1.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
5.
Roosevelt County, New Mexico
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Roosevelt County is a county located in the U. S. state of New Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the population was 19,846, the county was created in 1903 from Chaves and Guadalupe counties and named for President Theodore Roosevelt. The countys eastern border is the Texas state line, Roosevelt County comprises the Portales, NM Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Clovis-Portales, NM Combined Statistical Area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,455 square miles. The population density was 7 people per square mile, there were 7,746 housing units at an average density of 3 per square mile. 33. 29% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 70% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the family size was 3.14. In the county, the population was out with 28. 10% under the age of 18,16. 00% from 18 to 24,25. 50% from 25 to 44,18. 30% from 45 to 64. The median age was 30 years, for every 100 females there were 96.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.50 males, the median income for a household in the county was $26,586, and the median income for a family was $31,813. Males had an income of $26,170 versus $20,684 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,185, about 17. 30% of families and 22. 70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25. 10% of those under age 18 and 16. 80% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 19,846 people,7,299 households, the population density was 8.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 8,163 housing units at a density of 3.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 76. 9% white,1. 8% black or African American,1. 3% American Indian,0. 9% Asian,15. 9% from other races, and 3. 2% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 39. 9% of the population, in terms of ancestry,12. 7% were German,10. 0% were American,9. 8% were English, and 9. 3% were Irish. The average household size was 2.57 and the family size was 3.20. The median age was 29.7 years, the median income for a household in the county was $37,762 and the median income for a family was $43,536
6.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
7.
Mountain Time Zone
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The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time at the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States, the specification for the location of time zones. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called Mountain Time. Specifically, it is Mountain Standard Time when observing standard time, the term refers to the fact that the Rocky Mountains, which range from northwestern Canada to the US state of New Mexico, are located almost entirely in the time zone. In Mexico, this zone is known as the Pacific Zone. In the United States and Canada, the Mountain Time Zone is one ahead of the Pacific Time Zone and one hour behind the Central Time Zone. Sonora in Mexico and most of Arizona in the United States do not observe daylight saving time, and during the spring, summer, and autumn months they are on the same time as Pacific Daylight Time. The Navajo Nation, most of which lies within Arizona, does observe DST, although the Hopi Nation, as well as some Arizona state offices lying within the Navajo Nation, the largest city in the Mountain Time Zone is Phoenix, Arizona. TV broadcasting in the Mountain Time Zone is typically tape-delayed one hour, sonora – no daylight saving time, always on MST. Sinaloa Revillagigedo Islands, three of the four islands have the time as Mountain Time Zone, Isla Socorro, San Benedicto Island. The following states or areas are part of the Mountain Time Zone, Arizona – no daylight saving time, always on MST, except on the Navajo Nation. Colorado Idaho – southern half, south of the Salmon River Kansas – only the counties of Sherman, Wallace, Greeley and Hamilton, the remaining three counties that border Colorado, Cheyenne, Morton and Stanton, observe Central Time, as do all other Kansas counties. However, the state of Oklahoma is officially in the Central Time Zone. Additionally, northwestern Culberson County, Texas unofficially observes Mountain Time
8.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
9.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
10.
Area code 575
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Area code 575 is an area code in the U. S. state of New Mexico. It serves the remainder of the state outside the Albuquerque, Santa Fe, Farmington, and Gallup metropolitan and micropolitan areas, the new code became effective on October 7,2007, splitting from area code 505. Since October 2007, it is the last area code in the United States introduced by a split from an existing code. All new area added in the U. S. since the introduction of 575 have been overlays. Since the same date, there are no splits currently proposed or being considered, with the cancellation of the proposed splits of area code 814. NANPA Area Code Map of New Mexico List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload. com,575 Area Code
11.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
12.
County seat
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A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county
13.
Clovis, New Mexico
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Clovis is the county seat of Curry County, New Mexico, United States, with a population of 37,775 as of the 2010 census, and a 2014 estimated population of 39,860. Clovis is located in the New Mexico portion of the Llano Estacado, a largely agricultural community, closely bordering Texas, it is noted for its role in early rock music history and for nearby Cannon Air Force Base. Clovis people are considered to be the ancestors of most of the cultures of the Americas. The Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fe Railway system helped to establish Clovis over a hundred years ago, also notable is the Southwest Cheese Company, the largest cheddar cheese producer in North America. It is the city of the Clovis Micropolitan Statistical Area. The eastern New Mexico region was home to the prehistoric Clovis culture, several remains have been found at the Blackwater Draw site, which remains a historical and tourist site. Clovis began in 1906, when the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway was being constructed through the area and railway engineers were ordered to choose a town site. At first known as Rileys Switch, it was renamed Clovis by the masters daughter, who was studying about Clovis. The settlement built up quickly and in 1909 was incorporated, Clovis had first attracted human beings and then was able to persuade them to remain in this area over 12,000 years ago. The earliest residents are known as Clovis Man, named after an arrow-head or spear-point found near present-day Clovis. Since the most recent ice age retreated north, these nomadic hunters known as the Clovis Man remained in the Southwestern part of New Mexico, on August 24,2008, eight prisoners escaped from the Clovis Jail by shimmying up plumbing pipes. The escape was highlighted on the television show Americas Most Wanted, Clovis celebrated its centennial in 2009. Clovis is located in southeastern Curry County at 34°24′45″N 103°12′17″W,9 miles west of the Texas border, the citys geographic center is at an elevation of 4,281 feet above sea level. Routes 60,70, and 84 pass through the city, US60 and 84 lead west 60 miles to Fort Sumner, while US70 leads southwest 19 miles to Portales and 110 miles to Roswell. The three highways lead east together to the line at Texico, New Mexico, and Farwell. Cannon Air Force Base is 7 miles west of the center of Clovis, as of the census of 2000, there were 32,667 people,12,458 households, and 8,596 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,458.9 people per square mile, there were 14,269 housing units at an average density of 637.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 71. 3% White,7. 32% Black,1. 02% Native American,1. 62% Asian,0. 13% Pacific Islander,14. 98% from other races, Hispanic or Latino were 33. 44% of the population
14.
Cannon Air Force Base
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Cannon Air Force Base is a United States Air Force Base, located approximately 7 miles southwest of Clovis, New Mexico. It is under the jurisdiction of Air Force Special Operations Command, the population of the Cannon AFB CDP was 2,245 as of the 2010 census. The host unit at Cannon is the 27th Special Operations Wing, which activated on 1 October 2007, Cannon AFB was established in 1942 as Army Air Base, Clovis. The commander of the 27th Special Operations Wing is Colonel Tony D. Bauernfeind, the Command Chief Master Sergeant is Paul J Henderson II. The AC-130W is assigned to the 73rd Special Operations Squadron, with all twelve becoming operational in 2010, Cannon Air Force Base is named in honor of General John K. Cannon. In 1950 he returned to Europe as Commander in Chief of USAFE, General Cannon retired in 1954 as Commanding General, Tactical Air Command. The history of the began in the late 1920s, when a civilian passenger facility. Portair Field was used as a terminal for early commercial transcontinental flights, flew passengers in the Ford Trimotor “Tin Goose” by day, in the 1930s Portair was renamed Clovis Municipal Airport. After the United States entered World War II, the first military unit to use the facility was a glider detachment, on 6 July 1942 the base was assigned to Second Air Force. In 1943, the military began to use the facility as a bomber base, Clovis AAF was assigned to II Bomber Command, Second Air Force. On 8 April 1943, the base was renamed Clovis Army Air Field, the 16th Bomb Wing arrived in January 1943. Known USAAF groups assigned to Clovis AAF were, 302d Bombardment Group Served as a training unit. 450th Bombardment Group Trained with B-24s, transferred to Fifteenth Air Force in Italy. 498th Bombardment Group Trained with B-29 Superfortresses, transferred to Twentieth Air Force in Saipan. 497th Bombardment Group Trained with B-29 Superfortresses, transferred to Twentieth Air Force in Saipan. 472d Bombardment Group Trained with B-29 Superfortresses, 500th Bombardment Group Trained with B-29 Superfortresses. Transferred to Twentieth Air Force in Saipan, 93d Bombardment Group Arrived at Clovis AAF for inactivation. 467th Bombardment Group Trained with B-29s Superfortresses, on 16 April 1945, Clovis AAF was transferred from jurisdiction of Second Air Force to Continental Air Command
15.
Eastern New Mexico University
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Eastern New Mexico University, frequently called Eastern is a state university in Portales, Roosevelt County, New Mexico, United States. It is the most recently founded university in New Mexico. ENMUs main campus is located in Portales and there are also two degree-granting branches, at Ruidoso and Roswell, from 1934 to 1940, the institution, first named Eastern New Mexico Junior College operated as a community college. In 1940, the third and fourth years of college were first offered, leading to a degree. ENMC was accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools as a liberal arts college in 1946-47. ENMU owns KENW and KENW-FM, a television and radio station that are housed and operated on the main campus. The ENMU Ruidoso Campus is a college or community college. In 1991, the Ruidoso location had been established as the ENMU Ruidoso Branch Community College and offered two-year college academic and it operates a One-Stop Career Center which provides free employment services for employers and job seekers in Lincoln County. The Center offers both an academic and vocational curriculum, the ENMU Roswell Campus, also a two-year branch, offers a wide variety of programs. The branch was established in the fall of 1958, in the spring of 1967, the institution moved to 12 buildings on 241 acres of the former Walker Air Force Base. ENMUs online degrees in the fields of business and education are the most affordable in the U. S and it contains more than 30,000 volumes, including science fiction books, SF pulps dating back to the early 1900s, manuscripts, correspondence, and photographs. ENMUs athletic teams participate in the NCAA Division II Lone Star Conference, the Mens teams are nicknamed the Greyhounds, and the Womens teams are nicknamed the Zias. In early 2015, students and faculty voted to discontinue the Zia nickname and become the Lady Greyhounds, ENMU vacated a number of wins starting from the 2008-09 season after the university self-reported over 100 eligibility violations. Michael Kanteena Daryush Shokof founded the movement maximalism in the arts in 1990 in Germany. Ronny Cox Steven Michael Quezada Daryush Shokof John E. Douglas Arthur M. Dula Michael Blake Diana Ossana Miranda Prather Jack Williamson Clyde Snow Brian P. Bonnett Sir Stanley Lehman, MD, Esq
16.
Peanut
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The peanut, also known as the groundnut and the goober and taxonomically classified as Arachis hypogaea, is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics, being important to small and large commercial producers. It is classified as both a grain legume and, because of its oil content, an oil crop. World annual production of shelled peanuts was 42 million tonnes in 2014, atypically among crop plants, peanut pods develop underground rather than aboveground. It is this characteristic that the botanist Linnaeus used to assign the specific name hypogaea, as a legume, the peanut belongs to the botanical family Fabaceae, this is also known as Leguminosae, and commonly known as the bean, or pea, family. Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules and this capacity to fix nitrogen means peanuts require less nitrogen-containing fertilizer and improve soil fertility, making them valuable in crop rotations. Peanuts are similar in taste and nutritional profile to tree nuts such as walnuts and almonds, the botanical definition of a nut is a fruit whose ovary wall becomes very hard at maturity. Using this criterion, the peanut is not a true nut, however, for culinary purposes and in common English language usage, peanuts are usually referred to as nuts. Cultivated peanut arose from a hybrid between two species of peanut, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis. The initial hybrid would have been sterile, but spontaneous chromosome doubling restored its fertility, the process of domestication through artificial selection made A. hypogaea dramatically different from its wild relatives. The domesticated plants are bushier and more compact, and have a different pod structure, the initial domestication may have taken place in northwestern Argentina, or in southeastern Bolivia, where the peanut landraces with the most wild-like features are grown today. From this primary center of origin, cultivation spread and formed secondary and tertiary centers of diversity in Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, Paraguay, over time, thousands of peanut landraces evolved, these are classified into six botanical varieties and two subspecies. Subspecies A. h. fastigiata types are more upright in their habit and have shorter crop cycles. Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types spread more on the ground and have longer crop cycles, the oldest known archeological remains of pods have been dated at about 7,600 years old. These may be pods from a species that was in cultivation. They were found in Peru, where dry conditions are favorable to the preservation of organic material. Almost certainly, peanut cultivation antedated this at the center of origin where the climate is moister, many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche, depicted peanuts in their art. Cultivation was well established in Mesoamerica before the Spanish arrived, there, the conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl being offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan
17.
Clovis-Portales CSA
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The Clovis-Portales Combined Statistical Area is made up of two counties in east central New Mexico. The statistical area consists of the Clovis Micropolitan Statistical Area and the Portales Micropolitan Statistical Area, as of the 2000 census, the CSA had a population of 63,062. The racial makeup of the CSA was 72. 90% White,5. 37% African American,1. 03% Native American,1. 45% Asian,0. 11% Pacific Islander,15. 70% from other races, and 3. 43% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 31. 21% of the population, the median income for a household in the CSA was $27,752, and the median income for a family was $32,857. Males had an income of $25,628 versus $20,104 for females. The per capita income for the CSA was $14,617, List of metropolitan areas in New Mexico List of micropolitan areas in New Mexico List of cities in New Mexico
18.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
19.
Clovis culture
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The Clovis culture appears around 11, 500–11,000 uncal RCYBP, at the end of the last glacial period, and is characterized by the manufacture of Clovis points and distinctive bone and ivory tools. Archaeologists most precise determinations at present suggest that this age is equal to roughly 13,200 to 12,900 calendar years ago. Clovis people are considered to be the ancestors of most of the cultures of the Americas. The only human burial that has been associated with tools from the Clovis culture included the remains of an infant boy named Anzick-1. Researchers from the United States and Europe conducted paleogenetic research on Anzick-1s ancient nuclear, mitochondrial, the results of these analyses reveal that Anzick-1 is closely related to modern Native American populations, which lends support to the Beringia hypothesis for the peopling of the Americas. The Clovis culture was replaced by more localized regional cultures from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period onward. Post-Clovis cultures include the Folsom tradition, Gainey, Suwannee-Simpson, Plainview-Goshen, Cumberland, each of these is commonly thought to derive directly from Clovis, in some cases apparently differing only in the length of the fluting on their projectile points. Recent preliminary carbon dating shows a culture from around or prior to 13,000 years ago, along with horse, camel, a hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively shaped, fluted stone spear point, known as the Clovis point. The Clovis point is bifacial and typically fluted on both sides, the culture was originally named for a small number of artifacts found between 1932 and 1936 at Blackwater Locality No. 1, a site between the towns of Clovis and Portales, New Mexico. These finds were deemed especially important due to their association with mammoth sp. Clovis sites have since been identified throughout much, but not all, of the contiguous United States, as well as Mexico and Central America and it is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted mammoths, as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited. The oldest Clovis site in North America is believed to be El Fin del Mundo in northwestern Sonora, Mexico and it features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP. In 2011, remains of Gomphothere were found, the evidence suggests that humans did in fact two of them here. Theres also the Aubrey site in Denton County, Texas, which produced a date that is almost identical. After this time, Clovis-style fluted points were replaced by other fluted-point traditions with an uninterrupted sequence across North. An effectively continuous cultural adaptation proceeds from the Clovis period through the ensuing Middle, whether the Clovis culture drove the mammoth, and other species, to extinction via overhunting – the so-called Pleistocene overkill hypothesis – is still an open, and controversial, question
20.
Blackwater Draw
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It stretches across eastern Roosevelt County, New Mexico, and Bailey, Lamb, Hale, and Lubbock counties of West Texas and drains an area of 4,040 km2. Blackwater Draw contains an important archaeological site that was first recognized in 1929 by Ridgely Whiteman of Clovis, Blackwater Locality No.1 is the type-site of the Clovis culture. The first large-scale excavation came in 1932, evidence of fluted points, spearheads also known as Clovis points and other stone and bone weapons, tools, and processing implements were found at the archaeological site. The Clovis points were lanceolate and often longer than Folsom points, the furthest back would be the Clovis culture with radiocarbon dating between 11, 600-11,000 years before the present. Blackwater Draw is among the first places these points were found, the archaeological site is known for its well-defined stratigraphic horizons that exhibit numerous cultural sequences. The sequences begin with the earliest New World peoples and continue through the southwestern archaic, investigations at Blackwater Draw have recovered protein residue found on Clovis weapons. This leads to the evidence of occupation in association with Late Pleistocene fauna, including Columbian mammoth, camel, horse, bison, saber-toothed cat. Towards the end of the Pleistocene period, the climate began to change and this decrease caused small seasonal lake basins called playas to form. These areas became popular hunting locations for early North Americans, since its discovery, the Blackwater Locality No.1 site has been a focal point for scientific investigations by academic institutions and organizations from across the country. Eastern New Mexico University owns and manages the excavations and visitations at the site, the Blackwater Draw Museum, was first opened to the public in 1969. The museum opened its doors primarily to display artifacts uncovered at the Blackwater Locality No.1 Site, the artifacts and displays illustrate life at the site during the Clovis period through the recent historic period. This museum is owned and operated by Eastern New Mexico University, the museum is located at 42987 Highway 70, about seven miles northeast of Portales. Theclovissite. wordpress. com, Current research at the Blackwater Draw Clovis type site Blackwater Draw Facebook Page
21.
History of New Mexico
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The history of New Mexico is based on both archeological evidence, attesting to varying cultures of humans occupying the area of New Mexico since approximately 9200 BCE, and written records. The earliest peoples had migrated from areas of North America after leaving Siberia via the Bering Land Bridge. Artifacts and architecture demonstrate ancient complex cultures in this region, the first written records of the region were made by the Spanish Conquistadors, who encountered Native American Pueblos when they explored the area in the 16th century. Since that time, the Spanish Empire, Mexico, and the United States have claimed control of the area, the area was governed as New Mexico Territory until 1912, when it was admitted as a state. The relatively isolated state had a dependent on mining. Its residents and government suffered from a reputation for corruption and extreme traditionalism, New Mexico introduced the atomic age in 1945, as the first nuclear weapons were developed by the federal government in the research center it established at Los Alamos. Ethnically the state has historically been divided among Native American, Hispanic, human occupation of New Mexico stretches back at least 11,000 years to the Clovis culture of hunter-gatherers. They left evidence of their campsites and stone tools, after the invention of agriculture, the land was inhabited by the Ancient Pueblo Peoples, who built houses out of stone or adobe bricks. They experienced a Golden Age around AD1000, but climate change led to migration, from those people arose the historic Pueblo peoples who lived primarily along the few major rivers. The most important rivers are the Rio Grande, the Pecos, the Canadian, the San Juan, and the Gila. PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICANS The Pueblo people built a flourishing sedentary culture in the 13th century C. E. constructing small towns in the valley of the Rio Grande and pueblos nearby. By about 700 to 900 AD, the Pueblo began to abandon ancient pit houses dug in cliffs, by 1050 AD, they had developed planned villages composed of large terraced buildings, each with many rooms. The largest of these villages, Pueblo Bonito, in the Chaco Canyon of New Mexico, contained around 700 rooms in five stories, no larger apartment-house type construction would be seen on the continent until 19th century Chicago and New York. Then, around 1150, Chaco Anasazi society began to unravel, at the same time, the ceramic industry became more elaborate, cotton replaced yucca fiber as the main clothing material and basket weaving became more artistic. The Spanish encountered Pueblo civilization and elements of the Athabaskans in the 16th century, cabeza de Vaca in 1535, one of only four survivors of the Panfilo de Narvaez expedition of 1527, tells of hearing Indians talk about fabulous cities somewhere in New Mexico. Fray Marcos de Niza enthusiastically identified these as the fabulously rich Seven Cities of Cíbola, francisco Vásquez de Coronado led a massive expedition to find these cities in 1540–1542. Coronado camped near an excavated pueblo today preserved as Coronado National Memorial in 1541, the three largest pueblos of New Mexico are Zuñi, Santo Domingo, and Laguna. There are three different languages spoken by the pueblos, the Navajo and Apache peoples are members of the large Athabaskan language family, which includes peoples in Alaska and Canada, and along the Pacific Coast
22.
Navajo
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The Navajo are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States. After the Cherokee, they are the second-largest federally recognized tribe in the United States, the Navajo language is spoken throughout the region, with most Navajos speaking English, as well. The states with the largest Navajo populations are Arizona and New Mexico, over three-quarters of the Navajo population reside in these two states. The Navajos are speakers of a Na-Dené Southern Athabaskan language known within the language as Diné bizaad, the language comprises two geographic, mutually intelligible dialects. It is closely related to the Apache language, as the Navajos and Apaches are believed to have migrated from northwestern Canada and eastern Alaska, speakers of various other Athabaskan languages located in Canada may still comprehend the Navajo language despite the geographic and linguistic deviation of the languages. Additionally, some Navajos speak Navajo Sign Language, which is either a dialect or daughter of Plains Sign Talk, archaeological and historical evidence suggests the Athabaskan ancestors of the Navajos and Apaches entered the Southwest around 1400 CE. The Navajo oral tradition is said to retain references of this migration, until contact with Pueblos and the Spanish, the Navajos were largely hunters and gatherers. The tribe adopted crop-farming techniques from the Pueblo peoples, growing corn, beans. When the Spanish arrived, the Navajos began herding sheep and goats as a source of trade and food. Sheep also became a form of currency and status symbols among the Navajos based on the quantity of herds a family maintained. In addition, the practice of spinning and weaving wool into blankets and clothing became common, in the 18th century, the Spanish reported the Navajos maintaining large herds of livestock and cultivating large crop areas. Navahu comes from the Tewa, meaning area of cultivated lands. By the 1640s, the Spanish began using the term Navajo to refer to the Diné, during the 1670s, the Spanish wrote that the Diné lived in a region known as Dinétah, about 60 miles west of the Rio Chama valley region. In the 1780s, the Spanish sent military expeditions against the Navajos in the Mount Taylor, the Navajos came into contact with the United States Army in 1846, when General Stephen W. Kearny invaded Santa Fe with 1,600 men during the Mexican–American War. The treaty was not honored by many young Navajo raiders, who continued to steal livestock from New Mexican villages, New Mexicans, on their part, together with Utes, continued to raid Navajo country, stealing livestock and taking women and children for sale as slaves. In 1849, the governor of New Mexico, Colonel John MacRae Washington—accompanied by John S. The treaty acknowledged the jurisdiction of the United States and allowed forts, the United States, on its part, promised such donations such other liberal and humane measures, as may deem meet and proper. While en route to this treaty signing, Narbona, a prominent Navajo peace leader, was killed, during the next 10 years, the U. S. established forts on traditional Navajo territory
23.
Comanche
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The Comanche people are federally recognized as the Comanche Nation, headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Post-contact, the Comanches were hunter-gatherers with a horse culture, there may have been as many as 45,000 Comanches in the late 18th century. They were the dominant tribe on the Southern Plains and often took captives from weaker tribes during warfare, selling them as slaves to the Spanish and they also took thousands of captives from the Spanish, Mexican, and American settlers. Today, the Comanche Nation has 15,191 members, approximately 7,763 of whom reside in tribal jurisdictional area around the Lawton, Fort Sill, the Comanche Nation Homecoming Powwow is held annually in Walters, Oklahoma in mid-July. The Comanche language is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, only about 1% of Comanches speak their language today. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, the Comanche Nation is headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is located in Caddo, Comanche, Cotton, Grady, Jefferson, Kiowa, Stephens, membership of the tribe requires a 1/8 blood quantum. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues tribal vehicle tags and they have their own Department of Higher Education, primarily awarding scholarships and financial aid for members college educations. Additionally, they operate the Comanche Nation College in Lawton, Oklahoma and they own ten tribal smoke shops and four casinos. The casinos are Comanche Nation Casino in Lawton, Comanche Red River Casino in Devol, Comanche Spur Casino, in Elgin, in 2002, the tribe founded the Comanche Nation College, a two-year tribal college in Lawton. Each July Comanches from across the United States gather to celebrate their heritage and culture in Walters, the Comanche Nation Fair is held every September. The Comanche Little Ponies host two annual dances—one over New Years and one in May, the Comanche emerged as a distinct group shortly before 1700, when they broke off from the Shoshone people living along the upper Platte River in Wyoming. In 1680, the Comanche acquired horses from the Pueblo Indians after the Pueblo Revolt and they separated from the Shoshone after this, as the horses allowed them greater mobility in their search for better hunting grounds. The horse was a key element in the emergence of a distinctive Comanche culture and they only just fall short of possessing all of the conveniences of the earth, and have no need to covet the trade pursued by the rest of the Indians. Their original migration took them to the southern Great Plains, into a sweep of territory extending from the Arkansas River to central Texas. They reached present-day New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle by 1700, forcing the Lipan Apache people ever southward, by 1777, the Lipan Apache had retreated to the Rio Grande and the Mescalero Apache to Coahuila. The Comanche never formed a single cohesive unit, but were divided into almost a dozen autonomous groups. These groups shared the language and culture, and rarely fought each other
24.
Llano Estacado
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Llano Estacado commonly known as the Staked Plain, is a region in the Southwestern United States that encompasses parts of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas. The Llano Estacado lies at the end of the Western High Plains ecoregion of the Great Plains of North America. The Canadian River forms the Llanos northern boundary, separating it from the rest of the High Plains, the Llano has no natural southern boundary, instead blending into the Edwards Plateau near Big Spring, Texas. This geographic area stretches about 250 miles north to south, and 150 miles east to west and it covers all or part of 33 Texas counties and four New Mexico counties. The landscape is dotted by numerous small lakes, depressions that seasonally fill with water. The Llano Estacado has a semiarid climate, characterized by long, hot summers. Rainfall is very low, the region receives fewer than 23 in of rainfall annually. High summer temperatures mean most of the amount of precipitation is lost to evaporation. The Texas State Historical Society states it covers all or part of 33 Texas counties, six fewer than as depicted by a US Geological Survey map, interstate 40 crosses the northern portion from east of Amarillo to Tucumcari, New Mexico. There was not a stone, nor bit of rising ground, nor a tree, nor a shrub, in the early 18th century, the Comanches expanded their territory into the Llano Estacado, displacing the Apaches who had previously lived there. The region became part of the Comancheria, a Comanche stronghold until the defeat of the tribe in the late 19th century. Rachel Plummer, while a captive of the Comanche in 1836, after his 1852 expedition to explore the headwaters of the Red and Colorado Rivers, General Randolph Marcy wrote, a tree, shrub, or any other herbage to intercept the vision. The almost total absence of water causes all animals to shun it, in his report for the United States Army, When we were upon the high table-land, a view presented itself as boundless as the ocean. Not a tree, shrub, or any object, either animate or inanimate, relieved the dreary monotony of the prospect. The great Sahara of North America and it is a region almost as vast and trackless as the ocean—a land where no man, either savage or civilized permanently abides. A treeless, desolate waste of uninhabitable solitude, which always has been, during the 1854 Marcy-Neighbors expedition, Dr. George Getz Shumard noted, Beyond the mountain appeared a line of high bluffs which in the distance looked like clouds floating upon the horizon. Herman Lehmann was captured by the Apache in 1870 and described the Llano Estacado as the country was open, but not exactly a desert. Robert G. Carter described it in 1871 while pursuing Quanah Parker with Ranald S. Mackenzie. all were over and out of the canyon upon what appeared to be a vast, almost illimitable expanse of prairie
25.
Caprock Escarpment
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In Texas, the escarpment stretches around 200 mi south-southwest from the northeast corner of the Texas Panhandle near the Oklahoma border. The escarpment is especially notable, from north to south, in Briscoe, Floyd, Motley, Crosby, Dickens, Garza, and Borden counties. In New Mexico, there is a prominent escarpment along the northernmost extension of the Llano Estacado, especially to the south of San Jon and Tucumcari, both in Quay County, New Mexico. Along the western edge of the Llano Estacado, the portion of the escarpment that stretches from Caprock to Maljamar, the escarpment is made of Caliche — a layer of calcium carbonate that resists erosion. In some places, the escarpment rises around 1,000 ft above the plains to the east, the escarpments features formed by erosion from rivers and streams, creating arroyos and highly diverse terrain, including the large Palo Duro Canyon southeast of Amarillo, Texas. One will notice the change in elevation of several hundred feet while crossing the Caprock Escarpment on Interstate 40 between Adrian, Texas and San Jon, New Mexico, Caprock Canyons State Park and Trailway, located near Quitaque, opened in 1982. A65 mi trail was developed within the park in 1992, along the trail is Clarity Tunnel, home to a large colony of Mexican free-tailed bats. Caprock from the Handbook of Texas Online Photos of the Llano Estacado, West Texas, and Eastern New Mexico
26.
Canadian River
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The Canadian River is the longest tributary of the Arkansas River. It is about 906 miles long, starting in Colorado and traveling through New Mexico, the Texas Panhandle, the drainage area is about 47,700 square miles. The Canadian is sometimes referred to as the South Canadian River to differentiate it from the North Canadian River that flows into it and it is unclear why the river is called the Canadian. Fremonts route map of 1845, the name is listed as Goo-al-pah or Canadian River from the Comanche. According to the Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, Spanish explorers in the 17th and 18th centuries called it the Rio Buenaventura, the upper part was called Rio Colorado by the Spanish. The name could be of Spanish origin from the word cañada, as the Canadian River formed a canyon in northern New Mexico. A few historical records document this explanation, edward Hale, writing in 1929, considered the French origin of the name most probable. The first European to explore the Canadian River was Juan de Oñate, the Spanish Governor of New Mexico, Spanish traders and hunters were soon actively working in this area. French voyageurs were active along the lower Canadian, bénard de la Harpe explored between the mouth of the river and the Kiamichi Mountains in 1715. Pierre and Paul Mallet followed the length of the river in 1740. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 resulted in all of the land east of the New Mexico border being acquired by the United States. In 1818, the Quapaw tribe ceded all its land north of the Canadian to the United States, in 1825, the Osage ceded their claims to land along the river. The Canadian was designated as the boundary between the Creek-Seminole lands on the side and the Choctaw on the south side. Major Stephen H. Long led an expedition up the Canadian River in 1821 and he proclaimed the land along the river as, the Great American Desert. Despite this assessment, trading posts were established along the river, camp Holmes was established by Colonel Henry Dodges Dragoons in 1834. Captain Nathan Boone led a dragoon troop up the river to the 100th Meridian, the Treaty of Doaks Stand in 1820, made the Canadian River the northern boundary of the Choctaw Nation. Early immigrants to California followed the bank of the Canadian to Santa Fe. In 1845 the river was explored by Lieutenants James William Abert and their journey was chronicled in the Journal of Lieutenant J. W. Abert from Bent’s Fort to St. Louis, first published in 1846
27.
Pecos River
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The Pecos River is a river that originates in eastern New Mexico and flows into Texas, emptying into the Rio Grande. Its headwaters are on the slope of the Sangre de Cristo mountain range in Mora County north of Pecos, NM. The river flows for 926 miles before reaching the Rio Grande near Del Rio and its drainage basin encompasses about 44,300 square miles. The name Pecos derives from the Keresan term for the Pecos Pueblo, the river played a large role in the exploration of Texas by the Spanish. In the latter half of the 19th century, West of the Pecos was a reference to the desolation of the Wild West. In the series narration, West of the Pecos is described as, virtually beyond the reach of the authorities, the railroads, then pushing their way west, attracted the most vicious characters in the country. It was said that all civilization and law stopped at the east bank of the Pecos and it took one man, a lone storekeeper who was sick of the lawlessness, to change all this. His name was Judge Roy Bean, New Mexico and Texas disputed water rights to the river until the U. S. government settled the dispute in 1949 with the Pecos River Compact. The Pecos River Settlement Agreement was signed between New Mexico and Texas in 2003, multiple dams have been built along the Pecos River. Santa Rosa Lake is 117 miles/188 km east of Albuquerque, Sumner Lake, formed by the 1939 Sumner Dam, is located between Santa Rosa and Fort Sumner, NM. Two dams are located north of Carlsbad, New Mexico, at Avalon Dam and Brantley Dam, Texas has also dammed the river at the Red Bluff Dam in the western part of that state to form the Red Bluff Reservoir. The portion of the reservoir extends into New Mexico forms the lowest point in that state. On June 6,1990,20.5 miles of the Pecos River—from its headwaters to the townsite of Tererro—received National Wild and it includes 13.5 miles designated wild and 7 miles designated recreational. The Pecos River Flume is an aqueduct carrying water over the Pecos River. Construction took place from 1889 to 1890 and was part of the Pecos River Reclamation Project and it was originally constructed of wood and spanned 145 feet. It carried water at a depth of 8 feet, in 1902, a flood destroyed the flume and it was subsequently rebuilt using concrete. In 1902, it was identified as the largest concrete aqueduct in the world
28.
New Mexico Territory
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In 1846, during the Mexican-American War, the U. S. provisional government of New Mexico was established. After the Mexican Republic formally ceded the region to the U. S. A. in 1848, earlier in the year 1850, a bid for New Mexico statehood was underway under a proposed state constitution prohibiting slavery. The request was approved at the time that the Utah Territory was created to the north. Texas raised great opposition to this plan, as it claimed much of the same territory, in addition, slaveholders worried about not being able to expand slavery to the west of their current slave states. The Compromise of 1850 put an end to the push for immediate New Mexico statehood, approved by the United States Congress in September 1850, the legislation provided for the establishment of New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory. It also firmly established the western boundary of Texas. The status of slavery during the territorial period provoked considerable debate, the granting of statehood was up to a Congress sharply divided on the slavery issue. Regardless of its status, slavery was rare in antebellum New Mexico. Black slaves never numbered more than about a dozen, as one of the final attempts at compromise to avoid the Civil War, in December 1860, a U. S. House of Representatives committee proposed to admit New Mexico as a slave state immediately. As in New Mexico, slavery was already limited, due to earlier Mexican traditions, laws. The northwestern corner of New Mexico Territory was included in Arizona Territory until it was added to the southernmost part of the newly admitted State of Nevada in 1864, eventually Arizona Territory was organized as the State of Arizona. The Purchase treaty defines the new border as up the middle of river to the point where the parallel of 31°47 north latitude crosses the same 31°47′0″N 106°31′41. Although this area was smaller than what had been included in the failed statehood proposal of early 1850, the Gadsden Purchase was acquired by the United States from Mexico in 1853/1854, arranged by the then-American ambassador to Mexico, James Gadsden. The land of 29,640 square miles provided an easily constructed route for a future southern transcontinental railroad line for the future Southern Pacific Railroad. The Colorado Territory was established by the Colorado Organic Act on February 28,1861 and this Act removed the Colorado lands from the New Mexico Territory. This Act left the New Mexico Territory with boundaries identical to the eventual State of New Mexico for a half-century until admitted to the Union in 1912 as the 47th state, as the route to California, New Mexico Territory was disputed territory during the American Civil War. S. Albuquerque, NM, University of New Mexico Press,2014
29.
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
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The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, often abbreviated as Santa Fe or AT&SF, was one of the larger railroads in the United States. Chartered in February 1859, the reached the Kansas-Colorado border in 1873 and Pueblo, Colorado. To create a demand for its services, the set up real estate offices. Despite the name, its main line never served Santa Fe, New Mexico, as the terrain was too difficult, the Santa Fe was a pioneer in intermodal freight transport, an enterprise that included a tugboat fleet and an airline. Its bus line extended passenger transportation to areas not accessible by rail, the AT&SF was the subject of a popular song, Harry Warren & Johnny Mercers On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe, written for the film, The Harvey Girls. The railroad officially ceased operations on December 31,1996, when it merged with the Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway was chartered on February 11,1859, to join Atchison and Topeka, Kansas, with Santa Fe, in its early years, the railroad opened Kansas to settlement. Much of its revenue came from wheat grown there and from cattle driven north from Texas to Wichita, rather than turn its survey southward at Dodge City, AT&SF headed southwest over Raton Pass because of coal deposits near Trinidad, Colorado and Raton, New Mexico. D&RG paid an estimated $1.4 million to Santa Fe for its work within the Gorge and agreed not to extend its line to Santa Fe, while Santa Fe agreed to forego its planned routes to Denver and Leadville. Building across Kansas and eastern Colorado was simple, with few natural obstacles and it set up real estate offices in the area and promoted settlement across Kansas on the land that was granted to it by Congress in 1863. It offered discounted fares to anyone who traveled west to land, if the land was purchased. AT&SF reached Albuquerque in 1880, Santa Fe, the destination of the railroad, found itself on a short branch from Lamy. In March 1881 AT&SF connected with the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico, the railroad then built southwest from Benson, Arizona, to Nogales on the Mexican border where it connected with the Sonora Railway, which the AT&SF had built north from the Mexican port of Guaymas. The Atlantic & Pacific Railroad was chartered in 1866 to build west from Springfield, Missouri, the infant A&P had no rail connections. The line that was to become the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway would not reach Springfield for another four years, A&P started construction in 1868, built southwest into what would become Oklahoma, and promptly entered receivership. In 1879 A&P struck a deal with the Santa Fe and Frisco railroads to construct a line for each. The railroads would jointly build and own the A&P railroad west of Albuquerque, in 1883 A&P reached Needles, California, where it connected with an SP line. A&P also built a line between Tulsa, Oklahoma and St. Louis, Missouri for the Frisco, but the Tulsa-Albuquerque portion remained unbuilt, by January 1890, the entire system consisted of some 7,500 miles of track
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High Plains (United States)
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The southern region of the Western High Plains ecology region contains the geological formation known as Llano Estacado which can be seen from a short distance or from miles away on satellite maps. From east to west, the High Plains rise in elevation from around 1,160 feet to over 7,800 feet. The term Great Plains, for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian, nevin Fennemans 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States, brought the term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Prior to 1916, the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, today the term High Plains is usually used for a subregion instead of the whole of the Great Plains. The High Plains has a cold semi-arid climate—Köppen BSk—receiving between 10–20 inches of precipitation annually, due to low moisture and high elevation, the High Plains commonly experiences wide ranges and extremes in temperature. This is the record for the greatest temperature change in 24 hours. The region is known for the steady, and sometimes intense, the winds add a considerable wind chill factor in the winter. The development of farms in the High Plains is one of the newest areas of economic development. The High Plains are anomalously high in elevation, an explanation has recently been proposed to explain this high elevation. As the Farallon plate was subducted into the mantle beneath the region, within the crust this water caused the hydration of dense garnet and other phases into lower density amphibole and mica minerals. The resulting increase in crustal volume raised the elevation about one mile, plants endemic to the region are shortgrass prairie, prickly pear cacti and scrub. Agriculture in the forms of ranching and the growing of wheat, corn. Some areas of the High Plains have significant petroleum and natural gas deposits, the combination of oil, natural gas, and wind energy along with plentiful underground water, has allowed some areas to sustain a range of economic activity, including occasional industry. For example, the ASARCO refinery in Amarillo, Texas has been in operation since 1924 due to the plentiful and inexpensive natural gas and water that are needed in metal ore refining. The High Plains has one of the lowest population densities of any region in the continental United States, Wyoming, smaller towns, on the other hand, often struggle to sustain their population. High Plains Regional Climate Center High Plains climatological resources High Plains information - U. S. Department of the Interior Trains on the High Plains Texas counties map showing the ecoregion
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Washington Ellsworth Lindsey
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Washington Ellsworth Lindsey was an American politician and the third Governor of New Mexico. Lindsey was born near Armstrong, Ohio on December 20,1862 and he was the son of Robert Washington and Julia Anne Lindsey. He graduated from Scio College in 1884 and he then worked as a teacher in Ohio, New York, and Illinois. He attended the University of Michigan and completed his LL. B. degree in 1891, Lindsey practiced law for ten years in Chicago before moving to Portales, New Mexico. He was elected Lieutenant Governor of New Mexico in 1916, Governor Ezequiel C. de Baca died in office on February 18,1917. Lindsey, who was the lieutenant governor, assumed the duties of the governorship, during Lindseys term in office, First World War measures were initiated, the Australian ballot system was promoted and a corrupt practices bill was lobbied for. Lindsey left office on January 1,1919, after serving as governor, Lindsey resumed his private career, primarily working as an attorney. In 1924 he served as a delegate to the Republican National Convention, Lindsey died in Portales, New Mexico on April 5,1926. He is buried in Portales Cemetery, biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789-1978. ISBN 0-313-28093-2 Archived December 21,2006, at the Wayback Machine
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Governor of New Mexico
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The Governor of the State of New Mexico is the chief executive of the state of New Mexico. The governor is the head of the branch of New Mexicos state government. Responsibilities include making annual State of the State addresses to the New Mexico State Legislature, submitting the budget, the officeholder is afforded the courtesy title of The Honorable for life. The current governor is Susana Martinez, a Republican, Martinez won the November 2010 gubernatorial election and was sworn in as the 31st Governor of the state of New Mexico on January 1,2011. She is also the first elected governor of the state. In 1850, New Mexico was organized as a Territory, the office of Governor of the State of New Mexico was created in 1912 when New Mexico was officially admitted to the United States as the 47th state. Section Three of Article V of the New Mexico Constitution establishes the requirements a person must meet in order to become governor. The governor must be a citizen of the United States, be at least 30 years old, under Section One of Article V of the New Mexico Constitution, no person may hold the office of governor for more than two terms until one full term has intervened. The Lieutenant Governor of New Mexico is elected jointly as the mate of the gubernatorial candidate in the general election. While the governor heads the Executive Branch of the New Mexico state government, other state executives, such as the lieutenant governor, the Secretary of State, and the attorney general are also elected to office. Since 1954, the Governor of New Mexico has resided in the New Mexico Governors Mansion, prior to its construction, the governors residence was located adjacent to the New Mexico State Capitol in downtown Santa Fe. Before 1909, the governor resided in the Palace of the Governors, the Palace of the Governors is the oldest continuously occupied public building in the United States. If there is no lieutenant governor, or that person is unable to perform the duties of governor, if there is no Secretary of State, the President pro Tempore of the Senate serves as governor. If there is no President pro Tempore of the Senate, or if that person is unable to perform the duties of governor, see, List of Governors of New Mexico Official site of Governors office
33.
Ogallala Aquifer
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The Ogallala Aquifer is a shallow water table aquifer surrounded by sand, silt, clay and gravel located beneath the Great Plains in the United States. One of the worlds largest aquifers, it underlies an area of approximately 174,000 sq mi in portions of eight states and it was named in 1898 by geologist N. H. Darton from its type locality near the town of Ogallala, Nebraska. The aquifer is part of the High Plains Aquifer System, and rests on the Ogallala Formation, large scale extraction for agricultural purposes started after World War II due partially to center pivot technology and to the adaptation of automotive engines for groundwater wells. Today about 27% of the land in the entire United States lies over the aquifer. The aquifer is at risk for over-extraction and pollution, since 1950, agricultural irrigation has reduced the saturated volume of the aquifer by an estimated 9%. Once depleted, the aquifer will take over 6,000 years to replenish naturally through rainfall, the aquifer system supplies drinking water to 82% of the 2.3 million people who live within the boundaries of the High Plains study area. The deposition of material dates back two to six million years, from the late Miocene to early Pliocene ages when the southern Rocky Mountains were still tectonically active. From the uplands to the west, rivers and streams cut channels in a generally west to east or southeast direction, in that respect, the process is similar to those currently prevailing in other modern rivers of the area, such as the Kansas River and its tributaries. The major differences are time and depth, the depth of the Ogallala varies with the shape of then-prevailing surface, being deepest where it fills ancient valleys and channels. The Ogallala Formation consists mostly of sedimentary rocks in its deeper sections. The water-saturated thickness of the Ogallala Formation ranges from a few feet to more than 1000 feet and is greater in the Northern Plains. The depth of the water below the surface of the ranges from almost 400 feet in parts of the north to between 100 and 200 feet throughout much of the south. Groundwater within the Ogallala generally flows from west to east at a rate of a foot per day. Hydraulic conductivity, or the ability for a fluid to move through porous material, water quality within the Ogallala varies with the highest quality for drinking and irrigation in the northern region while the southern region had the poorest. Human and natural processes over the past 60 to 70 years, including density, climate. Nitrate levels generally meet USGS water quality standards, but continue to increase over time. This trend can impact the future groundwater sustainability for portions of the aquifer, an aquifer is a groundwater storage reservoir in the water cycle. While groundwater is a source, reserves replenish relatively slowly
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Surface irrigation
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Surface irrigation is defined as the group of application techniques where water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by gravity. It is by far the most common form of irrigation throughout the world and has practiced in many areas virtually unchanged for thousands of years. Surface irrigation is often referred to as flood irrigation, implying that the distribution is uncontrolled and therefore. In reality, some of the irrigation practices grouped under this name involve a significant degree of management, surface irrigation comes in three major types, level basin, furrow and border strip. Drip irrigation involves enclosed passages, such as pipes and tubing, the process of surface irrigation can be described using four phases. As water is applied to the top end of the field it will flow or advance over the field length, the advance phase refers to that length of time as water is applied to the top end of the field and flows or advances over the field length. After the water reaches the end of the field it will either run-off or start to pond, the period of time between the end of the advance phase and the shut-off of the inflow is termed the wetting, ponding or storage phase. As the inflow ceases the water continue to runoff and infiltrate until the entire field is drained. The depletion phase is that period of time after cut-off when the length of the field is still submerged. The recession phase describes the period while the water front is retreating towards the downstream end of the field. The depth of water applied to any point in the field is a function of the opportunity time, level basin irrigation has historically been used in small areas having level surfaces that are surrounded by earth banks. The water is applied rapidly to the basin and is allowed to infiltrate. In traditional basins no water is permitted to drain from the field once it is irrigated, basin irrigation is favoured in soils with relatively low infiltration rates. This is also a method of surface irrigation. Drain back level basins or contour basins are a variant of basin irrigation where the field is divided into a number of terraced rectangular bays which are graded level or have no significant slope. Water is applied to the first bay and when the depth is applied water is permitted to drain back off that bay. Each bay is irrigated in turn using a combination of water from the previous bay. Successful operation of systems is reliant on a sufficient elevation drop between successive bays. These systems are used in Australia where rice and wheat are grown in rotation
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Normal school
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A normal school is a school created to train high school graduates to be teachers. Most such schools are now denominated teachers colleges, the first public normal school in the United States was founded in Concord, Vermont, by Samuel Read Hall in 1823 to train teachers. In 1839, another school was established in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It operates today as Framingham State University, in the United States teacher colleges or normal schools began to evolve from their initial mission of training teachers to add programs in the sciences, engineering, technology, health, and business. They started to become universities in the 1940s. For instance, Southern Illinois University was formerly Southern Illinois Normal College, the University is now a system of two campuses of more than 34,000 students, but still issues most of its baccalaureate degrees in education. Further, the town of Normal, Illinois was named from the name of Illinois State University. Many famous state universities, such as the University of California, such a list includes Emporia State University in Emporia, Kansas, which was established as Kansas State Normal School in 1863, and which by 1889 had become the largest normal school in the Nation. In Canada, such institutions were typically assimilated by a university as the latters Faculty of Education and it requires at least three, but usually four, years of prior undergraduate study. The term normal school originated in the early 16th century from the French école normale, the French concept of an école normale was to provide a model school with model classrooms to teach model teaching practices to its student teachers. The children being taught, their teachers, and the teachers of the teachers were often together in the same building, although a laboratory school, it was the official school for the children—primary or secondary. In Finland, normal schools are under national university administration, whereas most schools are administered by the local municipality, Teacher aspirants do most of their compulsory trainee period in normal schools and teach while being supervised by a senior teacher. In France, a system developed since the Revolution, primary school teachers were educated at départemental écoles normales. Nowadays all teachers are educated in École supérieure du professorat et de léducation, the Écoles Normales Supérieures in France and the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in Italy no longer specialize in teacher training. In the United Kingdom, teacher training colleges were once separate institutions, the University of Chester traces its roots back to 1839 as the earliest training college in the United Kingdom. Others were established by religious institutions and were single-sex until World War II, since then, they have either become multi-discipline universities in their own right or merged with another university to become its faculty of education. The latter was one of the last institutions to retain the word Normal in its name, in Lithuania, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, former Vilnius Pedagogical University is the main teachers training institution, established in 1935. The terminology is still preserved in the translations of such schools in China since the early 20th century
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Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered
37.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
38.
Eastern New Mexico
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Eastern New Mexico is a physiographic subregion within the U. S. state of New Mexico. The region is called the High Plains, Eastern Plains. The region is coterminous with the portion of the Llano Estacado in New Mexico. Eastern New Mexico mostly lies upon the plains, which extends to elevations over 4,000 ft. The region typically lacks the high relief of central and northern New Mexico, such as that in the Sangre de Cristo, like much of the Llano Estacado region, Eastern New Mexico is largely agricultural and resembles West Texas in geography, culture, economy, and demographics. The region includes portions of the counties of Curry, De Baca, Guadalupe, Lea, Quay and it is served by Eastern New Mexico University, a state university located in Portales
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United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
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