel can be found in 4th century Roman literature Anonymus De Rebus Bellicis. Though impractical, there is no reason why it could not work and such a ferry, see When Horses Walked on Water, Horse-Powered Ferries in Nineteenth-Century America. The Marine Services Company of Tanzania offers passenger and cargo services in three of the African Great Lakes viz, Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa. It also operates one of the oldest ferries in the region, Ferries from Great Britain also sail to Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Ireland. Some ferries carry mainly tourist traffic, but most also carry freight, in Britain, car-carrying ferries are sometimes referred to as RORO for the ease by which vehicles can board and leave. The busiest single ferry route is across the part of Øresund. Before the Øresund bridge was opened in July 2000, car and car & train ferries departed up to seven times every hour, in 2013, this has been reduced, but a car ferry still departs from each harbor every 15 minutes during daytime. The route is around 2.2 nautical miles and the crossing takes 22 minutes, today, all ferries on this route are constructed so that they do not need to turn around in the harbors. This also means that the ferries lack natural stems and sterns, due to the same circumstances, starboard and port-side are dynamic and depending of in what direction the ferry sails. Despite the short crossing, the ferries are equipped with restaurants, cafeteria, kiosks, large cruiseferries sail in the Baltic Sea between Finland, Åland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia and Saint Petersburg, Russia and from Italy to Sardinia, Corsica, Spain and Greece. In many ways, these ferries are like cruise ships, also many smaller ferries operate on domestic routes in Finland, Sweden and Estonia. The south-west and southern parts of the Baltic Sea has several routes mainly for heavy traffic, on the longer of these routes, simple cabins are available. In Istanbul, ferries connect the European and Asian shores of Bosphorus, as well as Princes Islands, in 2014 İDO transported 47 million passengers, the largest ferry system in the world. Due to the numbers of freshwater lakes and length of shoreline in Canada
22.
Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet
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Lieutenant-General Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet KCH PC was Lieutenant Governor of British Honduras, Van Diemens Land and Upper Canada. He also served as Governor of Bombay, George Arthur was born in Plymouth, England. He was the youngest son of John Arthur, from a Cornish family and he entered the army in 1804 as an Ensign and was promoted Lieutenant in June 1805. He served during the Napoleonic Wars including Sir James Craigs expedition to Italy in 1806, in 1807 he went to Egypt, and was severely wounded in the attack upon Rosetta. He recuperated and was promoted to Captain under Sir James Kempt in Sicily in 1808, major George Arthur married Eliza Orde Ussher, daughter of Lieut. -Gen. Sir John Sigismund Smith, K. C. B. in May,1814, lady Arthur lived in Toronto, Ontario 1838–41 with three of the couples sons and their five daughters. She died in London, England,14 January 1855 and their daughter Catherine married Sir Henry Bartle Frere after he had been her fathers personal secretary for two years in Bombay, and gave birth to the poet Mary Frere. Their son John married Aileen Spring Rice, the granddaughter of Lord Monteagle of Brandon, in 1814 he was appointed lieutenant governor of British Honduras, holding at the same time the rank of colonel on the staff, thus exercising the military command as well as the civil government. In 1823 he was appointed lieutenant governor of Van Diemens Land, at the time Van Diemens Land was the main British penal colony and it was separated from New South Wales in 1825. It was during Arthurs time in office that Van Diemens Land gained much of its notorious reputation as a penal colony. He selected Port Arthur as the location for a prison settlement, on a peninsula connected by a narrow, easily guarded isthmus. Arthurs predecessors had executed no one in Tasmania, he executed 260 in his term of office He is also associated with the repression and persecution of the Aboriginal population. During the 1820s, with relations between the colonists and Aborigines worsening, Arthur declared a state of law, and the conflict became known as the Black War. After Aboriginal attacks on colonist settlers, Arthur organised the Black Line fiasco, by this time he was one of the wealthiest men in the colony. He returned to England in March 1837, from the very start of his administration, he had to deal with the aftermath of the Upper Canada Rebellion and was instrumental in the execution of Peter Matthews and Samuel Lount. In the same year, Upper Canada was invaded by a band of American sympathizers and he failed to address the issues of fixing colonial administration from the influence of Family Compact, and was replaced by Lord Durham while the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada sat betimes. The two colonies were united in 1841, the Lord Sydenham, the first governor-general, asked Sir George Arthur to administer Upper Canada as deputy governor. Arthur agreed, on condition that the service was unpaid, later in 1841 he returned to England and was created a hereditary baronet in recognition of his services in Canada
23.
Van Diemen's Land
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Van Diemens Land was the original name used by most Europeans for the island of Tasmania, now part of Australia. The name was changed from Van Diemens Land to Tasmania in 1856, the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman was the first European to land on the shores of Tasmania in 1642. Between 1772 and 1798, only the portion of the island was visited. Tasmania was not known to be an island until Matthew Flinders, after receiving no response from the Spanish government, Peyroux proposed it to the French government, as Mémoire sur les avantages qui résulteraient dune colonie puissante à la terre de Diémen. In 1802 and 1803, the French expedition commanded by Nicolas Baudin explored DEntrecasteaux Channel and Maria Island, the demonym for Van Diemens Land was Van Diemonian, though contemporaries used the spelling Vandemonian. In 1856, the colony was granted responsible self-government with its own parliament. Main articles, Port Arthur, Tasmania, Convicts on the West Coast of Tasmania From the 1800s to the 1853 abolition of penal transportation, following the suspension of transportation to New South Wales, all transported convicts were sent to Van Diemens Land. In total, some 75,000 convicts were transported to Van Diemens Land, male convicts served their sentences as assigned labour to free settlers or in gangs assigned to public works. Only the most difficult convicts were sent to the Tasman Peninsula prison known as Port Arthur, female convicts were assigned as servants in free settler households or sent to a female factory. There were five female factories in Van Diemens Land, Convicts completing their sentences or earning their ticket-of-leave often promptly left Van Diemens Land. Many settled in the new colony of Victoria, to the dismay of the free settlers in towns such as Melbourne. Anthony Trollope used the term Vandemonian, They are united in their declaration that the cessation of the coming of convicts has been their ruin, in 1856, Van Diemens Land was renamed Tasmania, meaning that it technically still exists but under a different name. This removed the unsavoury criminal connotations with the name Van Diemens Land, while honouring Abel Tasman, the last penal settlement in Tasmania at Port Arthur closed in 1877. The film was nominated for a Rose dOr, an Irish Film and Television Award, the feature film Van Diemens Land focuses on the true story of convict Alexander Pearce and his infamous escape from Macquarie Harbour in 1822. Van Diemens Land is the title of the track from the rock band U2s album Rattle. The lyrics were written and sung by The Edge, the song is dedicated to a Fenian poet named John Boyle OReilly, who was deported to Australia because of his poetry. Steeleye Span does a rendition of the folk song on their album They Called Her Babylon The chorus to the English folk song Maggie May says Theyve sent you to Van Diemens cruel shore. Shirley Collins and the Albion Country Band record a version of Van Diemens Land in No Roses Carla Bruni sings the poem If You Were Coming In The Fall, the song includes a reference to Van Diemens land subtracting till my fingers dropped, into Van Diemens Land
24.
Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
25.
Penal colony
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A penal colony is a settlement used to exile prisoners and separate them from the general population by placing them in a remote location, often an island or distant colonial territory. Historically penal colonies have often used for penal labour in an economically underdeveloped part of a states territories. In practice such penal colonies may be more than slave communities. The British used colonial North America as a colony through a system of indentured servitude. Merchants would transport the convicts and auction them off to plantation owners upon arrival in the colonies and it is estimated that some 50,000 British convicts were sent to colonial America and the majority landed in the Chesapeake colonies of Maryland and Virginia. Transported convicts represented perhaps one-quarter of all British emigrants during the 18th century, the State of Georgia for example was first founded by James Edward Oglethorpe by using penal prisoners taken largely from debtors prison, creating a Debtors Colony. However, even though this failed, the idea that the state began as a penal has stayed both in popular history, and local lore. The British would often ship Irish and Scots to the Americas whenever rebellions took place in Ireland or Scotland, when that avenue closed in the 1780s after the American Revolution, Britain began using parts of what is now known as Australia as penal settlements. Australian penal colonies included Norfolk Island, Van Diemens Land, Queensland, advocates of Irish Home Rule or of Trade Unionism sometimes received sentences of deportation to these Australian colonies. Bermuda, off the North American continent, was used during the Victorian period. In colonial India, the British made various penal colonies, two of the most infamous ones are on the Andaman Islands and Hijli. In the early days of settlement, Singapore was the recipient of Indian convicts, the Qing Empire of 1644–1912 used Xinjiang province in the north-west of China as a penal colony. During the Argentine rule of the Falkland Islands the Buenos Aires government commissioned major Esteban Mestivier, as the new governor of the islands and he arrived at his destination on 15 November 1832, but his soldiers mutinied and killed him. Lt. Col. José María Pinedo quelled the rebellion and took charge as governor, argentinas southernmost city, Ushuaia, hosted a penal colony from 1896 to 1947. France sent criminals to tropical penal colonies including Louisiana in the early 18th century, devils Island in French Guiana, 1852–1939, received forgers and other criminals. New Caledonia and its Isle of Pines in Melanesia received transported dissidents like the Communards, ecuador has used two islands in the Galapagos archipelago as penal colonies, the Island of San Cristóbal and Isabela Island. Imperial Russia used Siberia as a colony for criminals and dissidents. Though geographically contiguous with heartland Russia, Siberia provided both remoteness and a harsh climate, in 1857 a penal colony was established on the island of Sakhalin
26.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
27.
Crime
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In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition. The most popular view is that crime is a created by law, in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act not only to some individual. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law, the notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is an offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, the state has the power to severely restrict ones liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere, usually, to be classified as a crime, the act of doing something criminal must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the intention to do something criminal. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime, breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate certain behaviors in general. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system, Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity, they may include incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments, legal mutilation, usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. Conversely, at least under U. S. law, nonpersons such as animals cannot commit crimes, the sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states crime is a phenomenon he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning I decide, originally the Latin word crīmen meant charge or cry of distress. The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to a mistake or an offense against the community. In 13th century English crime meant sinfulness, according to etymonline. com and it was probably brought to England as Old French crimne, from Latin crimen. In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following, charge, indictment, accusation, crime, fault, the word may derive from the Latin cernere – to decide, to sift
28.
Security
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Security is the degree of resistance to, or protection from, harm. It applies to any vulnerable and/or valuable asset, such as a person, dwelling, community, item, nation, or organization. As noted by the Institute for Security and Open Methodologies in the OSSTMM3 and these separations are generically called controls, and sometimes include changes to the asset or the threat. Security is said to have two dialogues, negative dialogue is about danger, risk, threat, etc. Positive dialogue is about opportunities, interests, profits, etc, negative dialogue needs military equipment, armies, or police. Positive dialogue needs social capital, education, or social interaction, perception of security may be poorly mapped to measurable objective security. For example, the fear of earthquakes has been reported to be more common than the fear of slipping on the floor although the latter kills many more people than the former. Similarly, the effectiveness of security measures is sometimes different from the actual security provided by those measures. The presence of security protections may even be taken for the safety itself, for example, two computer security programs could be interfering with each other and even canceling each others effect, while the owner believes they are getting double the protection. Security theater is a term for deployment of measures primarily aimed at raising subjective security without a genuine or commensurate concern for the effects of that action on real safety. Since some intruders will decide not to attempt to break into such areas or vehicles, without such advertisement, an intruder might, for example, approach a car, break the window, and then flee in response to an alarm being triggered. Either way, perhaps the car itself and the objects inside arent stolen, there is an immense literature on the analysis and categorization of security. Part of the reason for this is that, in most security systems, the situation is asymmetric since the defender must cover all points of attack while the attacker need only identify a single weak point upon which to concentrate. It includes physical security to prevent theft of equipment and information security to protect the data on that equipment, today there is a greater recognition of the interconnected nature of security requirements, an approach variously known as holistic security, all hazards management, and other terms. Inciting factors in the convergence of security include the development of digital video surveillance technologies. In 2007 the International Organisation for Standardization released ISO28000 - Security Management Systems for the supply chain, ISO28000 is the foremost risk based security system and is suitable for managing both public and private regulatory security, customs and industry based security schemes and requirements
29.
Jeremy Bentham
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Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, Bentham defined as the fundamental axiom of his philosophy the principle that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and he advocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts. He called for the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the penalty. He has also known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights. Though strongly in favour of the extension of legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights. On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be preserved as an auto-icon. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on display at University College London. Because of his arguments in favour of the availability of education. However, he played only a direct part in its foundation. Bentham was born in Houndsditch, London, to a family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy, he was found as a sitting at his fathers desk reading a multi-volume history of England. He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham, with whom he was close. He attended Westminster School and, in 1760, at age 12, was sent by his father to The Queens College, Oxford and he trained as a lawyer and, though he never practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the English legal code, among his many proposals for legal and social reform was a design for a prison building he called the Panopticon. Although the prison was never built, the concept had an important influence on generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the Panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century disciplinary institutions, Bentham became convinced that his plans for the Panopticon had been thwarted by the King and an aristocratic elite acting in their own interests. More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London and this resulted in the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800
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Panopticon
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The Panopticon is a type of institutional building designed by the English philosopher and social theorist Jeremy Bentham in the late 18th century. The concept of the design is to all inmates of an institution to be observed by a single watchman without the inmates being able to tell whether or not they are being watched. The name is also a reference to Panoptes from Greek mythology, he was a giant with a hundred eyes and thus was known to be a very effective watchman. Bentham conceived the plan as being equally applicable to hospitals, schools, sanatoriums, and asylums. It is his prison that is now most widely meant by the term panopticon, Bentham described the Panopticon as a new mode of obtaining power of mind over mind, in a quantity hitherto without example. Elsewhere, in a letter, he described the Panopticon prison as a mill for grinding rogues honest, in 1786 and 1787, Bentham travelled to Krichev in White Russia to visit his brother, Samuel, who was engaged in managing various industrial and other projects for Prince Potemkin. Jeremy began to develop this model, particularly as applicable to prisons and that the gaoler will have no salary—will cost nothing to the nation. As the watchmen cannot be seen, they need not be on duty at all times, according to Benthams design, the prisoners would also be used as menial labour, walking on wheels to spin looms or run a water wheel. This would decrease the cost of the prison and give a source of income. On his return to England from Russia, Bentham continued to work on the idea of a Panopticon prison, in 1791, he published the material he had written as a book, although he continued to refine his proposals for many years to come. He had by now decided that he wanted to see the prison built and he was eventually successful in winning over Pitt and his advisors, and in 1794 was paid £2,000 for preliminary work on the project. Other sites were considered, including one at Hanging Wood, near Woolwich, eventually Bentham turned to a site at Tothill Fields, near Westminster. Again, therefore, the ground to a halt. At this point, however, it clear that a nearby site at Millbank, adjoining the Thames, was available for sale. Using government money, Bentham bought the land on behalf of the Crown for £12,000 in November 1799, from his point of view, the site was far from ideal, being marshy, unhealthy, and too small. Negotiations continued, but in 1801 Pitt resigned from office, Bentham was devastated, They have murdered my best days. Nevertheless, a few years later the government revived the idea of a National Penitentiary, Bentham, now aged 63, was still willing to be governor. His initial claim was for the sum of nearly £700,000
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Corporal punishment
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Corporal punishment or physical punishment is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person. It is most often used where there is a disparity of power between punisher and punished. Corporal punishment is commonly practiced on minors, especially in home and also school settings, common methods in this regard often include spanking or paddling. It is however used on adults, particularly prisoners in some countries. In history most cultures have practiced corporal punishment on adults in settings of imprisonment or slavery, frequently employed methods are flagellation and caning. In some countries bastinado is still practiced on prisoners as well, official punishment for crime by inflicting pain or injury, including flogging, branding and even mutilation, was practised in most civilizations since ancient times. However, with the growth of humanitarian ideals since the Enlightenment, by the late 20th century, corporal punishment had been eliminated from the legal systems of most developed countries. The legality in the 21st century of corporal punishment in various settings differs by jurisdiction,52 countries, most of them in Europe and Latin America, have banned the practice as of April 2017. School corporal punishment—of students by teachers or school administrators—has been banned in countries, including Canada, Kenya, South Africa, New Zealand. It remains legal, if increasingly less common, in the United States, judicial corporal punishment, as part of a criminal sentence ordered by a court of law, has long disappeared from European countries. However, it remains lawful in parts of Africa, Asia, closely related is prison corporal punishment or disciplinary corporal punishment, ordered by prison authorities or carried out directly by staff. Corporal punishment is also allowed in some settings in a few jurisdictions. Other uses of corporal punishment have existed, for instance as once practised on apprentices by their masters, in many Western countries, medical and human-rights organizations oppose corporal punishment of children. Campaigns against corporal punishment have aimed to bring about legal reform to ban the use of punishment against minors in homes. Corporal punishment of children has traditionally used in the Western world by adults in authority roles. Withhold not correction from a child, for if thou strike him with the rod, thou shalt beat him with the rod, and deliver his soul from hell. It was certainly present in civilizations, being used in Greece, Rome. Some states gained a reputation for using such punishments cruelly, Sparta, in particular, used them as part of a disciplinary regime designed to build willpower, although the Spartan example was extreme, corporal punishment was possibly the most frequent type of punishment
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Prison reform
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Prison reform is the attempt to improve conditions inside prisons, establish a more effective penal system, or implement alternatives to incarceration. Prisons have only used as the primary punishment for criminal acts in the last few centuries. Far more common earlier were various types of punishment, public humiliation, penal bondage. Prisons contained both felons and debtors - the latter were allowed to bring in wives and children, the jailer made his money by charging the inmates for food and drink and legal services and the whole system was ripe with corruption. One reform of the century had been the establishment of the London Bridewell as a house of correction for women and children. This was the only place any medical services were provided, during the eighteenth century, British justice used a wide variety of measures to punish crime, including fines, the pillory and whipping. Transportation to America was often offered, until 1776, as an alternative to the death penalty, when they ran out of prisons in 1776 they used old sailing vessels which came to be called hulks as places of temporary confinement. He was particularly appalled to discover prisoners who had been acquitted but were still confined because they couldnt pay the jailers fees and he proposed that each prisoner should be in a separate cell with separate sections for women felons, men felons, young offenders and debtors. The prison reform charity, the Howard League for Penal Reform and these were never built due to disagreements in the committee and pressures from wars with France and jails remained a local responsibility. But other measures passed in the few years provided magistrates with the powers to implement many of these reforms. Quakers such as Elizabeth Fry continued to publicize the dire state of prisons as did Charles Dickens in his novels David Copperfield and Little Dorrit about the Marshalsea. Samuel Romilly managed to repeal the death penalty for theft in 1806, the Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline, founded in 1816, supported both the Panopticon for the design of prisons and the use of the treadwheel as a means of hard labor. By 1824,54 prisons had adopted this means of discipline, robert Peels Gaols Act of 1823 attempted to impose uniformity in the country but local prisons remained under the control of magistrates until the Prison Act of 1877. The American separate system attracted the attention of some reformers and led to the creation of Millbank Prison in 1816 and Pentonville prison in 1842. By now the end of transportation to Australia and the use of hulks was in sight, the main principles were separation and hard labour for serious crimes, using treadwheels and cranks. In 1877 he encouraged Disraelis government to remove all prisons from local government and he also established a tradition of secrecy which lasted till the 1970s so that even magistrates and investigators were unable to see the insides of prisons. By the 1890s the prison population was over 20,000, in 1894-5 Herbert Gladstones Committee on Prisons showed that criminal propensity peaked from the mid-teens to the mid-twenties. Cross-country walks were encouraged, and no one ran away, Prison populations remained at a low level until after the second world war when Paterson died and the movement was unable to update itself
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Shark
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Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha and are the group to the rays. Under this broader definition, the earliest known sharks date back to more than 420 million years ago, acanthodians are often referred to as spiny sharks, though they are not part of Chondrichthyes proper, they are a paraphyletic assemblage leading to cartilaginous fish as a whole. Since then, sharks have diversified into over 500 species, Sharks are found in all seas and are common to depths of 2,000 metres. They generally do not live in freshwater although there are a few exceptions, such as the bull shark and the river shark. Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles that protects their skin from damage and they have numerous sets of replaceable teeth. Well-known species such as the white shark, tiger shark, blue shark, mako shark. Many shark populations are threatened by human activities, until the 16th century, sharks were known to mariners as sea dogs. The etymology of the shark is uncertain. One theory is that it derives from the Yucatec Maya word xok, however, the Middle English Dictionary records an isolated occurrence of the word shark in a letter written by Thomas Beckington in 1442, which rules out a New World etymology. Evidence for the existence of sharks dates from the Ordovician period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonized the continents. Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all agree that these are from true sharks. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, the first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. The majority of sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers, partial skeletons and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, the teeth consist of easily fossilized calcium phosphate, an apatite. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms, preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments. Among the most ancient and primitive sharks is Cladoselache, from about 370 million years ago, which has been found within Paleozoic strata in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee
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Working dog
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A working dog is a canine working animal, i. e. a type of dog that is not merely a pet but learns and performs tasks to assist and/or entertain its human companions, or a breed of such origin. In Australia and New Zealand, a dog is one which has been trained to work livestock. Within this general description, however, there are ways in which the phrase is used. To identify any dog that performs actions on a basis to assist people. In this context, a dog that helps a rancher manage cattle or that performs stunts for a trainer who receives pay for its acts is a working dog and this might be in comparison to a companion dog, whose purpose is primarily as a pet. To distinguish between dogs that are bred for appearance primarily to win conformation shows and working dogs that are bred primarily for their ability to perform a task and it is also possible that a specimen may excel in both appearance and performance. In many FCI countries it is impossible for some working breeds dogs to become conformation champions without having passed adequate breed specific tests measuring their working abilities, for some breeds, there are separate registries for tracking the ancestry of working and show dogs. As a catch-all for dog breeds whose original purpose was to perform tasks that do not fit into a specific category of work. For example, until 1983 herding dogs were part of the Working Group, the Herding Group was created when the Working Group became too large. Today, the American Kennel Club uses Working Dogs to describe breeds who were bred for jobs other than herding or hunting. Such jobs might include pulling carts, guarding and so on, however, in practice these show dogs under the AKC are not proper working dogs, and would indeed not be suitable for use as such. Many true working breeds are very valuable as working dogs. An example of such a breed is the Anatolian Shepherd, without which many sheep would be destroyed for example by wolves, feral dogs, and in Namibia. Although most modern dogs are kept as pets, there are still a number of ways in which dogs can and do assist humans. The following list provides an idea of the versatility of dogs, Turnspit dogs were used as a source of power, similar arrangements were used for household duties such as churning butter. Dogs were used as draught animals to pull small carts for farms, peddlers, or travellers, to deliver mail and they were used in World War I to pull small field guns. Dogs in harness sometimes had guard dogs to protect them from stray dogs, Service or assistance dogs help people with various disabilities in every day tasks. Some examples include mobility assistance dogs for the handicapped, guide dogs for the visually impaired
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Sailor
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A sailor, seaman, mariner, or seafarer is a person who navigates waterborne vessels or assists as a crewmember in their operation and maintenance. The term bluejacket may be used for British or US Navy enlisted sailors, the Bluejackets Manual is the basic handbook for United States Navy personnel. 700,000 of the worlds mariners come from the Philippines, the term seaman is frequently used in the particular sense of a sailor who is not an officer. Seafarers hold a variety of professions and ranks, each of which carries unique responsibilities which are integral to the operation of an ocean-going vessel. A ships crew can generally be divided into four categories, the deck department, the engineering department, the stewards department. Officer positions in the department include but are not limited to, master and his chief, second. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the department are able seaman. With some variation, the mate is most often charged with the duties of cargo mate. Second Mates are charged with being the officer in case of medical emergency. All three mates each do four-hour morning and afternoon shifts on the bridge, when underway at sea, Marine engineering staff also deal with the hotel facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning and water systems. Engineering staff manage bulk fuel transfers, from a barge in port. When underway at sea, the second and third engineers will often be occupied with oil transfers from storage tanks, cleaning of oil purifiers is another regular task. Engineering staff are required to have training in firefighting and first aid, additional duties include maintaining the ships boats and performing other nautical tasks. Engineers play a key role in cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems, though the specific cargo discharge function remains the responsibility of deck officers, other possible positions include motorman, machinist, electrician, refrigeration engineer and tankerman. A typical stewards department for a ship is a chief steward, a chief cook. All three positions are filled by unlicensed personnel. The chief steward also plans menus, compiles supply, overtime, the steward may requisition or purchase stores and equipment. A chief stewards duties may overlap with those of the assistant, the chief cook
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Smooth Island (Tasmania)
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The Smooth Island, part of the Sloping Island Group, is a privately owned island with an area of 59.31 hectares lying close to the south-eastern coast of Tasmania, Australia. The island is situated in Norfolk Bay, surrounded by the Tasman, the towns Dunalley and Murdunna are nearby. Smooth Island is particularly unique as it is one of the islands in Tasmania where absolutely all of the land is privately owned with unrestricted freehold tenure. Between 1835 and 1855 the island may have used to grow vegetables for the Port Arthur penal colony. By 1869 the land was cultivated, The island had two or three cottages which featured a garden, as well as grazing livestock, the burnt remains of a fireplace are still present on the island. During the 1990s the island was used to host private international pheasant, between 2003 and 2007 the island was used to transport oyster stock to and from a processing facility in Boomer Bay. Smooth Island is home to a range of native Australian birds. Recorded breeding seabird species are little penguin, little pied cormorant, black-faced cormorant, great cormorant, the latter predominantly habitates inland from the western to southern coasts. The following native birds occupy the island, Tasmanian nativehen and forest raven, the Pacific gull also occupies the island. A survey by the Department of the Environment in 2010 revealed the presence of the Eurasian skylark, house sparrow, common pheasant, common starling and common blackbird on the island. The presence of sea eagle, wedge-tailed eagle, kelp gull, tern, silver gull, oystercatcher, cormorant, no reptiles have been recorded on the island apart from a small population of blue tongue lizards. The hooded plover is a species which may be present on Smooth Island. The island has been classified as a drooping she-oak forest, despite having relatively sparse foliage, large macrocarpa have been identified around the remnants of an old cottage on the north-east coast. Eucalyptus globulus and Allocasuarina striata are also present on the island, the Marrubium vulgare weed has been identified towards the islands north. Occasional Blackberry bushes have been identified near the Southern peak and southern shoreline, kangaroo apple is also occasionally found along the southern shoreline. The islands fire attributes are medium flammability, low sensitivity, Smooth Island is surrounded by a low profile reef. A region of gravel or hard sand extends from the reef on the eastern coast towards King George Island, the reef on the western coast is surrounded by sand and a body of silt approaches the south-west coast of the island. Between Smooth Island and King George Island lies a dense bed of seagrass and eelgrass approximately 12.5 hectares in size, studies have found dense populations of South Australian cobbler and within this region, as this fish has a preference for patchy beds of eelgrass near Smooth Island
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Norfolk Bay
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The Norfolk Bay is a body of water in the south east of Tasmania, Australia. The north west aspect of Norfolk Bay is continuous with Frederick Henry Bay, the north east aspect of Norfolk Bay is continuous with Blackman Bay via the Denison Canal. The first recorded Anglo-Saxon encounter with Norfolk bay was by Matthew Flinders in 1798, Norfolk Bay was discovered by Willaumetz, an officer of DEntrecasteaux, in 1792, who becoming short of provisions, could only get as far as Primrose Point. He did not know whether this new bay had communication with Tasmans Frederick Hendrick Bay. Flinders in 1798 visited the Bay, giving it the name of Norfolk, arrowsmith and Frankland, in 1841 and 1858 used both names, but to-day Norfolk Bay is the only name that survives. Lying within Norfolk Bay are Smooth Island, King George Island, Fulham Island, Norfolk bay also contains the following small rock islands, The Mackerel Islets, Tinpot Island and Mason rock. Frederick Henry Bay, Dunalley Bay and King George Sound, Connellys Bay, the following suburbs surround Norfolk bay, Connellys Marsh, Dunalley, Murdunna, Eaglehawk Neck, Taranna, Koonya, Premaydena and Saltwater River. Whilst the shallowness can result in fairly choppy conditions in strong winds, especially from the South West, during summer months the sea breeze can bring strong Easterlies but, as with most waters in this part of the world, watch for the south westerly change. Sand flathead is the predominant recreational fish species which can be found within Norfolk Bay, a study by the University of Tasmania found that the greatest density of flathead occur southeast of a line connecting Premaydena and Boxalls Bay, particularly towards Koonya
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Alcatraz Island
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Alcatraz Island is located in San Francisco Bay,1.25 miles offshore from San Francisco, California, United States. The small island was developed with facilities for a lighthouse, a fortification, a military prison. In 1972, Alcatraz became part of a recreation area. Today, the facilities are managed by the National Park Service as part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Visitors can reach the island by ferry ride from Pier 33, near Fishermans Wharf, hornblower Cruises and Events, operating under the name Alcatraz Cruises, is the official ferry provider to and from the island. According to a 1971 documentary on the history of Alcatraz, the island measures 1,675 feet by 590 feet and is 135 feet at highest point during mean tide, however, the total area of the island is reported to be 22 acres. Over the years, the Spanish version Alcatraz became popular and is now widely used, in August 1827, French Captain Auguste Bernard Duhaut-Cilly wrote. Covered with a number of these birds. A gun fired over the feathered legions caused them to fly up in a great cloud, the California brown pelican is not known to nest on the island today. The Spanish built several buildings on the island and other minor structures. Julian Workman is the name of William Workman, co-owner of Rancho La Puente. Later in 1846, acting in his capacity as Military Governor of California, frémont, champion of Manifest Destiny and leader of the Bear Flag Republic, bought the island for $5,000 in the name of the United States government from Francis Temple. Frémont and his heirs sued for compensation during protracted but unsuccessful legal battles that extended into the 1890s. S, Army began studying the suitability of Alcatraz Island for the positioning of coastal batteries to protect the approaches to San Francisco Bay. In 1853, under the direction of Zealous B, tower, the United States Army Corps of Engineers began fortifying the island, work which continued until 1858, eventuating in Fortress Alcatraz. The islands first garrison at Camp Alcatraz, numbering about 200 soldiers and 11 cannons, at this time it also served as the San Francisco Arsenal for storage of firearms to prevent them falling into the hands of Confederate sympathizers. Alcatraz, built as a fortified military site on the West Coast, formed a triangle of defense along with Fort Point and Lime Point. The island was also the site of the first operational lighthouse on the West Coast of the United States, Alcatraz never fired its guns offensively, though during the war it was used to imprison Confederate sympathizers and privateers on the west coast. Because of its isolation from the outside by the cold, strong, hazardous currents of the waters of San Francisco Bay, following the war in 1866, the army determined that the fortifications and guns were being rapidly rendered obsolete by advances in military technology
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Martin Cash
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Martin Cash was a notorious convict bushranger known for escaping twice from Port Arthur, Van Diemens Land. His 1870 autobiography The Adventures of Martin Cash, ghostwritten by James Lester Burke, born in Enniscorthy, County Wexford, Ireland, Cash was brought up in a wealthy family and was literate. When 18 years of age he became acquainted with a woman of Enniscorthy. She and her family borrowed money from him, until his mother stopped him for his extravagance, subsequently he became involved in an occurrence which changed the whole course of his life. His memoirs describe that, in a rage, he shot at a man named Jessop for making advances to his sweetheart. Cash was sentenced to seven years transportation, and he left Cork Harbour on board the Marquis of Huntly with 170 other convicts. They arrived in Sydney Town on 10 February 1828, Cash was assigned to Mr G. Bowman of Richmond, who leased other farms on the Hunter River, where Martin was transferred, and where he became a stockrider for nine years. John Boodle, who had a station on Liverpool Plains, asked Cash to assist him and his brother to brand some cattle which, while the branding was in progress two strangers came along, remained a few minutes, and departed. Upon Boodle informing him that the strangers knew the cattle were stolen, and he sailed in the barque Francis Freeling for Hobart Town, and arrived on 10 February 1837. He briefly escaped and 18 months was added to his time, again he escaped, and almost made it across the Bass Strait with his partner Bessie, but was caught and faced ten years at Port Arthur, the so-called escape proof colony. His first attempt at escape from Port Arthur failed, however, he managed to swim across the purportedly shark-infested Eaglehawk Neck, the first person to do so. This experience would prove useful as it earned him much respect from other prisoners. On Boxing Day 1842 Cash, George Jones and Lawrence Kavenagh absconded from a work party, hiding in dense scrub land and with little food they made their way 15 kilometres to the neck. Swimming with their clothes tied in bundles above their heads, they made the other side, now naked the trio robbed a road gangs hut for clothing, and began a twenty-month spree of bushranging, robbing mail coaches, homesteads and inns. The three became known as Cash and Co and their reputation grew, however in August 1843 Cash discovered his partner Bessie was with another man in Hobart, enraged, Cash swore to kill them both and he made his way to Hobart. On 29 August 1843 he was spotted in Brisbane Street, Hobart, near the old Commodore Inn. Constable Peter Winstanley was shot by Cash and died two days later, Cash was trialled for murder in September 1843. Cash was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging, but a last minute reprieve saw him sentenced to transportation for life at Norfolk Island, there he eventually became a trustee, and later a constable
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Kangaroo
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The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae. The Australian government estimates that 34.3 million kangaroos lived within the commercial harvest areas of Australia in 2011, as with the terms wallaroo and wallaby, kangaroo refers to a polyphyletic grouping of species. All three refer to members of the taxonomic family, Macropodidae, and are distinguished according to size. The largest species in the family are called kangaroos and the smallest are generally called wallabies, the term wallaroos refers to species of an intermediate size. There is also the tree-kangaroo, another genus of macropod, which inhabits the rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Queensland. Kangaroos have large, powerful legs, large feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular tail for balance. Like most marsupials, female kangaroos have a pouch called a marsupium in which joeys complete postnatal development, the large kangaroos have adapted much better than the smaller macropods to land clearing for pastoral agriculture and habitat changes brought to the Australian landscape by humans. Many of the species are rare and endangered, while kangaroos are relatively plentiful. The kangaroo is important to both Australian culture and the image, and consequently there are numerous popular culture references. Wild kangaroos are shot for meat, leather hides, and to grazing land. Although controversial, kangaroo meat has perceived health benefits for human consumption compared with traditional meats due to the low level of fat on kangaroos, the word kangaroo derives from the Guugu Yimithirr word gangurru, referring to grey kangaroos. Cook first referred to kangaroos in his entry of 4 August. Guugu Yimithirr is the language of the people of the area, a common myth about the kangaroos English name is that kangaroo was a Guugu Yimithirr phrase for I dont understand you. According to this legend, Cook and Banks were exploring the area when they happened upon the animal and they asked a nearby local what the creatures were called. The local responded Kangaroo, meaning I dont understand you, which Cook took to be the name of the creature and this myth was debunked in the 1970s by linguist John B. Haviland in his research with the Guugu Yimithirr people, Kangaroos are often colloquially referred to as roos. Male kangaroos are called bucks, boomers, jacks, or old men, females are does, flyers, or jills, the collective noun for kangaroos is a mob, troop, or court. There are four species that are referred to as kangaroos
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Surrender (military)
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Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
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Church (building)
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A church building, often simply called a church, is a building used for Christian religious activities, particularly worship services. The term in its sense is most often used by Christians to refer to their religious buildings. In traditional Christian architecture, the church is arranged in the shape of a Christian cross. When viewed from plan view the longest part of a cross is represented by the aisle, towers or domes are often added with the intention of directing the eye of the viewer towards the heavens and inspiring church visitors. The earliest identified Christian church was a church founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, a cathedral is a church, usually Roman Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop. In standard Greek usage, the word ecclesia was retained to signify both a specific edifice of Christian worship, and the overall community of the faithful. This usage was retained in Latin and the languages derived from Latin, as well as in the Celtic languages. In the Germanic and some Slavic languages, the word kyriak-ós/-ē/-ón was adopted instead, in Old English the sequence of derivation started as cirice, then churche, and eventually church in its current pronunciation. German Kirche, Scottish kirk, Russian церковь, etc. are all similarly derived, according to the New Testament, the earliest Christians did not build church buildings. Instead, they gathered in homes or in Jewish worship places like the Second Temple or synagogues, the earliest archeologically identified Christian church is a house church, the Dura-Europos church, founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, in addition to being a place of worship, the cathedral or parish church was used by the community in other ways. It could serve as a place for guilds or a hall for banquets. Mystery plays were performed in cathedrals, and cathedrals might also be used for fairs. The church could be used as a place to thresh and store grain, a common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross. These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the west end of the church or over the crossing. The Latin word basilica was used to describe a Roman public building
